“The fear of the LORD is the beginning of wisdom.

”(Pro 9:10)

BSC PSYCHOLOGY

LIFE SKILL EDUCATION:

APPLICATIONS AND TRAINING

PSY6B04 Core Paper

6th SEMESTER
2017 ADMISSION ONWARDS

Study Material Compiled By

Mr. Daniel M Abraham

Assistant Professor (on contract)
Department of Psychology
SCAM GOVT. COLLEGE KUTTANELLUR
 Module 1

• Introduction to life skills.

• Life skill; Need and importance-

• Definition and interpretation by WHO

• Origin and development of concept of life skill.

Definition and Interpretations of Life Skills

 There is no universally accepted definition of life skills but there are different perceptions
of life skills prevailing across the countries. Various organizations have given different
meanings to the term Life Skills.
 The World Health Organization and the United Nations Inter-Agency Meeting in April
1998 generated a broad definition of life skills which is described as:
 “Life Skill are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals
to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life” (WHO, 1997,
p.1).
 “Life skills education is designed to facilitate the practice and reinforcement of
psychosocial skills in a culturally and developmentally appropriate way; it contributes to
the promotion of personal and social development, in the prevention of health and social
problems, and the protection of human rights” (UNESCO, 1998).
 Life skills are defined in the Targeting Life Skills (TLS) Model as “Skills that help an
individual be successful in living a productive and satisfying life” (Hendricks, 1998). The
International Bureau of Education laid emphasis on four pillars of learning-learning to
know, learning to do, learning to be and learning to live together and defines life skills as
personal management and social skills which are necessary for adequate functioning of
an individual.
 UNICEF defines life skills as “a behaviour change or behaviour development approach
designed to address a balance of three areas: knowledge, attitude and skills”. The
definition of UNICEF was formulated on the research base that the risk behaviour is
likely to be if the knowledge, attitudinal and skill based competencies are not addressed.
Life skills are essential skills that make life easier, and increase the possibility that
individuals will realize their potential and become productive members of the society
(Rooth, 1997:6).
 In the context of Adolescent Education, UNESCO supported Two days Life Skill
Workshop was organized by Remedia Trust. The participants of the workshop accepted
the two definitions of life skills, which are presented subsequently:
 1) Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour.
 2) Life skills refer to the ability to maintain the state of mental and Physical well-being
while interacting with others within the local Culture and environment.
  By analyzing all above definitions, it can be concluded that life skills are essential
strategies developed in the form of insight, values, or one‟s perception towards self that
helps an individual to address the needs and challenges of real life successfully.

 These skills or abilities essentially help improve mental and physical strength amongst
adolescents and young ones by avoiding indulging in issues like violent behaviours,
suicide attempts, drug addiction, teenage affairs-problems, alcoholic behaviour, and
sexual risk and so on.

LIFE SKILL EDUCATION

 The World Health Organization‟s Department of Mental Health state that “Life Skills
Education is designed to facilitate the practice and reinforcement of psycho-social skills
in a culturally and developmentally appropriate way. It contributes to the promotion of
personal and social development (WHO, 1999)”.
 “Life-skills based education is behaviour change or behaviour development approach
designed to address a balance of three areas: knowledge, attitude, and skills (UNICEF)”.
This definition of life skills education focuses on social, individual and reflective skills
along with vocational skills.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPT OF LIFE SKILL

 Truly speaking, life skill has a long history of supporting child-development and health
promotions. In 1986, the Ottawa Charter for health promotion recognised life skills in
terms of making better health choices.
 Then in 1989, Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) linked life skills to education
by stating that education should be directed towards the development of the child’s fullest
potential.
 After this, in the year 1990, Jometian Declaration on Education for All, took this vision
further to include life skills among essential learning tools for survival, capacity
development and quality of life.
  Then, in 2000, Daker World Education Conference took a position that all young people
and adults have the human right to benefit from an education that includes the four
aspects — leaning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be.
 Actually, in the year 1997, the World Health Organization (WHO) identified the skills as
per the aspect of an individual’s life it focuses. In fact, after having carried out researches
on individual life, WHO gave the world ten core skills and labelled these skills as “Life
Skills”.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE

 At the United Nations Inter-Agency Meeting held at WHO, Geneva (WHO, 1999:p.4)
life skills education was considered as crucial for:
 The promotion of healthy child and adolescent development;
 Primary prevention of some key causes of child and adolescent death, disease and
disability;
 Socialization;
 Preparing young people for changing social circumstances.

 Life skills are the strategies, abilities, expertise or competences that enable adolescents to
develop positive attitudes and responsible sexual behaviours, leading towards a healthy
lifestyle. As such a life skill refers to a person’s ability or competence. Throughout our
life, from childhood into adulthood, these skills are developed and improved.
 Initially these skills are related to one’s own well-being but gradually evolve to reflect
our environment and personal relationships.
 Practicing life skills leads to self-esteem, sociability and tolerance; to the ability to take
action and make a change; and eventually to the freedom to decide what to do and who to
be. These qualities are essential tools for understanding our strengths and weaknesses,
which will consequently enable us to recognise opportunities and face possible threats, as
well as to identify problems that arise within both the family andsociety. With life skills,
one is able to explore alternatives, consider pros and cons, and make rational decisions in
solving problems or issues that arises. Life skills will also bring about productive
interpersonal relationships with others, since effective communication in terms of being
able to differentiate between hearing and listening, and the assurance that messages are
transmitted accurately to avoid miscommunication and misinterpretations, the ability to
 negotiate, to say “no”, to be assertive but not aggressive and to make compromises that
will bring about positive solutions.
 Life skills training works on developing people’s individual skills throughout their life to
help them make healthier decisions, thus enabling them to choose more positive
behaviours/actions.

Life skills contribute:

 To develop creativity and positive thinking
 To encourage leadership and social abilities
 To be skilled at Critical thinking, effective communicating and decision making
 To encourage healthy practices, personal hygiene and nutrition
 Learn about growing up processes and changes
Deal with reproductive health issues
 Deal with peer pressure and avoid substance abuses
 Remain safe and effectively handle instances of harassment including sexual harassment
 Promote social skills and gender sensitivity
 to deal with stress and storms of life

At the United Nations Inter-Agency Meeting held at WHO, Geneva (WHO, 1999: 4) life
skills education was considered as crucial for:
 For healthy child and adolescent development;
 To contribute to be physically, intellectually, socially and emotionally sound;
 Prevention of children‟ and adolescents‟ health related issues like death disease and disability;
 Preparing for socialization;
 Preparing youth for changes and demands of society.
 For promoting lifelong learning;
 For promote quality life and peace;

Some research findings reveal about life skillss importance:

 For promoting self esteem, self confidence, being peaceful etc [TACADE, 1990].
 For preventing violent and disruptive activities and behaviour [Botvin et.al. 1984, Pentz,
1983].
 For helping promoting person‟s well being and primary prevention [Errecart et al., 1991;
Perry and Kelder, 1992; Caplan et al., 1992].
 Life skills help an individual to translate knowledge, attitudes and values into actual abilities
and enable individuals to behave in healthy ways, given the desire to do so and given the scope
and opportunity to do so. Results of research studies also prove that life skill education improves
the academic performance of individuals [Weissberg et.al. 1989].

Life skills have been classified broadly into three main categories. These are —

 Cognitive Skills,
 Social Skills, and
 Negotiating Skills/Coping skills.

Cognitive Skills include —

1) Critical Thinking Skill,
2) Creative Thinking Skill,
3) Decision Making Skill, and
4) Problem Solving skill.

Social Skills include —

1) Self-awareness Skill,
2) Interpersonal Relationship Skills
3) Effective Communication Skill, and
4) Empathy Skill.

Negotiating/coping skills include —

1) Coping with Emotion Skill, and
2) Coping with Stress Skill.
3) In fact, these skills are interrelated and interdependent. Hence, it is difficult to develop
any life skill without the help of other life skill.
 Module 2

 Mother skills: self awareness –

 Development of self theories-assessment ;

 Empathy.

 Survival Skill: inter personal and intrapersonal orientations,

 Interpersonal attraction & theories-

 Skill to develop relations and resolve conflicts.

 Effective communication: components of communication.

 Listening-verbal and non verbal skills

SELF AWARENESS

“Know Thyself.” - Socrates

 According to B.F.Skinner (1981), “A person who is aware of himself is in a better position to

predict and control his own behaviour”.
 Self-knowledge – the accuracy of self assessment – is closely related to self-awareness; it is
the long-term correlate of self-awareness in the moment, i.e. becoming aware of one‟s
thoughts and emotions (Knight, A. and Sparrow, T., 2006 as cited by Mahesh C. & Sara
N.T.T. (2011: 42).
 According to Dann (2000), “self awareness is awareness about what one thinks and feels in
the present, identify the emotions one presently experiences and manage and direct energy
towards accomplishment of goals”.
 According to Gardiner and Hatch (1989), “self-awareness gives access to one's own feelings
and the ability to discriminate among them and draw upon them to guide behaviour”.
 Self-awareness is the capacity for introspection and the ability to recognize oneself as an
individual separate from the environment and other individuals. The psychological study of
self-awareness can be first traced back to 1972. Psychologists Shelley Duval and Robert
Wicklund developed the theory of self-awareness.
 They proposed that:
“when we focus our attention on ourselves, we evaluate and compare our current behavior to
our internal standards and values. We become self-conscious as objective evaluators of
ourselves.”
 In essence, they consider self-awareness a major mechanism of self-control.
 Psychologist Daniel Goleman proposed a popular definition of self-awareness in his best-
selling book “Emotional Intelligence,” as “knowing one’s internal states, preference,
resources, and intuitions.” Self-awareness is one of the first components of the self-
concept to emerge. While self-awareness is something that is central to who you are, it is not
something that you are acutely focused on at every moment of every day. Instead, self-
awareness becomes woven into the fabric of who you are and emerges at different points
depending on the situation and your personality.
\
 In short;
 Self-awareness is the capacity that a person has to introspect.
 It includes gaining an understanding of and insight into one’s strengths, qualities,
weaknesses, defects, ideas, thoughts, beliefs, ideals, responses, reactions, attitude,
emotions and motivations.
 Thus, introspection also includes assessing how one is perceived by others and
 How others are impacted based on one’s behaviour, responses and conduct.

Studies have demonstrated that a more complex sense of the awareness of the self begins to
emerge at around one year of age and becomes much more developed by approximately 18
months of age. Researchers Lewis and Brooks-Gunn performed studies looking at how self-
awareness develops. The researchers applied a red dot to an infant's nose and then held the child
up to a mirror. Children who recognized themselves in the mirror would reach for their own
noses rather than the reflection in the mirror, which indicated that they had at least some level of
self-awareness. Lewis and Brooks-Gunn found that almost no children under one year of age
would reach for their own nose rather than the reflection in the mirror. About 25 percent of the
infants between 15 and 18 months reached for their own noses while about 70 percent of those
between 21 and 24 months did so.
It is important to note that the Lewis and Brooks-Gunn study only indicates an infant's visual
self-awareness; children might actually possess other forms of self-awareness even at this early
point in life. For example, researchers Lewis, Sullivan, Stanger, and Weiss suggested
that expressing emotions involves self-awareness as well as an ability to think about oneself in
relation to other people.

Types of Self-Awareness;
Psychologists often break self-awareness down into two different types, either public or
private.
 Public Self-Awareness
This type emerges when people are aware of how they appear to others. Public self-awareness
often emerges in situations when people are at the center of attention, such as when giving a
presentation or talking to a group of friends. This type of self-awareness often compels people to
adhere to social norms. When we are aware that we are being watched and evaluated, we often
try to behave in ways that are socially acceptable and desirable. Public self-awareness can also
lead to evaluation anxiety in which people become distressed, anxious, or worried about how
they are perceived by others.

 Private Self-Awareness
This type happens when people become aware of some aspects of themselves, but only in a
private way. For example, seeing your face in the mirror is a type of private self-awareness.
Feeling your stomach lurch when you realize you forgot to study for an important test or feeling
your heart flutter when you see someone you are attracted to are also examples of private self-
awareness.
Certain of the most pertinent aspects on which we need to build up our self-awareness are as
follows;
(i) Emotional Self-awareness
 Emotions is one of the areas where one needs to build-up awareness. Emotional self-
awareness implies an awareness of what we think and feel and how we act in the present.
In fact, our moods and emotions play a vital role in our lives.
 As Gardiner and Hatch (1989) observe, self-awareness skill gives access to one’s own
feelings and the ability to discriminate among them and draw upon them to guide our
behaviour. This interpersonal intelligence is the key to self-knowledge. People with this
ability can have control over their emotions.
 Emotional self-awareness gives one the awareness of what feelings are going in the mind
and it can also give him or her the understanding as to how his or her thinking and
feelings affect not only him or her also but others too.

(ii) Behavioural Self-awareness

 One more important area of our life is our behaviour. Quite a few of us may be
aggressive in our behaviour. In fact, aggression, incidentally, can only beget aggression
and provoke hostility. Aggressiveness can even get out of control, invariably resulting in
strained relationship. Aggression can also produce or bring about non-cooperation, and,
badly affect the aggressor. Hence, we need to think of such situations where negative
thinking may change into positive and be able to relate effectively to people around us.

(iii) Awareness about Locus of Control

 A person’s perception as to the source of his or her fate is called locus of control. It is the
degree to which people believe that they are the masters of their own destiny.
  There are two types here — external and internal. Those who believe that they are the
masters of their own and accept reality, and strive to find out ways to get out of their
setbacks. This is about the internals. The externals believe that what happens to them is
controlled by outside forces such as stars, luck or chance. One has to take his or her own
decision and bring about the needed adjustment in his or her belief and take control of
his/her life.

(iv) Awareness about Personality Types

 Depending upon how one goes about one’s task, personality type can be put under two
categories—
 Type ‘A’ personality and
 Type ‘B’ personality.
 When a person is seen aggressively involved in a struggle to achieve more in less time,
such a person is said to be ‘A’ Type a personality.
 Persons having Type ‘B’ personality feel no need to display their accomplishments and
never suffer from a sense of emergency with regard to time.
 After having known the characteristics of both types, one can bring about appropriate
changes in his or her behaviour and make life more effective and rewarding.
(v) Awareness about Your Social Competency
 Social competence constitutes number of skills such as the ability to find common ground
to establish rapport and minimise conflict. It is the ability to persuade and influence
others, and it is the ability to build positive relationships.
 Much of our success depends on the attitude of others towards us. When we become
more and more sensitive with this aspect, we try to exhibit a better self-control.

In a nutshell, it may be said then, that, self-awareness skill can open up manifold ways to
selfimprovement.

Importance of self awareness

Developing self-awareness skills is important for learning about yourself and discovering
your true capabilities, which may be vital for a successful career.
 Self-awareness is a precondition to effective coaching and high performance. People
who know and manage themselves stay calm and focused under pressure, handle ongoing
 stress, find satisfaction and joy in their work and personal life, and find more energy for
work and life. In short, they are the people who will be high performers. Those lacking
awareness will always be prisoner to past successes, failures and hidden beliefs and to
what is happening to them or what they are experiencing—especially in difficult,
stressful, pressure-filled situations.
 The more you know about yourself, the better you are at adapting to life's changes.
When we have a better understanding of ourselves, we are able to experience ourselves as
unique and separate individuals. This empowers us to make changes and build on our
areas of strength, as well as identify areas where we would like to make improvements.
Self-awareness is often the first step to setting goals.
 Research shows that self-awareness is directly related to both emotional intelligence
and success. It helps you create achievable goals because you can consider your
strengths, weaknesses, and what drives you when you are setting goals. It allows you to
guide yourself down the right path by choosing to pursue the opportunities that best fit
your skillset, preferences and tendencies. It makes it easier to identify situations and
people that hit our triggers and enables us to anticipate our own reactions. It allows us to
make positive behavioral changes that can lead to greater personal and interpersonal
success. Research has shown that the best predictor of a positive performance appraisal is
‘seeing yourself as others see you’. On the other hand, the best predictor of a weak
appraisal is ‘overrating your skills’. Knowing your strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
and limits is key to continued high performance. Known weaknesses are less dangerous
than ‘blind spots’ and known strengths can be used more effectively and consistently.

Skills to become self aware

1) Create some space for yourself: When you are in a dark room without windows, it is
fairly difficult to see things clearly. The space you create for yourself is that crack on the
wall where you allow light to come through. Leave yourself some time and space every
day – perhaps first thing in the morning or half an hour before sleep when you stay away
from the digital distractions and spend some time with yourself, reading, writing,
meditating, and connecting with yourself.
2) Practice mindfulness: Mindfulness is the key to self-awareness. Jon Kabat-Zinn defines
mindfulness as “paying attention in a particular way, on purpose, in the present moment,
non-judgmentally.” Through mindfulness practice, you will be more present with
yourself so that you can “be there” to observe what’s going on inside and around you. It
 is not about sitting cross-legged or suppressing your thoughts. It is about paying attention
to your inner state as they arise. You can practice mindfulness at any time you want,
through mindful listening, mindful eating or walking.
3) Keep a journal: Writing not only helps us process our thoughts but also makes us feel
connected and at peace with ourselves. Writing can also create more headspace as you let
your thoughts flow out onto paper. Research shows that writing down things we are
grateful for or even things we are struggling with helps increase happiness and
satisfaction. (Source) You can also use the journal to record your inner state. Try this at
home –choose a half day on a weekend, pay close attention to your inner world – what
you are feeling, what you are saying to yourself, and make a note of what you observe
every hour. You may be surprised about what you write down!
4) Practice being a good listener: Listening is not the same as hearing. Listening is about
being present and paying attention to other people’s emotions, body movement, and
language. It is about showing empathy and understanding without constantly evaluating
or judging. When you become a good listener, you will also be better at listening to your
own inner voice and become the best friend of yourself.
5) Ask for feedback: Sometimes we can be too afraid to ask what others think of us – yes
sometimes the feedback may be biased or even dishonest but you will be able to
differentiate them from real, genuine and balanced feedback as you learn more about
yourself and others. Research has shown conducting 360-degree feedback in the
workplace is a useful tool to improve managers’ self-awareness (Source). We all have
blind spots, so it is helpful to gain a different perspective to see a fuller picture of
ourselves.

Benefits of self awareness in real life

1) Becoming more self-aware can be quite enlightening;
There is so much we don’t know about our inner thoughts and processes that the inward
journey at times can be surprising. Sometimes certain phrases come out automatically to
reveal attitudes or opinions that we don’t even realize we subscribe to, or even know where
they came from. Over the years of being submerged in a family, a school, various jobs, and a
social milieu, we absorb prevailing ideas from our environment, and some of these get buried
in our subconscious, where they often don’t get examined until we inadvertently blurt them
out, at times to our own embarrassment. This is one good reason why it behooves us to
become more self-aware . . . to learn how to be ourselves, and to feel more confident that the
ideas we are expressing are really our own.

2) Self-awareness can open your mind to new perspectives;

We each tend to have different perspectives on a variety of topics, but as we develop
these perspectives, we get comfortable with them and have a preference for our own
opinions. However, limited perspectives lead to limited thinking, so by being open to the
views of others, we can expand our perspectives to be more universally inclusive. New ideas
are refreshing and stimulating, opening our thinking in new and possibly promising
directions. Open-mindedness is definitely a plus in being successful at dealing with life’s
challenges and diverse situations.

3) Self-awareness is connected to self-esteem;

Very often the opinion we hold of ourselves is based on what others think, or more
correctly, on what we think others think about us. If we were criticized often as children, we
may develop a case of low self-esteem and sensitivity to rejection as a result. On the other
hand, if we were praised as a “prince or princess,” we are likely to develop high self-esteem,
whether deserved or not. So much of our beliefs are buried in the subconscious, where they
can do irreparable harm if not examined and re-calibrated to more correctly reflect who we
really are. We owe it to ourselves to become more self-aware of the thoughts and beliefs
within. The subconscious holds these ideas and beliefs to be true, so if not examined, we
could become a mere sponge for the societal popular mindset and lose much of our
uniqueness. Self-awareness can improve our self-esteem because we will know who we are
and what we believe, which empowers us to move forward through life with a strong rudder
to guide us along our chosen path.

4) Self-awareness can help you look at yourself objectively;

Humans tend to be critical beings, whether self-critical or hard on others, and sometimes
both. By beating ourselves up, we serve no one and harm our well-being. And since no one is
perfect, why should we expect ourselves to be? So learn to cut through the hype and become
more objective, especially about yourself. Yes, there will always be areas where we can
improve, but that won’t happen if we refuse to take the extra time to develop self-awareness.
When you are alone with your thoughts, there’s no reason to take sides. Simply be willing to
evaluate yourself as objectively as possible. Be sure not to gloss over what you’d rather not
see, but rather mine the subconscious for its opinions and correct the mindsets that are not
compatible with your values. You can do this by being completely honest with yourself, and
when you find something that is out-of-sync, examine that position, remove what isn’t
personally compatible, and insert a better value or phrase to bring the idea in alignment with
your core values. Do it like you are a teacher correcting a student — not with disdain, but
with understanding and compassion. For an extra boost, turn the rephrased concept into an
affirmation, and repeat it to yourself as often as necessary to affect the desired change within.

5) Self-awareness can help you know your strengths and weaknesses;

“I’m a good starter, but I have more difficulty finishing a project.” “It’s easy for me to
meet new people, but I have reservations when it comes to commitment.” “I’m a great friend,
but I’m not so good at saving money.” We all have strengths and weaknesses, preferences
and aversions, and whatever they are, just be aware of them so you don’t put yourself in
situations where you are unlikely to succeed. Use your strengths to succeed in life, and your
path will be happier, because you will find appreciation and support along the way.

6) Self-awareness can help you set intentions;

If we wander through life without purpose or direction, chances are we will end up
nowhere in particular. In order to form an intention, you really need some idea about what is
important to you and what you hope to accomplish. It’s not necessary to know how you are
going to get there, but you must have some idea of your general direction. For instance: “I
intend to create my own business in __________ (whatever field) and become self-
sufficient by age ____”; “I intend to find the right life partner and raise a happy and healthy
family together in the country”; “I intend to stand up for myself when my boss tries to make
me feel insignificant”; etc. Say your intention out loud and proud, remembering that you are
speaking to your inner self, your subconscious, perhaps your higher consciousness, or
possibly even to some higher power of your choosing to let them, and you know that you are
focused on a certain direction or destination. Use these ideas to communicate with your inner
self, letting your subconscious know that you want to better understand your inner mind so
that you can live a more meaningful and satisfying life.
DEVELOPMENT OF SELF THEORIES-ASSESSMENT

 The American Psychological Association defines self-awareness theory as “the

consequences of focusing attention on the self.” Much of the research and literature
available today distinguishes between two types
 The first is subjective self-awareness. We are the source of all our perceptions and
behaviors. The world revolves around us based on our observations and experience.
 The second is objective self-awareness. Duval and Wicklund. It is the idea that we
compare ourselves to others and some standard of correct behavior. These comparisons
in behaviors, attitudes, and traits all contribute to our sense of self-awareness (APA, n.d.).

Objective Self-Awareness in Psychology

 In the late 1800s, William James made a distinction between the subjective and objective
self. Since then, self-awareness has been the interest of many psychologists (Brownell,
Zerwas, & Ramani, 2007). The quest to define when the self emerges, why it is
important, and what it means in our development is ongoing.
 From a developmental theory perspective, children become self-aware at about 18
months old (Brownell et al., 2007). This period marks the beginning of the “terrible
twos,” many parents know too well. Their child begins behaving more independently.
They see themselves as separate from others and recognize themselves in mirrors. Their
new favorite word is, ‘no.’ This is an example of subjective awareness.

Rochat (2003) asserted that five levels of self-awareness exist early in a child’s life. These
happen sequentially by about the age of four or five.

They are:

Level 0 – Confusion.
The child is unable to see a difference between self and the reflection of self.
Level 1 – Differentiation.
The child begins to understand that the mirror is a reflection of the environment. They see that
something is different.
Level 2 – Situation.
This marks the start of understanding the uniqueness of the self, as seen in a mirror. The child
recognizes that the reflection is “out there” in relation to their actual body.
Level 3 – Identification.
Recognition that the mirror image is the self becomes clearer.
Level 4 – Permanence.
The child recognizes itself in pictures and videos, even when that self is the younger self.
Level 5 – Self-consciousness or “meta” self-awareness.

The child is aware of self and how others perceive them.

Objective self-awareness, according to the APA, is “a reflective state of self-focused attention.”

It involves assessing oneself as compared to others, and then correcting behaviors and beliefs as
needed. When differences exist between our ideal and actual selves, we experience unease. To
fix this, we look outside of ourselves to others.

With Rochat’s levels in mind then, objective self-awareness happens after level five. Self-
regulation, another key concept in developmental literature, is more difficult without objective
self-awareness. Self-regulation is our ability to control our actions and impulses. People who can
do this are more likely to achieve their goals. They also tend to meet specified standards of
behavior.

Self-assessment
 In social psychology, self-assessment is the process of looking at oneself in order to
assess aspects that are important to one's identity. It is one of the motives that drive self-
evaluation, along with self-verification and self-enhancement.
 Sedikides suggests that the self-assessment motive will prompt people to seek
information to confirm their uncertain self-concept rather than their certain self-concept
and at the same time people use self-assessment to enhance their certainty of their own
self-knowledge. However, the self-assessment motive could be seen as quite different to
the other two self-evaluation motives. Unlike the other two motives through self-
assessment people are interested in the accuracy of their current self view, rather than
improving their self-view. This makes self-assessment the only self-evaluative motive
that may cause a person's self-esteem to be damaged.
  Self-assessment is the process of ongoing reflection, self-judgment, and self-monitoring
to summarize one’s strengths and clarify areas for improvement. This includes learning
from one’s experiences; judging one’s personal, educational, and professional
performance; examining personal characteristics based on evidence, external standards,
and explicit criteria for the purpose of future quality and performance improvements.
Research has shown that self-assessment can improve learner's communication skills, and
can result in behavior change
 Self-assessment skill is beneficial to every learner. McMillan and Hearn state “Students
need to self-assess to know when they are learning, how much effort they must expend
for success, when they have been successful, when they are wrong, and which learning
strategies work well for them”1 The reinforcement of one’s knowledge, skills, values, and
behaviors can enhance one’s self-esteem and influence motivation by strengthening self-
efficacy and readiness to change. Self-assessment is an essential for lifelong learning for
students, educators, and professionals.

Assessment Methods

 Noncognitive characteristics can be assessed in many different ways, including self-

assessments, interviews, and behavioral observations. The most commonly used methods
shown in the table below include both well-established and recently developed
assessment tools and are organized by source (self or other) and type (ratings or
performance).

Personal SWOT-analysis

 In 1963 at the Harvard Conference on Business Policy, Professor K. Andrews publicly

used the acronym SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats). Since the
1960s SWOT-analysis has been widely used in strategic planning.
 With the SWOT-model, analysts had a strategic planning tool for their intellectual work.
SWOT-analysis enabled analysts to see the firm’s position and its environment of
competition through a logical and coherent framework of interactions of strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities and threats, instead of a fragmented and inconsistent
presentation by (Tokarev, 2002).
 Application of SWOT-analysis for an individual makes it possible to evaluate internal
and external resources (strengths) of the person for achieving his goals, as well as
opportunities and existing threats for the person. With the results of the analysis, a matrix
of measures/actions is constructed. These measures aim at the use of the strengths of the
individual, improving weaknesses, the use of external opportunities and prevention of
threats, and, most importantly, the formulation of a personal development vision and the
creation of a strategic plan for the realization of personal goals.
 Personal SWOT-analysis can be applied to a person. For example, it may be used by a
senior student, as a tool of introspection, for defining personal resources, evaluating
opportunities and threats in the social environment when he considers his future
profession. A CEO may use it when assessing his role in his company. A candidate for a
job may use it as a personal introspection when evaluating opportunities and resources
related to that job and construct the matrix of measures according to the results of the
SWOT-analysis. The purposes of conducting a personal SWOT-analysis are to evaluate
key success factors of the individual with respect to each goal, to identify sources of
achieving personal goals in the next three years, to prepare a marketing plan which
improves key competencies of the individual, and to determine corrective measures in
order to minimize risks.
Strengths
 What advantages do you have that others don't have (for example, skills, certifications,
education, or connections)?
 What do you do better than anyone else?
 What personal resources can you access?
 What do other people (and your boss, in particular) see as your strengths?
 Which of your achievements are you most proud of?
 What values do you believe in that others fail to exhibit?
 Are you part of a network that no one else is involved in? If so, what connections do you
have with influential people?

Weaknesses
 What tasks do you usually avoid because you don't feel confident doing them?
 What will the people around you see as your weaknesses?
 Are you completely confident in your education and skills training? If not, where are you
weakest?
 What are your negative work habits (for example, are you often late, are you
disorganized, do you have a short temper, or are you poor at handling stress)?
 Do you have personality traits that hold you back in your field? For instance, if you have
to conduct meetings on a regular basis, a fear of public speaking would be a major
weakness.

Opportunities
 What new technology can help you? Or can you get help from others or from people via
the internet?
 Is your industry growing? If so, how can you take advantage of the current market?
 Do you have a network of strategic contacts to help you, or offer good advice?
 What trends (management or otherwise) do you see in your company, and how can you
take advantage of them?
 Are any of your competitors failing to do something important? If so, can you take
advantage of their mistakes?
 Is there a need in your company or industry that no one is filling?
  Do your customers or vendors complain about something in your company? If so, could
you create an opportunity by offering a solution

Threats
 What obstacles do you currently face at work?
 Are any of your colleagues competing with you for projects or roles?
 Is your job (or the demand for the things you do) changing?
 Does changing technology threaten your position?
 Could any of your weaknesses lead to threats?

EMPATHY
 Empathy is the experience of understanding another person's thoughts, feelings, and
condition from his or her point of view, rather than from one's own.
 Empathy facilitates prosocial or helping behaviors that come from within, rather than being
forced, so that people behave in a more compassionate manner. It is the ability to emotionally
understand what another person is experiencing. Essentially, it is putting yourself in someone
else's position and feeling what they must be feeling.
 When you see another person suffering, you might be able to instantly envision yourself in
the other person's place and feel sympathy for what they are going through. The ability to
feel empathy allows people to "walk a mile in another's shoes," so to speak. It permits people
to understand the emotions that others are feeling.
 Empathy involves the ability to mimic internally the feeling of another person. The essence
of empathy is being able to see reality from the other person’s perspective. Knowing others
means finding what they actually are and not what we think they are. Our experience shows
that others rarely tell us in words what they feel. Instead, they reveal feelings through their
tone of voice, facial expression or other non-verbal ways what they feel. Once we know very
clearly about this, we can build better human relations.
 World Health Organisation defined empathy as an ability to understand others’ feelings
irrespective of sex, age, education, religion, health, etc.
 In a nutshell, it may be said then, that, we can communicate our needs, desires and present
our thoughts without offending other people. So too, we will be able to elicit support from
others and win their understanding. Empathy helps us to understand others.
Types of Empathy
 The term empathy was first introduced in 1909 by psychologist Edward B. Titchener as
a translation of the German term einfühlung (meaning "feeling into"). While sympathy
and compassion and are related to empathy, there are important
differences. Compassion and sympathy are often thought to involve more of a passive
connection, while empathy generally involves a much more active attempt to understand
another person. The differences between the most commonly used meanings of these
two terms is:
 sympathy is feeling compassion, sorrow, or pity for the hardships that another person
encounters
 empathy is putting yourself in the shoes of another, which is why actors often talk about it.

There are mainly 3 types of empathy that a person may experience:

 Affective empathy (emotional empathy) involves the ability to understand another
person's emotions and respond appropriately. Such emotional understanding may lead to
someone feeling concerned for another person's well-being, or it may lead to feelings of
personal distress.
 Somatic empathy (compassionate empathy) involves having a sort of physical reaction
in response to what someone else is experiencing. People sometimes physically
experience what another person is feeling. When you see someone else feeling
embarrassed, for example, you might start to blush or have an upset stomach.
 Cognitive empathy involves being able to understand another person's mental state and
what they might be thinking in response to the situation. This is related to what
psychologists refer to as theory of mind, or thinking about what other people are thinking.

The Importance of Empathy in Relationships

A healthy relationship requires many qualities in order to blossom and grow. Virtues like
respect and trust are critical in providing a solid foundation in a relationship, but empathy is
essential in forming that deeper connection between you and your significant other. One study
shows that the perception of feeling understood, or being shown empathy, is a key component of
satisfaction in romantic partnerships. Researchers propose that having someone understanding
our feelings allows us to better acknowledge these emotions and enables us to ultimately live
more satisfying lives (Cramer & Jowett, 2010).
 A three component model of empathy was first introduced by researchers Norma
Feshbach and Shari Kuchenbecker. Accomplishing complete empathy requires all parts of the
following model:
 The ability to distinguish and label the feelings of others: We must be able to read and
recognize how our partner feels in a given situation. Consider the way your partner might
emotionally handle a given situation and how they might be affected because of it. In
other words, being able to pinpoint the feeling that the other person is experiencing.
 The ability to take on others’ perspectives: Beyond just identifying another’s feelings,
we must also be able to see the situation through their eyes. Use what you know about
them. Understand why they are feeling this way- everyone sees a situation differently.
Everyone has a different perspective, and long-term relationships allow us to see how our
partner may respond to different situations.
 Emotional capacity and responsiveness: Essentially, we must be able to emotionally
connect with our partners and react quickly and positively. To actually feel what they are
feeling, and share their pain or happiness. This goes beyond the first two points and is the
most critical. We must emotionally connect and share the same feelings experienced by
your significant other. Fulfilling this point involves actually experiencing the emotion
with them, and feeling exactly what they are feeling.
It is easy to get caught up in our own mindset, or become distracted by day to day life, and
thus fail to see things in any other way. It’s also common to become frustrated when we do not
understand our partner’s feelings and perspective. If you don’t catch yourself, this frustration can
distance yourself from that emotional connection and severely damage your relationship.
Furthermore, if we fall victim to a selfish mindset we will fail to empathize with our partners.
With just the right dose of empathy, the emotional connection between you and your significant
other can greatly improve your relationship and bond.

Benefits of Empathy
There are a number of benefits of being able to experience empathy. Some of these include:

 Empathy allows people to build social connections with others. By understanding

what people are thinking and feeling, people are able to respond appropriately in social
situations.
 Empathizing with others helps you learn to regulate your own emotions. Emotional
regulation is important in that it allows you to manage what you are feeling, even in times
of great stress, without becoming overwhelmed.
  Fosters good, pleasurable and positive feelings
Feels really good. Pleasure centers of the brain light up.
 Is a Way of Being in Life and the World.
Gives a sense of identity. I am an empathic person and will strive to live that way in the
world.
 Fosters emotional and physical health and well-being via connection, care, inclusion,
Community, etc.
 Heals painful psychological problems
(loneliness, alienation, anxiety, fear, depression, despair, shame, etc)
 Helps you from having negative/painful/uncomfortable feelings
 Is a healing antidote to negative/painful feelings
 Is the active ingredient in conflict resolution
o Can head off conflicts before they happen
o Keeps conflicts from escalating
o Is the key active ingredient for conflict resolution.
 Is a Source of Creativity, Innovation and Transformative Action
o Empathy Connects, Transforms and Removes the Blocks to Action
 Is a Gateway to, and Supports, Socially Desirable Values
(Healing, happiness, collaboration, understanding, creativity, innovation, etc)
 Expands our Perspectives
o Is a Way of Knowing (like a sixth sense)
o Is a Way of Knowing what others know
o Gives you multiple perspectives, eyes and hands on a situation
o Gives you more perspectives on self
 Helps Us Find and Meet Our Needs, Values and Aspirations
 Increases helping and altruism behavior.
(Batson et al., 1987; Eisenberg & Miller, 1987; Krebs, 1975; Toi & Batson, 1982).
Not only are you more likely to engage in helpful behaviors when you feel empathy for other
people; other people are also more likely to help you when they experience empathy.
INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

 Interpersonal attraction refers to positive feelings about another person. It can take many
forms, including liking, love, friendship, lust, and admiration.
 Social psychologists have identified several major factors that influence interpersonal
attraction which is anything that draws two or more people together characterized by
affection, respect, liking, or love (Huston &Levinger, 1978).
 Interpersonal attraction has been an important topic of research in psychology, because
humans are social animals, and attraction serves an important function in forming a social
network, which in turn provides security and satisfies people’s need to belong to a social
group (Baumeister& Bushman, 2008).
 In assessing the nature of attraction, psychologists have used methods such as
questionnaires, survey, and rating scale to determine level of one’s attraction toward
another.

Determinants of Interpersonal Attraction

Many factors influence whom people are attracted to. They include physical attractiveness,
proximity, similarity, and reciprocity.
 Physical attractiveness: Research shows that romantic attraction is primarily determined
by physical attractiveness. In the early stages of dating, people are more attracted to
partners whom they consider to be physically attractive. Men are more likely to value
physical attractiveness than are women. People’s perception of their own physical
attractiveness also plays a role in romantic love. The matching hypothesis proposes that
people tend to pick partners who are about equal in level of attractiveness to themselves.
 Proximity: People are more likely to become friends with people who are geographically
close. One explanation for this is the mere exposure effect. The mere exposure effect
refers to people’s tendency to like novel stimuli more if they encounter them repeatedly.
 Similarity: People also tend to pick partners who are similar to themselves in
characteristics such as age, race, religion, social class, personality, education,
intelligence, and attitude. This similarity is seen not only between romantic partners but
also between friends. Some researchers have suggested that similarity causes attraction.
Others acknowledge that people may be more likely to have friends and partners who are
 similar to themselves simply because of accessibility: people are more likely to associate
with people who are similar to themselves.
 Reciprocity: People tend to like others who reciprocate their liking.

Love
Robert Sternberg developed the triangular theory of love. In the context of interpersonal
relationships, the three components of love, according to the triangular theory, are an intimacy
component, a passion component, and a decision/commitment component.
1. Intimacy – Which encompasses feelings of attachment, closeness, connectedness, and
bondedness.
2. Passion – Which encompasses drives connected to both limerence and sexual attraction.
3. Commitment – Which encompasses, in the short term, the decision to remain with
another, and in the long term, plans made with that other.

The amount of love one experiences depends on the absolute strength of these three components,
and the type of love one experiences depends on their strengths relative to each other. Different
stages and types of love can be explained as different combinations of these three elements; for
example, the relative emphasis of each component changes over time as an adult romantic
relationship develops. A relationship based on a single element is less likely to survive than one
based on two or three elements.

Forms of Love
 Non love: refers simply to the absence of all three components of love. Non love
characterizes the large majority of our personal relationships, which are simply casual
interactions.
 Liking/friendship: is used here in a nontrivial sense. Rather, it refers to the set of feelings
one experiences in relationships that can truly be characterized as friendship. One feels
closeness, bondedness, and warmth toward the other, without feelings of intense passion
or long-term commitment.
 Infatuated love: infatuation results from the experiencing of passionate arousal in the
absence of intimacy and decision/commitment. Romantic relationships often start out as
infatuated love and become romantic love as intimacy develops over time. Without
developing intimacy or commitment, infatuated love may disappear suddenly.
  Empty love: is characterized by commitment without intimacy or passion. A stronger
love may deteriorate into empty love. In an arranged marriage, the spouses' relationship
may begin as empty love and develop into another form, indicating ‘how empty love
need not be the terminal state of a long-term relationship, but the beginning rather than
the end’.
 Romantic love: derives from a combination of the intimate and passionate components of
love. Romantic lovers are not only drawn physically to each other but are also bonded
emotionally- bonded both intimately and passionately, but without sustaining
commitment.
 Companionate love: is an intimate, non-passionate type of love that is stronger than
friendship because of the element of long-term commitment. This type of love is
observed in long-term marriages where passion is no longer present but where a deep
affection and commitment remain. The love ideally shared between family members is a
form of companionate love, as is the love between close friends who have a platonic but
strong friendship.
 Fatuous love: can be exemplified by a whirlwind courtship and marriage - fatuous in the
sense that a commitment is made on the basis of passion without the stabilizing influence
of intimate involvement.
 Consummate love: is the complete form of love, representing an ideal relationship which
people strive towards. Of the seven varieties of love, consummate love is theorized to be
that love associated with the "perfect couple." According to Sternberg, these couples will
continue to have great sex fifteen years or more into the relationship, they cannot imagine
themselves happier over the long-term with anyone else, they overcome their few
difficulties gracefully, and each delight in the relationship with one other. However,
Sternberg cautions that maintaining a consummate love may be even harder than
achieving it. He stresses the importance of translating the components of love into action.
"Without expression," he warns, “even the greatest of loves can die”. Thus, consummate
love may not be permanent. If passion is lost over time, it may change into companionate
love.

Marriage
 Marriage is the process by which two people make their relationship public, official, and
permanent. It is the joining of two people in a bond that putatively lasts until death, but in
practice is increasingly cut short by divorce. Regarded as a psychological relationship,
 marriage is a highly complex structure made up of a whole series of subjective and
objective factors, mostly of a very heterogeneous nature.

Evolutionary Perspectives
 Evolutionary psychologists speculate that the tendency to be attracted to physically
attractive people is adaptive.
 Many cultures value particular aspects of physical attractiveness, such as facial symmetry
and a small waist-to-hip ratio. Evolutionary psychologists point out that facial symmetry
can be an indicator of good health, since many developmental abnormalities tend to
produce facial asymmetries. A small waist-to-hip ratio, which produces an “hourglass”
figure, indicates high reproductive potential.
 As predicted by the parental investment theory, men tend to be more interested in their
partners’ youthfulness and physical attractiveness. Evolutionary psychologists think that
this is because these characteristics indicate that women will be able to reproduce
successfully. Women, on the other hand, tend to value partners’ social status, wealth, and
ambition, because these are characteristics of men who can successfully provide for
offspring.

Theories of interpersonal attraction

 Theories of interpersonal attraction have been used to explain sociometric choice patterns
which reflect the major dimensions of peer relationships: friendship and peer status.
 Under the umbrella of social psychological theories, two major approaches have been
identified.
 The cognitive consistency theories incorporating Heider's Balance Theory (1958) and
reinforcement approaches including Homans' (1951) Social Exchange Theory.

Cognitive Consistency Theories

Balance Theory
 In 1958, Heider proposed that in order to understand interpersonal attraction, it is
necessary to focus on the individual's perception of a relationship rather than the
objective realities. This he called the Balance Theory which suggests that there are a
number of reasons why individuals become attracted to one another.
 According to Heider, friendship choices involve each individual's quests for consistency
between feelings of attraction towards others, and personal beliefs, attitudes and values.
People strive for balanced relationships between the way they feel and the action they
take.
 Heider (1958) used a triadic formation to illustrate the two types of relationships which
may exist between an individual, another person and any other event, person, place or
concept.
 He proposed a sentiment (liking/disliking) relationship, and a unit relationship between
any two of these elements in a person's consciousness. The latter relationship involves the
perception that two individuals either belong or do not belong together. Both types of
relationships tend towards a balanced state, so that people feel positive sentiments
(liking) for individuals with whom they perceive themselves to belong, and negative
sentiment (disliking) for those they do not perceive themselves to belong. If there is an
imbalance, for example, then individuals feel uncomfortable. They will, therefore, try to
restore the balance by changing their sentiment towards the other, or by changing the unit
relationship.
 Heider (1958) outlined a number of dimensions along which individuals may be
attracted, the first being reciprocity, whereby the chances of two people becoming friends
are increased if there is a mutual attraction between them. Proximity is also proposed to
have an effect on friendship formation. Heider states that individuals may become
friendly with one another because they spend a lot of time together. So the formation of a
unit relationship induces positive sentiment and therefore friendship. Conversely, people
may state that they spend a lot of time together because they are friends.
 Newcomb (1961), for instance, studied male college students who were all strangers to
each other at the beginning of the year. They were offered free room and board for
participating in the study. Attitudes and levels of attraction towards all other subjects in
the study were assessed for each participant at the beginning of the study and reassessed
at various points throughout the research. Although there was little relationship between
attitude similarity and attraction during the early stages, results during the final phase
indicated a significant positive relationship between the degree to which individuals held
similar attitudes to each other and expressed levels of attraction. This finding supports the
idea that individuals who spend a lot of time together are more likely to become friends.
  Modifications to the Balance Theory (Heider, 1958) were proposed by Newcomb (1961).
He found that although Heider's theory applied in circumstances where positive
sentiments were concerned, problems arose with negative relationships.

 People prefer to like others rather than dislike them, even when according to Heider's
theory, disliking the other would create a more balanced situation. Newcomb applied
Heider's theory to larger groups of people and not the triads suggested by Heider. He
proposed that imbalance among a collective group would be noticed by individual
members of the group. The alerted member would consequently attempt to reduce the
imbalance which may lead to changes in both attitude and attraction among members of
the group in order to restore balance.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

 Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory (1957) is another cognitive consistency
approach to interpersonal attraction, and incorporates ideas similar to Heider's.
Festinger's theory states that thoughts are dissonant when they are illogical or
incompatible, thus creating a state of discomfort that individuals try to rectify by
decreasing cognitive incompatibilities.
 Attraction, according to Festinger, is caused by the characteristics and behaviour of
others, but an individual's own behaviour towards others also influences attraction. This
can be the case even when the other person has no influence over the individual's
behaviour. An example of this would be if an individual was placed in the position where
he or she were forced to harm another.
 As most people tend to think of themselves as kind, this action would create dissonance
between the way they perceive themselves and their action. To decrease the amount of
cognitive dissonance, the individual might change his/her cognitions to believe that the
individual deserved the punishment. Although it does have some contribution to make to
the interpersonal attraction area, Cognitive Dissonance Theory primarily deals with
attitude change.

Reinforcement Theories

 Reinforcement theories represent a contrasting approach to explaining interpersonal

attraction. These theories focus on the idea that rewards and punishments in the physical
 environment or administered by another, influence interpersonal attraction. It is suggested
that individuals seek to gain maximum reward and minimal punishment from their
interactions with others and thus have a higher level of attraction for individuals who
provide these. The dimension of status is seen as more important here, with group-valued
attributes the criterion rather than perceived similarity.

Social exchange theory

 Social Exchange Theory (Homans, 1951) proposes that certain characteristics are valued
among different groups. Valued aspects may vary between groups and individuals who
epitomise the valued characteristics for a particular group become valued by its members.
 People associated with those individuals are also associated with their value. The theory
proposes that during interpersonal interactions, a system of costs and benefits is in
operation. Benefits may be intrinsically rewarding such as love or social approval, or they
may be extrinsic. These benefits operate to encourage individuals to continue to supply
benefits and thus perpetuate the relationship. Individuals become more integrated through
this process, and the social relationship becomes stronger (Blau, 1964). Homans (1951)
 theorises that individuals expect the benefits of a relationship to be proportional to their
costs and that the more the individual invests in a relationship, the greater his/her profits
will be. Costs can be tangible, such as time and money; or social, for example, social
disapproval, rejection or ridicule. Valued individuals have many benefits associated with
them and thus become desirable associates.
 [Based on an economic model of profits and losses; claims that you develop relationships
that enable you to maximize your profits. Rewards – Costs = Profits How people feel
about their relationships depends on their perception of the rewards they receive from the
relationship (e.g., praise) and the costs they incur (e.g., time, money, etc). When the costs
are larger then rewards, people leave the relationships. When rewards equal or surpass
the comparison level, you feel satisfied with the relationship When people compute costs
and rewards, they do not compute simply. They consider comparison levels. Comparison
level is your realistic expectations of what you feel you deserve from a relationship. You
also have a comparison level for alternatives that you compare your profits from current
relationships with the ones you think you can get from alternative relationships.]
Gain and Loss Theory
 Aronson's Gain and Loss Theory of Attraction (1969, in Berscheid, 1985) is another
reinforcement theory. Aronson suggested that increases in rewards have more value than
consistent rewards. Similarly, decreases in rewards have more impact than intermittent
punishment.
 So, Gain-Loss Theory proposes that it is not only important to examine the events
occurring within the relationship but also that the contextual factors need to be
considered. The context in which the reward is provided is important in that it can change
the meaning of the reward and thus the level of attraction held by the individual. This
idea seems to have value and further clarifies the somewhat confusing puzzle of
interpersonal attraction and the variables which need to be considered within the area.

Equity theory
 Equity Theory includes similar concepts to Social Exchange Theory (Homans, 1951)
such as rewards, costs and profits but uses different labels for them such as positive
outcomes, negative outcomes and net outcomes respectively.
 However, the additional notion of investment is also incorporated. Investments are
subjective and can be anything that leads an individual to believe he is entitled to
rewards, costs and profits.
 Adams (1965) suggests that individuals evaluate relationships they have with others and
weigh up their inputs compared with outcomes. Individuals seek to maximise equity in
relationships rather than maximising raw outcomes (Adams, 1963). A state of equity
between two people is said to be apparent when their ratios of profit to investment are
equal. Equity Theory states that if there is a discrepancy between the amount individuals
feel they are putting into a relationship and the amount they receive from it, the
individual will experience a degree of tension. Tension is uncomfortable and, as a result,
individuals seek to alter their inputs or outcomes so that the ratio of inputs to outputs
becomes equal.

Theory of Social Interdependence

 Thibaut and Kelley (1959) describe the ways in which individuals depend on the
behaviour of others in achieving favourable outcomes for themselves. Based on the
premise that behaviour will not be repeated unless it is reinforced, the theory refers to a
behaviour outcome matrix characteristic of relationships.
  As an individual's behaviour is affected by the responses of others to that behaviour, the
other person can therefore influence the kind of behaviour exhibited by the individual by
varying their own response to it. Included in this theory are the ideas of comparison level
and comparison level of alternatives.
 Comparison level refers to the standard against which individuals evaluate their
relationships with others according to what they believe they deserve. Relationships
which incur outcomes above the comparative level are considered to be satisfactory and
attractive to the individual. However, if outcomes fall below comparative level, they will
be seen by the individual as unsatisfactory.
 The comparison level of alternatives is the standard against which the individual decides
whether or not to maintain a relationship with another. The individual will have an idea
regarding the lowest level of outcomes they will accept before they end a relationship in
the belief that they will receive greater benefits from being in a different relationship.
What separates these two comparative levels is that, at times, individuals may remain in
relationships with people whom they find unattractive or which are unsatisfactory
because they do not have a better alternative and the individual is dependent on the
relationship. Likewise, an individual can be in a relationship with• someone without
being dependent as other good alternatives do exist, however, the individual finds their
relationship satisfactory and/or the other attractive enough to maintain good outcomes.
According to Thibaut and Kelley then, attraction and dependence are not necessarily
closely associated.

INTRAPERSONAL ORIENTATIONS
 Intrapersonal deals with the emotions, feelings, thoughts that are stirred upon within an
individual which the person next to them might not even be aware of. This is quite
different from interpersonal skills, which is immediately visible to an external audience.
There does however, exist a very strong relationship between them; good intrapersonal
skills will go a long way in producing good interpersonal relationships.
 Intrapersonal skills as mentioned earlier are those values, personality traits that reside
deep within an individual. It becomes so much a part of the individual that most of us are
not even aware of their impact on our daily lives.
 The various intrapersonal facets that play a significant role in our personal and
professional lives are such as
 • Self Esteem
• Self Confidence
• Assertiveness
• Dealing with Negative emotions

Intrapersonal communication takes place within a single person, often for the purpose of
clarifying ideas or analyzing a situation. Other times, intrapersonal communication is undertaken
in order to reflect upon or appreciate something.
 Three aspects of intrapersonal communication are selfconcept, perception and
expectation.
ƒ
 Self-concept is the basis for intrapersonal communication, because it determines how a
persona sees him/herself and is oriented toward others. Self-concept (also called self-
awareness) involves three factors: beliefs, values and attitudes.
 Beliefs are basic personal orientation toward what is true or false, good or bad; beliefs
can be descriptive or prescriptive.
 Values are deep-seated orientations and ideals, generally based on and consistent with
beliefs, about right and wrong ideas and actions.
 Attitudes are learned predisposition toward or against a topic, ideals that stem from and
generally are consistent with values. Attitudes often are global, typically emotional.
 Beliefs, values and attitudes all influence behavior, which can be either spoken opinion
or physical action.
 Some psychologists include body image as an aspect of intrapersonal communication, in
that body image is a way of perceiving ourselves, positively or negatively, according to
the social standards of our culture. Other things that can affect self-concept are personal
attributes, talents, social role, even birth order.

 Whereas self-concept focuses internally, perception looks outward. Perception of the

outside world also is rooted in beliefs, values and attitudes. It is so closely intertwined
with self-concept that one feeds off the other, creating a harmonious understanding of
both oneself and one’s world.
  Meanwhile, expectations are future-oriented messages dealing with long-term roles,
sometimes called life scripts. These sometimes are projections of learned relationships
within the family or society.

Intrapersonal communication may involve different levels of communication activity: internal

discourse, solo vocal communication, and solo written communication.

o Internal discourse involves thinking, concentration and analysis. Psychologists include

both daydreaming and nocturnal dreaming in this category. Prayer, contemplation and
meditation also are part of this category, though from a theological point of view the
argument may be made that this is not solely internal to one person. In Sufi tradition, this
is similar to the concept of nafs, negotiating with the inner self. Example: Consciously
appreciating the beauty of a sunset.

o Solo vocal communication includes speaking aloud to oneself. This may be done to
clarify thinking, to rehearse a message intended for others, or simply to let off steam.
Example: Talking to yourself as you complain about your boss.

o Solo written communication deals with writing not intended for others. Example: An
entry in a diary or personal journal.

SKILL TO DEVELOP RELATIONS AND RESOLVE CONFLICTS

Relationships

A relationship is a bond or connection you have with other people. All of your relationships
can have effects on your physical, mental, emotional and social health. A healthy relationship is
one in which both people benefit and feel comfortable. Healthy relationships are based on shared
values and interests and mutual respect. You are naturally drawn to those who encourage and
support your own best qualities.
Skills and Characteristics to develop Relations

 Effective Communication
o Communication refers to your ways of sending and receiving messages. These
messages may be exchanged in words or through gestures, facial expression and
behaviors. You communicate to let others know your feelings, thoughts and
expectations. Communication also lets you discover the feelings, needs, wants
and knowledge of others. Three basic skills needed for effective communication is
speaking , listening and body language. It is a skill from which you will benefit
for your entire life.
 Cooperation
o Some activities are impossible without cooperation, working together for the good
of all. Working together through cooperation helps build strong relationships.
 Compromise
o Compromise is a problem solving method that involves each participant’s giving
up something to reach a solution that satisfy everyone . By your willingness to
give up something in order to reach a solution, you show the other person that you
value the relationship. Therefore it should not lead to a decision that goes against
your values or belief. Learning when and when not to compromise is a vital
relationship skill.
 Listening skills
o Active listening involves giving your full attention to whatever the speaker is
saying without interrupting or making judgements . When you listen to others,
you show them that you care about what they have to say and how they feel.
Some of the technique for active listening is reflective listening, clarifying,
encouraging, empathizing .

 Mutual Respect and Consideration

o In healthy relationship , people show mutual respect even when they disagree.
This involves accepting one another’s tastes and opinions and being tolerant of
different viewpoints. Furthermore, each person show consideration by being
thoughtful about the rights and feelings of others.
 Empathy skills
o Empathy means reading another person’s inner state and interpreting it in a way
that will help the other person and offer support and mutual trust . Empathy also
 means a state of perceiving and relating to another person feelings and need
without blaming or giving advice.
 Honesty
o Because of their mutual respect and consideration, participants in a healthy
relationship have the confidence to be open and honest about their action s,
thoughts and feeling. Dishonesty can seriously weaken or even destroy a
relationship.

 Commitment
o Healthy relationship require commitment .The participants are willing to work
together and make sacrifices that benefit everyone involved .They are loyal to
each other , and they are committed to strengthening the relationship.

 Dependability
o Participants in a healthy relationship are dependable. They are trustworthy and
reliable. Each is there for the others when they are needed.

 Self-awareness skill is the practice of consciously being aware of what you are thinking
and feeling, and why you are doing so. This activity falls within the realm of emotional
intelligence.
 Communication skills involve both listening and speaking effectively.
 Assertiveness skills involve expressing yourself and your rights without violating others’
rights.
 Conflict is natural and inevitable. Conflict resolution skills help you resolve differences
so that you may continue a relationship effectively.
 Anger management skills involve recognizing and expressing anger appropriately in
order to achieve goals, handle emergencies, solve problems and even protect our health.

Skills to resolve /manage conflict effectively

 Understanding what causes conflict

o We need to understand the root of the disagreement. It helps to resolve the
problem easily. Interpersonal conflict can begin over minor problem. Conflicts
can begin in many ways and for many reason Conflict can occur when one person
 wants to control the actions, opinions, or decision of another person. If you see
that a conflict is building, it is often wise to walk away. Doing so may prevent the
conflict from escalating, or growing in to a situation that is unhealthful or unsafe
for everyone involved. Some common causes of conflict are differences over
goals, interest or values, power struggles ,property dispute etc.
 Be willing to Forgive
o Resolving conflict is impossible if you are unwilling or unable to forgive others.
 Negotiating during conflict Resolution
o The negotiating process involves talking, listening, considering the other person’s
point of view, compromising if necessary, and devising a plan for working jointly
to resolve the conflict.
 Respect for oneself and others
o To resolve a conflict fairly and effectively, you must show respect for yourself
and others Having respect for yourself means that you recognize that you have
right to your own opinions and values, you can stand up for your beliefs. When
you respect others, you can listen to them with an open mind, consider their
thoughts and feeling, and honor their values. The views and ideas of others are
different from your own. Even though you may not agree, you can demonstrate
respect and tolerance. When you are tolerant of different viewpoints or ideas ,
fewer conflicts arise.
 Mediation process
o A process in which specially trained people help others resolve their conflict
peacefully. Each side is given the opportunity to talk to the other under the
supervision of the mediator .The mediator may then ask the parties to sign an
agreement to work out the problem within a certain time work.
 Use the law of Reciprocity
o What you give out is likely to be what you get back. Researchers have recently
discovered mirror neurons in the brain, suggesting that our limbic system
(emotional brain) that establishes empathy, recreates the experience of others
intentions and feeling within ourselves. Once you have made a concessions , it is
likely the other party respond in kind.
  Create and maintain a bond even with your Adversary
o The key to defuse conflict is to form a bond or to re-bond with other party. Treat
the person as a friend, not an enemy, and base the relationship on mutual respect,
positive regard and cooperation.
 Put the Fish on the Table
o If you leave a fish under the table it starts to rot and smell. On the other hand,
once an issue is raised. We can work through the mess of sorting it out and find a
mutually beneficial outcome. Choosing the right time and right circumstances are
part of an effective conflict management strategy.
 Build a positive relationship
o Once a bond has been established, we must nurture the relationship as well as
pursue our goals .We need to balance reason and emotions. Carl Rogers called
unconditional positive regard. We all learn to communicate acceptance of the
other person while saying no or disagreeing with a specific point or behavior.
Feeling accepted, worthy and valued are basic psychological needs.

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION: COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION

 Word ‘communication’ is derived from the Latin word ‘communis’ meaning common.
Effective communication skill is the set of skills that enables a person to convey
information and also receive and understand in the same manner. When the person makes
use of the set of skills to convey and receive information, it can be observed in the form
of his or her behaviour.
 So, an effective communication skills refer to the repertoire of behaviours that serve to
convey and receive the information. Effective communication skill is defined as the
ability to make exchange of information between two or more persons in such a way that
it creates understanding. In fact, communication is sharing of ideas and feelings with
others.
 Communication is the basic requirement for socialisation. Effective communication is an
efficient tool for the establishment and maintenance of good social and working
relationships with people. It is a way of reaching others by transmitting ideas, facts,
thoughts, feelings and values.
 To adjust well in society, effective communication is a must. Communication is a process
by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in an attempt to create shared understanding.
 This process requires a wide range of skills in interpersonal transactions, listening,
observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing and evaluating. It is through communication
that social relationships are built. Communication also means being able to ask for advice
and help in time of need.

Process of Communication

 Communication is effective when a concise and clear message is delivered well, received
successfully and understand fully. The process of communication has the following
distinct components:

 Communication begins with an impulse (or motivation) to pass on a message made up of

bits of information. In the process of encoding, units of information are selected and
organized for transmission. Input is the sum of experiences that build up in the human
brain or computer.
 The output is the encoded message transmitted by the information source (an individual
person or group of people). The interpretation of the message is referred to as decoding.
 Feedback is the response or message that the recipient (decoder) returns to the sender
(encoder).
 The sender has an idea
 Sender encodes the idea
 The sender transmits the message through a medium
 The receiver gets the message
 The receiver decodes the message
 Receiver sends feedback
 Feedback in the communication process is the response that gives us some indication of
how effectively we communicate. It is the gauge of efficiency in communication
Types and Characteristics of communication

Based on whom the message is addressed

We classify communication according to the number of persons (receivers) to whom the message
is addressed:
Intrapersonal Communication:
 It is talking to oneself in one’s own mind. Examples are soliloquies or asides in dramatic
works.

Interpersonal Communication:
 It is the exchange of messages between two persons. For example, a conversation,
dialogue, or an interview in which two persons interact (others may also be present as the
audience). An author communicates interpersonally with his reader, who is always
present as a silent audience in the author’s mind while he writes.
 A letter too is an example of interpersonal communication between the writer and the
person to whom it is written.

Group Communication:
 It can be among small or large groups, like an organization, club or classroom, in which
all individuals retain their individual identity.

Mass Communication:

 It occurs when the message is sent to large groups of people, for example, by newspaper,
radio, or television. In this process, each person becomes a faceless individual with
almost no opportunity for personal response or feedback.

Based On the basis of the medium employed

Verbal Communication:
 It means communicating with words, written or spoken. Verbal communication consists
of speaking, listening, writing, reading, and thinking. It may further be classified as Oral
or Written Communication.
Non-verbal communication:
 It includes using of pictures, signs, gestures, and facial expressions for exchanging
information between persons. It is done through sign language, action language, or object
language.
 Non-verbal communication flows through all acts of speaking or writing. It is a wordless
message conveyed through gestures (sign), movements (action language), and object
language (pictures/clothes) and so on.
The components of Non Verbal Communication are:
 Kinesics is the interpretation of body language such as facial expressions and gestures —
or, more formally, non-verbal behavior related to movement, either of any part of the
body or the body as a whole. Body Language is technically known as kinesics
 Proxemics is the technical term for the personal space aspect of body language.
Proxemics is the study of measurable distance between people as they interact.
o Intimate distance for embracing, touching or whispering
 Close phase – less than 6 inches (15 cm)
 Far phase – 6 to 18 inches (15 to 46 cm)
o Personal distance for interactions among good friends or family members
 Close phase – 1.5 to 2.5 feet (46 to 76 cm)
 Far phase – 2.5 to 4 feet (76 to 120 cm)
o Social distance for interactions among acquaintances
 Close phase – 4 to 7 feet (1.2 to 2.1 m)
 Far phase – 7 to 12 feet (2.1 to 3.7 m)
o Public distance used for public speaking
 Close phase – 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 m)
 Far phase – 25 feet (7.6 m) or more.

 Oculesics: It is the study of the role of eye contact in non verbal communication.
 Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal Communication. The way we
perceive time, structure our time and react to time is a powerful communication tool, and
helps set the stage for the communication process.
 Haptics refers to the study of touching. There is six different kinds of touch. These
include: positive, playful, control, ritualistic, task-related and unintentional.
 Paralanguage refers to the non-verbal elements of communication used to modify
meaning and convey emotion. Paralanguage may be expressed consciously or
 unconsciously, and it includes the pitch, volume, and, in some cases, intonation of
speech. Sometimes the definition is restricted to vocallyproduced sounds. The study is
known as paralinguistics.
 Physical Appearance: Physical appearance always contributes towards how people
perceive about individuals.

Evaluation Of Communication Effectiveness

 Communication is not an end in itself; rather it is a means to attain other ends or goals.
Hence, it has to be effective to be able to attain these goals or objectives. Communication
effectiveness can be examined in relation to the following criteria:
Fidelity of Communication: the distortion free quality of a message is called fidelity. An
effective person gets the message across to others with minimal possibilities of
misunderstanding.
Economy: In an effective communication a minimum of energy time, symbols and cues are used
to encode message without losing its fidelity and impact.
Congruence: An effective communication integrates both verbal and non-verbal cues.
Influence: The most important criterion of effectiveness is the influence that the communicator is
able to exercise over the receiver of the communication. Influence means the communicator
achieve the results he intended.
Relationship Building: effective communication contributes to the building of trust and a better
relationship between the source and the target.

Seven C’s of Effective Communication

 These are the Seven terms, starting with the letter C, which makes communication more
understandable, valuable and effective.
 Below are 7 C’s of effective communication which is applicable to both written as well
as oral communication.
These are as follows:
1. Completeness – The communication must be complete. It should convey all the facts required
by the audience. The sender of the message must take into consideration the receiver’s mindset
and convey the message accordingly. A complete communication has following features:
  Complete communication develops and enhances the reputation of an organization.
Moreover, they are cost saving as no crucial information is missing and no additional cost
is incurred in conveying the extra message if the communication is complete.
 A complete communication always gives additional information wherever required. It
leaves no questions in the mind of the receiver.
 Complete communication helps in better decision-making by the
audience/readers/receivers of the message as they get all desired and crucial information.
It persuades the audience.
2. Conciseness – Conciseness means wordiness, i.e, communicating what you want to convey in
least possible words without forgoing the other C’s of communication. Conciseness is a necessity
for effective communication. Concise communication has following features:
 It is both time-saving as well as cost-saving. It underlines and highlights the main
message as it avoids using excessive and needless words.
 Concise communication provides short and essential message in limited words to the
audience.
 Concise message is more appealing and comprehensible to the audience. Concise
message is non-repetitive in nature.
3. Consideration – Consideration implies “stepping into the shoes of others”. Effective
communication must take the audience into consideration, i.e, the audience’s viewpoints,
background, mindset, education level, etc. Make an attempt to envisage your audience, their
requirements, emotions as well as problems. Ensure that the self-respect of the audience is
maintained and their emotions are not at harm. Modify your words in a message to suit the
audience’s needs while making your message complete.
 Features of considerate communication are as follows:
o Emphasize on “you” approach.
o Empathize with the audience and exhibit interest in the audience. This will
stimulate a positive reaction from the audience.
o Show optimism towards your audience. Emphasize on “what is possible” rather
than “what is impossible”. Lay stress on positive words such as jovial, committed,
thanks, warm, healthy, help, etc.

4. Clarity – Clarity implies emphasizing on a specific message or goal at a time, rather than
trying to achieve too much at once. Clarity in communication has following features:
 It makes understanding easier.
  Complete clarity of thoughts and ideas enhances the meaning of the message.
 Clear message makes use of exact, appropriate and concrete words.

5. Concreteness – Concrete communication implies being particular and clear rather than fuzzy
and general. Concreteness strengthens the confidence. The concrete message has the following
features:
 It is supported by specific facts and figures.
 It makes use of words that are clear and that build the reputation.
 Concrete messages are not misinterpreted.

6. Courtesy – Courtesy in message implies the message should show the sender’s expression as
well as should respect the receiver. The sender of the message should be sincerely polite,
judicious, reflective and enthusiastic. The courteous message has the following features:
 Courtesy implies taking into consideration both viewpoints as well as feelings of the
receiver of the message.
 The courteous message is positive and focused at the audience.
 It makes use of terms showing respect for the receiver of the message.
 It is not at all biased.
7. Correctness – Correctness in communication implies that there are no grammatical errors in
communication. Correct communication has following features:
 The message is exact, correct and well-timed.
 If the communication is correct, it boosts up the confidence level.
 The correct message has a greater impact on the audience/readers.
 It checks for the precision and accurateness of facts and figures used in the message.
 It makes use of appropriate and correct language in the message.
Awareness of these 7 C’s of communication makes you an effective communicator.

Four S’s of Communication

Shortness
 “Brevity is the soul of wit,” it is said. The same can be said about communication.
Simplicity
 Simplicity both in the usage of words and ideas reveals clarity in the thinking process.
Strength
 The strength of a message emanates from the credibility of the sender.
Sincerity
 A sincere approach to an issue is clearly evident to the receiver. If the sender is genuine,
it will be reflected in the manner in which he communicates.

Communication Styles
o Passive. Passive communication involves the inability or unwillingness to express
thoughts and feelings. Passive com- municators do not stand up for themselves or defend
their attitudes or beliefs. They will often do something they’d prefer not to do rather than
say how they really feel.

o Aggressive. Aggressive communicators often try to get their way through bullying and
intimidation. They do not consider the rights of others. In disagreements, they attack the
other person, not the problem.

o Assertive. Assertive communication involves expressing thoughts and feelings clearly

and directly but without hurting others. Assertive communicators stand up for
themselves. They defend their attitudes and beliefs, but they also respect the rights of
others. In disagreements, they attack the problem, not the other person.
Assertive communication, which involves effective speaking and listening skills as well as
appropriate body language, is an important asset in all healthy relationships

LISTENING SKILLS
 Listening is a language modality. It is one of the four skills of a language i.e. listening,
speaking, reading and writing. It involves an active involvement of an individual.
Listening involves a sender , a message and a receiver.
 It is the psychological process of receiving, attending to constructing meaning from and
responding to spoken and/or non verbal messages.
 Listening comprises of some key components, they are:
o discriminating between sounds
o recognizing words and understanding their meaning
o identifying grammatical groupings of words,
o identifying expressions and sets of utterances that act to create meaning,
 o connecting linguistic cues to non-linguistic and paralinguistic cues,
o using background knowledge to predict and to confirm meaning and
o recalling important words and ideas.

Process of listening
The process of listening occur in five stages. They are hearing, understanding, remembering,
evaluating, and responding.

Strategies of Listening
 Listening strategies are techniques or activities that contribute directly to the
comprehension and recall of listening input. Listening strategies can be classified by how
the listener processes the input.
 Top-down strategies are listener based. The listener taps into background knowledge of
the topic, the situation or context, the type of text, and the language. This background
knowledge activates a set of expectations that help the listener to interpret what is heard
and anticipate what will come next. Top-down strategies include
o listening for the main idea
o predicting
o drawing inferences
o summarizing
 Bottom-up strategies are text based; the listener relies on the language in the message,
that is, the combination of sounds, words, and grammar that creates meaning. Bottom-up
strategies include
o listening for specific details
o recognizing cognates
o recognizing word-order patterns

Three Basic modes of Listening

Active or Reflective Listening

 It is the single most useful and important listening skill. In active listening , the listener is
genuinely interested in understanding what the other person is thinking, feeling, wanting
or what the message means.The person is active in checking his understanding before he
respond with his new message.
  The listener restate or paraphrase our understanding of the message and reflect it back to
the sender for verification. This verification or feedback process is what distinguishes
active listening and makes it effective.

Essentials of Active Listening

1. Intensity
2. Empathy
3. Acceptance
4. Recognizing responsibility for completeness

Passive or Attentive Listening

 The listener is genuinely interested in hearing and understanding the other person’s point
of view. He will be attentive and will passively listen. The Listener assume that what he
heard and understand is correct but stay passive and do not verify it.

Competitive or Combative Listening

 It happens when the Listener is more interested in promoting his own point of view than
in understanding or exploring someone else’s view. He either listen for openings to take
the floor, or for flaws or weak points.
 Module 3

 Thinking skills: Critical thinking & creative thinking and media thought.

 Negotiating skills: Decision making-problem solving.

 Coping skills: Life skills for stress & time management;

 symptoms of anxiety-

 overcoming anxiety-

 goal setting and planning.

Thinking Life Skills include critical thinking, creative thinking, decision making, problem
solving and information gathering skill. These are needed to make individuals able to determine
alternative solutions and to analyze the influence of their own values and values of those around
them. Basically, these skills relate to the thinking of an individual.

Critical thinking is an ability to analyze information, facts, thoughts, situations and experiences
in an objective manner. Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally. It includes
the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking. Someone with critical thinking skills
is able to do the following:
• understand the logical connections between ideas
• identify, construct and evaluate arguments
• detect inconsistencies and common mistakes in reasoning
• solve problems systematically
• identify the relevance and importance of ideas
• reflect on the justification of one's own beliefs and values
 Critical thinking is not a matter of accumulating information. A person with a good
memory and who knows a lot of facts is not necessarily good at critical thinking. A
critical thinker is able to deduce consequences from what he knows, and he knows how to
make use of information to solve problems, and to seek relevant sources of information to
inform himself.
 Critical thinking should not be confused with being argumentative or being critical of
other people. Although critical thinking skills can be used in exposing fallacies and bad
reasoning, critical thinking can also play an important role in cooperative reasoning and
constructive tasks.
 Critical thinking can help us acquire knowledge, improve our theories, and strengthen
arguments. We can use critical thinking to enhance work processes and improve social
institutions.
 Critical thinking is also regarded as intellectually engaged, skillful, and responsible
thinking that facilitates good judgment because it requires the application of assumptions,
knowledge, competence, and the ability to challenge one's own thinking. Critical thinking
requires the use of self-correction and monitoring to judge the rationality of thinking as
well as reflexivity. When using critical thinking, individuals evaluate the quality of that
thinking. Critical thinking process requires active argumentation, initiative, reasoning,
envisioning and analyzing complex alternatives, and making judgments.
  King F.J. et al (2010) explains about the descriptors of critical thinking- a rational
outlook, logical inquest, problem solving, attitude of suspended judgement, evaluative
decision or action; skilful, responsible thinking that facilitates good judgement, relies
upon criteria, is self-correcting and sensitive to context; scepticism, inquisitiveness;
questioning of beliefs, aims, definitions, conclusion, actions, appraisal of frameworks or
sets of criteria by which judgements are made.
 According to Mayer (2002), Critical Thinking skill involves judgements based on criteria
and standards. So too, Norris (1985) defines Critical Thinking as deciding rationally what
to or what not to believe. To Kurland (1996), Critical Thinking is concerned with reason,
intellectual honesty and open mindedness as opposed to emotionalism, close-mindedness
and intellectual laziness. WHO (1993) states that Critical Thinking is the ability to
analyse and sort informations, problems and surrounding situations.
 It helps us recognize and assess the factors that influence attitudes and behaviour of an
individual under different circumstances; and gives clarity to one’s goals and to examine
assumptions to behave objectively in different situations, discern hidden values, evaluates
the various solutions/evidences, accomplish actions successfully and assess the
conclusions thereafter. It helps one think abstractly with reasoning and analyze the
situations in an effective manner without any subjectivity.
 Critical thinking has been defined in many different ways. Very broad definitions include
‘thinking which has a purpose’ or ‘reflective judgement’. However, these definitions are
often too general to be useful to students.

Core Critical Thinking Skills

 The cognitive skills here is what the experts include as being at the very core of critical
thinking: interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self regulation.
 Interpretation is “to comprehend and express the meaning or significance of a wide
variety of experiences, situations, data, events, judgments, conventions, beliefs, rules,
procedures, or criteria.” Simply like understanding the significance of data and to clarify
its meaning.
• Analysing: breaking information down and recombining it in different ways
• Reasoning: creating an argument through logical steps
• Evaluating: judging the worth, credibility or strength of accounts.
  Critical thinking helps students to be clear about what to believe and what not to believe,
based upon strong evidences and not because of peer pressure or overpowering of any
one emotion.
 Critical Thinking can contribute to health by helping us to recognise and assess the
factors that influence attitudes and behaviours such as values, peer pressure and the
media. It is helpful in mathematical reasoning too. We can help our students to make
wise decisions by providing in-depth knowledge to them. The more a pupil knows about
history, literature, maths, science, the better equipped he or she will be to construct his or
her own judgements.

 Critical thinkers demonstrate particular attributes. Critical thinkers tend to:

1. Be capable of taking a position or changing a position as evidence dictates
2. Remain relevant to the point
3. Seek information as well as precision in information
4. Be open minded
5. Take the entire situation into account
6. Keep the original problem in mind
7. Search for reasons
8. Deal with the components of a complex problem in an orderly manner
9. Seek a clear statement of the problem
10. Look for options
11. Exhibit sensitivity to others' feelings and depth of knowledge
12. Use credible sources
 Critical thinkers use these skills appropriately and usually without prompting. They are
generally predisposed to think critically and to evaluate the outcome of their thought
processes.

CREATIVE THINKING
 is an ability to think creatively and not follow only one idea in different situations.
 Creative Thinking skill is the ability to generate original ideas which are different from
others.
 It is a novel way of seeking or doing things. It involves manifestation, making the
invisible visible.
  According to Young (1985) Creative Thinking skill is an ability of bringing about
something new that can break away from old patterns. It is the kind of thinking ability
that leads to new insights, novel approaches, fresh perspectives and whole new ways of
understanding and conceiving things. It helps the person to see the world in an
imaginative and different ways. It is a mental ability that does not require any specific
procedure. It may be accidental or conscious process to arrive at creative ideas.

 Creative thinking involves four stages:

1.Preparation:
In this stage the thinker formulates the problem and collects the facts and materials considered
necessary for finding new solutions. Many times the problem cannot be solved even after days,
weeks or months of concentrated efforts. Failing to solve the problem, the thinker turns away
from it initiating next stage.
2.Incubation:
During this period some of the ideas that were interfering with the solution will tend to fade. The
overt activity and sometimes even thinking about the problem is absent in this stage. But the
unconscious thought process involved in creative thinking is at work during this period.
Apparently the thinker will be busy in other activities like reading literature or playing games,
etc. Inspite of these activities the contemplation about finding a solution to problem will be going
on in the mind.
3.Illumination:
Following the period of incubation the creative ideas occur suddenly. Consequently the obscure
thing becomes clear. This sudden flash of solution is known as illumination and is similar to ‘aha
(eureka)’ experience. For example, Archimedes found solution to the crown problem.
4.Verification:
Though the solution is found in illumination stage, it is necessary to verify whether that solution
is correct or not. Hence in this last stage evaluation of the solution is done. If the solution is not
satisfactory the thinker will go back to creative process from the beginning. If it is satisfactory,
the same will be accepted and if necessary, minor modification may also be made in solution.

Creative thinking does not have boundary in thinking. When the individual follows this thing
process, the creative thinking skill is said to be consisting of
 1. Collecting: It is important to collect similar ideas for creative thinking; and from
the collection of ideas, creative thinking begins. It is a mental process.
2. Classifying: On the basis of the ideas collected the second step is to classify those
ideas as per its relevance so it will provide certain meaning.
3. Organising: Classified ideas are organised to gain meaning out of those ideas. The
organizing is done on the basis of relevance of ideas.
4. Manipulating: Those classified and organised ideas are manipulated in such a way
that it provides meaning and this meaning is different from traditional and original
one.
5. Presenting: After the completion of above four steps, presentation takes place.
This is the important part of creative skill. Presentation of ideas decides
uniqueness.

 Blond’s Encyclopedia of Education (1969), handles the question of creativity in the sense
of “flexibility, originality and sensitivity in response to ideas or situations.”
 The New Encyclopedia Britanica defines creativity as “the ability to make or otherwise
bring into existence something new, whether a new solution to a problem, a new method
or device or a new form.”
 Creative Thinking, according to Harris (1998), Creative Thinking is a kind of thinking
‘that focuses on explaining ideas, generating possibilities, looking for many right answers
than just one.”
 Creativity skill can be used in many areas of life. When used in music or painting, results
are artistic; when used in technology, results are innovative; when used in business,
results are productive.
 Students should be helped to increase their creative thinking power so that they will be
able to respond adaptively to the situations of their daily lives. Creative thinking requires
patience that look for new answers to old questions. It also needs the use of logical
thinking.
 It helps students identify different problems and their different solutions, solve problems,
explore new ways of perceiving things and develop sensitivity towards problems and
situations. It contributes both to decision making and problem solving by enabling us to
explore the available alternatives and various consequences of our actions or non-actions.
  It helps us work beyond our direct experience and even if no problem is identified, or no
decision is made, creative thinking can help us respond adaptively and with flexibility to
different situations in our daily lives.
 It is a way of seeing or doing things characteristic of the four components, that is,-
fluency(generating new ideas), flexibility (shifting perspective easily), originality (
conceiving of something new) and elaboration ( building on other ideas).It enhances an
individual‟s convergent and divergent thinking. Divergent thinking is opposite to
convergent thinking. Convergent thinking emphasizes on only one idea while divergent
thinking supports variety of ideas both quality and quantity as it is believed that divergent
thinking can pave the way for good and qualified ideas(Guilford,1959).
 Creative thinking originates through gathering knowledge from pre-experience related to
post- experience, hence, a person with life skills must be able to think in a variety aspects
including originality, fluency, flexibility, and elaboration(Torrance,1962).

Creative thinking and media thought

• Creative thinking can be measured and developed through four indicators. First,
originality means producing unusual, novel, unique, or clever ideas with combining known ideas
into some new form and expressing them in unusual ways (Satiadarma & Waruwu, 2003). It is
characterized by the ability of generating new or unique ideas with unusual ways (Munandar,
1999, p.89).
• When the students were asked to upload the pictures on to Twitter, the students were
encouraged to think deeply about what they were going to upload because the uploaded pictures
would reflect their personal experience, thoughts and feelings. They were encouraged to
campaign to improve the environment by expressing their ‘personal’ version of an environmental
problem in social media. They were free to add their own words, designs, caption, comments or
tweets, anything that reflected their uniqueness in doing this assignment.
• Social media shows that geographical concepts, problems, ideas are not things that are
just confined to a geographical textbook, professor, or expert. Students could practice find,
produce, and present their original geographical problems and ideas within the digital
community.
• Second, fluency means producing a large quantity of relevant responses and building up
collections of related ideas (Satiadarma & Waruwu, 2003). This was characterized and measured
by proposing a lot of ideas, answers, and solutions and think variety of related ideas (Munandar,
1999). The usage of Twitter encourages the students to produce various ideas related to the
environment through the uploaded pictures. In addition, the students could develop their fluency
of finding problems and generating solutions. By reading their Twitter timeline, the students
could learn relevant and real geographical problems, ideas, and solutions that were happening
around them in meaningful way. While many digital communities use social media to spread
worldly values, the students would make a difference by using social media to spread Godly
values in various ways through the renewing of their mind.
• Third, flexibility means approaching things in alternative ways and viewing problems
with an analysis from a different perspective (Satiadarma & Waruwu, 2003). It is characterized
by analyzing varied ideas, answers, and solutions from different perspectives (Munandar, 1999).
After the students uploaded their own pictures within the digital community, they could also
read, compare, and analyze the other students’ uploaded pictures on their Twitter timeline. They
could evaluate the other students’ ideas, words, designs, and campaigns.
• Social media also help the students to see new perspectives related to the problems and
places. For example, students might pass the bumpy roads in their friends’ pictures but when
they see their friends uploaded pictures, they have learned new insights about the causes, effects,
and how the problem could be solved. With deeper perspectives related to specific geographical
locations and problems, students would learn new insights to maintain God’s creation in
accordance with His mandate for His people.

• Fourth, elaboration means giving examples and explanation of ideas and adding
interesting detail to expand the idea (Satiadarma & Waruwu, 2003). Elaboration is characterized
by the ability of developing examples, explanation, and the detail of ideas itself (Munandar,
1999). Since students’ uploaded pictures and comments could be seen by their followers, they
were trained to give an explanation of any questions related to their post at home, in class, and
other places. There would be questions and comments related to their uploaded pictures from
different people.
Negotiating skills: Decision making- problem solving.

Decision Making

 Decision making is a process that chooses a preferred option or a course of actions from
among a set of alternatives on the basis of given criteria or strategies (Wang, Wang, Patel, &
Patel, 2004; Wilson &Keil, 2001).
 Decision making is the study of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and
preferences of the decision maker. Making a decision implies that there are alternative
choices to be considered, and in such a case we want not only to identify as many of these
alternatives as possible but to choose the one that best fits with our goals, objectives, desires,
values, and so on (Harris (1980). As a person grows up he/she is frequently confronted with
serious choices that require his/her attention. These situations may present conflicting
demands that cannot possibly be met at that same time. One must prioritise and make
choices, but at the same time be fully aware of the possible consequences of those choices.
One must learn to understand the consequences before making a decision.
 According to Baker et al. (2001), decision making should start with the identification of the
decision maker(s) and stakeholder(s) in the decision, reducing the possible disagreement
about problem definition, requirements, goals and criteria. Then, a general decision making
process can be divided into the following steps:
 Step 1. Define the problem “This process must, as a minimum, identify root causes,
limiting assumptions, system and organizational boundaries and interfaces, and any
stakeholder issues. The goal is to express the issue in a clear, one-sentence problem
statement that describes both the initial conditions and the desired conditions” Of course,
the one-sentence limit is often exceeded in the practice in case of complex decision
problems. The problem statement must however be a concise and unambiguous
writtenmaterial agreed by all decision makers and stakeholders. Even if it can be
sometimes a long iterative process to come to such an agreement, it is a crucial and
necessary point before proceeding to the next step.
 Step 2. Determine requirements “Requirements are conditions that any acceptable
solution to the problem must meet. Requirements spell out what the solution to the
problem mustdo.” In mathematical form, these requirements are the constraints
describing the set of the feasible (admissible) solutions of the decision problem. It is very
important that even if subjective or judgmental evaluations may occur in the following
 steps, the requirements must be stated in exact quantitative form, i.e. for any possible
solution it has to be decided unambiguously whether it meets the requirements or not. We
can prevent the ensuing debates by putting down the requirements and how to check them
in a written material.
 Step 3. Establish goals “Goals are broad statements of intent and desirable
programmatic values.... Goals go beyond the minimum essential must have(i.e.
requirements) to wantsand desires.” In mathematical form, the goals are objectives
contrary to the requirements that are constraints. The goals may be conflicting but this is
a natural concomitant of practical decision situations.
 Step 4. Identify alternatives “Alternatives offer different approaches for changing the
initial condition into the desired Condition”. Be it an existing one or only constructed in
mind, any alternative must meet the requirements. If the number of the possible
alternatives is finite, we can check one by one if it meets the requirements. The infeasible
ones must be deleted (screened out) from the further consideration, and we obtain the
explicit list of the alternatives. If the number of the possible alternatives is infinite, the set
of alternatives is considered as the set of the solutions fulfilling the constraints in the
mathematical form of the requirements.
 Step 5. Define criteria “Decision criteria, which will discriminate among alternatives,
must be based on the goals. It is necessary to define discriminating criteria as objective
measures of the goals to measure how well each alternative achieves the goals”. Since the
goals will be represented in the form of criteria, every goal must generate at least one
criterion but complex goals may be represented only by several criteria. It can be helpful
to group together criteria into a series of sets that relate to separate and distinguishable
components of the overall objective for the decision. This is particularly helpful if the
emerging decision structure contains a relatively large number of criteria. Grouping
criteria can help the process of checking whether the set of criteria selected is appropriate
to the problem, can ease the process of calculating criteria weights in some methods, and
can facilitate the emergence of higher level views of the issues. It is a usual way to
arrange the groups of criteria, sub criteria, and sub-sub criteria in a tree-structure (UK
DTLR (2001)).
 Step 6. Select a decision making tool There are several tools for solving a decision
problem. The selection of an appropriate tool is not an easy task and depends on the
concrete decision problem, as well as on the objectives of the decision makers.
 Sometimes the ‘simpler the method, the better” but complex decision problems may
require complex methods, as well.
 Step 7. Evaluate alternatives against criteria Every correct method for decision
making needs, as input data, the evaluation of the alternatives against the criteria.
Depending on the criterion, the assessment may be objective (factual), with respect to
some commonly shared and understood scale of measurement (e.g. money) or can be
subjective (judgmental), reflecting the subjective assessment of the evaluator. After the
evaluations the selected decision making tool can be applied to rank the alternatives or to
choose a subset of the most promising alternatives.
 Step 8. Validate solutions against problem statement The alternatives selected by the
applied decision making tools have always to be validated against the requirements and
goals of the decision problem. It may happen that the decision making tool was
misapplied. In complex problems the selected alternatives may also call the attention of
the decision makers and stakeholders that further goals or requirements should be added
to the decision model.

How to Make Better Decisions?

One can make a better decision by opting to the framework of the negatively influenced
factors. An instinct should be present in everyone’s mind that the act of misunderstanding,
misguidance may rule one’s life easier.
Here are a few techniques that help in making better decisions:
a. Increase in one’s knowledge:
It depends on the research that he/she has done to overcome the problem. Asking and
experiencing questions and researching and consulting about the facts found. One must try to
maintain the objectivity of the analyzed facts.
b. Using the intuition:
The individual must try to make a decision based on the accumulated knowledge and experience
gained in it. Sometimes these intuitions make one to take wrong decisions. It is also defined as a
process of making decisions in non-sequential mode. One must have good gravitate styles to take
an intuitive decision.
c. Consider multiple options:
Selecting multiple options, one may feel like playing a major role. Here all the list of options
should be again considered as the alternative options. One must try to make the right decision
with a proper mindset.
Distractions might lead to wrong decisions, so one must always consider the pros and cons of the
considered alternative.
d. Balancing risks and rewards:
The balance that is provided between risk and reward is to be maintained. While taking decisions
one must be able to concentrate on the good deeds of the decision taken then the bad deeds. Once
if the decision is taken the individual must think of the worst and best things that would happen.

Importance of decision making in real life

Decision-making is something we all need to learn how to do. This very essential life
skill should be taught from very early on since decision-making takes years of practice to master.
Learning how to make good choices and wise decisions depends upon several factors: a person’s
developmental stage/age, having a general idea of right and wrong (and I mean this in the
broadest moral sense since individual’s may acquire their own idea of what is right and wrong
for them personally as they mature), understanding what the decision-making process entails,
and PRACTICE! It’s the events in life that shape us, our choices that define us. Our decisions
determine the outcome of our lives. So if you want life to work out the way you want it make
sure you keep making decisions, and make these the right ones. People forget the great power
they hold within-that will shape their life and they ignore the importance of decision making.
Our life is shaped by the choices we make. Make the decisions which will take your life in the
direction you require. Sometimes we rush into making decisions and regret the choices we make.
A hasty decision could lead to long term disappointment. So it’s best you think through
everything clearly, but don’t delay to long, because sometimes you’ll go past the point where
your decisions matter.

Listed below are some of the reasons why decision-making skills are essential.

Leadership Skills:
It is the primary skill one should possess to become a leader. An organisation stands on the
foundation built by the leader's decisions. A wrong step can cause it to fall like a house of cards.
Besides, an indecisive leader cannot hold the fort for long. A leader should be able to inspire and
direct the subordinates to follow the path. The authority of the position she/he is in lets her/him
do that. However, if the decisions or the decision-making skills are weak, employees become
dissatisfied. Sooner or later, employee turnover becomes a reality. The company will go through
tough times and some good times. The team has to have confidence in the decision-making skills
of their leader to deal with any situation with poise.

To Deal with Problems:

When faced with any challenges or issues, as one will, decision-making skills come in handy.
When in adverse circumstances, fate hangs on the decisions one makes. This applies to an
individual as well as an organisational level. As far as an organisation is concerned, when
challenges due to globalisation surface, the survival of the business counts on the leadership and
the decision-making skills of its manager. Even if not for survival, the smooth running of a
company is only possible if sound decisions are made at the right time, without delay.

To Achieve The Goals and Objectives:

The process of attaining the pre-set goals is bound to be laden with difficulties and impediments.
It is also one where an individual will face a dilemma of some kind, especially when ethical
concerns are involved. Decision making is crucial in those circumstances. Acute decision-
making skills must be employed to take decisions where moral values and organisational goal are
in conflict with each other.

For Growth and Diversification:

Managers have to take what they call as ‘non-programmed' decisions from time to time. These
are decisions that have not been programmed before. She/he has to take them if the business
environment calls for it. Such choices are not easy to make. The manager or the decision maker
must have sufficient experience to adopt an arrangement such as that. With experience, one
builds strong intuitive skills. So experience, intuition and in-depth knowledge of the present
scenario are some of the qualities that will save the day. These are the decisions that are made
when mergers and acquisitions and similar propositions are to be considered. Needless to add,
these are some of the changes that will significantly impact the organisation and hence, these
decisions are the kind that will change the tone of the business.

A Motivation for Workers:

Impressive decision-making skills of leaders inspire confidence in the members of the
workforce. It is always welcoming to have a strong front for a company. It instils in the
subordinates a greater sense of faith. With this motivating force, they strive harder towards the
attainment of goals. Also, when in a crisis, the decision taken by the manager will have far-
reaching effects on the lower level of management. When faced with ethical choices, the
decision maker, by making the right and perhaps, the harder option will have motivated all the
employees to work harder.

Career Decision-Making
Career decision-making can be defined as a process that describes or explains the choices that a
person makes when selecting a particular career. It also helps to identify different factors
involved in a person’s career decision-making and provides an understanding of the way these
factors have an impact on their career decisions and choices (Sharf 2002).

PROBLEM SOLVING

 Problem Solving: Efforts to develop or choose among various responses in order to attain
desired goals. It is the active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is
not readily attainable.
 It is a mental process or a phenomenon dedicated towards solving problems by discovering
and analyzing the problem. It is a process dedicated to finding not just any solution, but the
best solution to resolve any problems. There is no such thing as one best way to solve every
kind of problem, since there are unique problems depending upon the situation there are
unique solutions too.

Steps of problem solving

There are number of rigid psychological steps involved in problem solving, which is also
referred as problem-solving cycle. The steps are in sequential order, and solving any problem
requires following them one after another. But, we tend to avoid following this rigid set of steps,
which is why it often requires us to go through the same steps over and over again until a
satisfactory solution is reached.
Here are the steps involved in problem solving, approved by expert psychologists.

1. Identifying the Problem

Identifying the problem seems like the obvious first stem, but it’s not exactly as simple as
it sounds. People might identify the wrong source of a problem, which will render the steps thus
carried on useless.
For instance, let’s say you’re having trouble with your studies. identifying the root of your
failure is your first priority. The problem here could be that you haven’t been allocating enough
time for your studies, or you haven’t tried the right techniques. But, if you make an assumption
that the problem here is the subject being too hard, you won’t be able to solve the problem.

2. Defining/Understanding the Problem

It’s vital to properly define the problem once it’s been identified. Only by defining the
problem, further steps can be taken to solve it. While at it, you also need to take into
consideration different perspectives to understand any problem; this will also help you look for
solutions with different perspectives.
Now, following up with the previous example. Let’s say you have identified the problem as not
being able to allocate enough time for your studies. You need to sort out the reason behind it.
Have you just been procrastinating? Have you been too busy with work? You need to understand
the whole problem and reasons behind it, which is the second step in problem solving.
This step mainly involves asking questions such as; WHAT, WHY, HOW, WHERE & WHEN.

3. Forming a Strategy
Developing a strategy is the next step to finding a solution. Each different situation will
require formulating different strategies, also depending on individual’s unique preferences.
A problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to find a solution.
Now, you have identified and studied your problem. You can’t just simply jump into
trying to solve it. You can’t just quit work and start studying. You need to draw up a strategy to
manage your time properly. Allocate less time for not-so-important works, and add them to your
study time. Your strategy should be well thought, so that in theory at least, you are able to
manage enough time to study properly and not fail in the exams.
Different strategies have different action plans associated with them. For example, a well-
known strategy is trial and error. The old adage, “If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again”
describes trial and error. In terms of your broken printer, you could try checking the ink levels,
and if that doesn’t work, you could check to make sure the paper tray isn’t jammed. Or maybe
the printer isn’t actually connected to your laptop. When using trial and error, you would
continue to try different solutions until you solved your problem. Although trial and error is not
typically one of the most time-efficient strategies, it is a commonly used one.
Another type of strategy is an algorithm. An algorithm is a problem-solving formula that
provides you with step-by-step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome (Kahneman,
2011). You can think of an algorithm as a recipe with highly detailed instructions that produce
the same result every time they are performed. Algorithms are used frequently in our everyday
lives, especially in computer science. When you run a search on the Internet, search engines like
Google use algorithms to decide which entries will appear first in your list of results. Facebook
also uses algorithms to decide which posts to display on your newsfeed. Can you identify other
situations in which algorithms are used?
A heuristic is another type of problem solving strategy. While an algorithm must be followed
exactly to produce a correct result, a heuristic is a general problem-solving framework (Tversky
& Kahneman, 1974). You can think of these as mental shortcuts that are used to solve problems.
A “rule of thumb” is an example of a heuristic. Such a rule saves the person time and energy
when making a decision, but despite its time-saving characteristics, it is not always the best
method for making a rational decision.

4. Organizing Information
Organizing the available information is another crucial step to the process. You need to consider
 What do you know about the problem?
 What do you not know about the problem?
Accuracy of the solution for your problem will depend on the amount of information available.
The hypothetical strategy you formulate isn’t the all of it either. You need to now contemplate on
the information available on the subject matter. Use the aforementioned questions to find out
more about the problem. Proper organization of the information will force you to revise your
strategy and refine it for best results.

5. Allocating Resources
Time, money and other resources aren’t unlimited. Deciding how high the priority is to
solve your problem will help you determine the resources you’ll be using in your course to find
the solution. If the problem is important, you can allocate more resources to solving it. However,
if the problem isn’t as important, it’s not worth the time and money you might spend on it if not
for proper planning.
For instance, let’s consider a different scenario where your business deal is stuck, but it’s few
thousand miles away. Now, you need to analyze the problem and the resources you can afford to
expend to solve the particular problem. If the deal isn’t really in your favor, you could just try
solving it over the phone, however, more important deals might require you to fly to the location
in order to solve the issue.
6. Monitoring Progress
You need to document your progress as you are finding a solution. Don’t rely on your
memory, no matter how good your memory is. Effective problem-solvers have been known to
monitor their progress regularly. And, if they’re not making as much progress as they’re
supposed to, they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies.
Problem solving isn’t an overnight feat. You can’t just have a body like that of Brad Pitt after a
single session in the gym. It takes time and patience. Likewise, you need to work towards
solving any problem every day until you finally achieve the results. Looking back at the previous
example, if everything’s according to plan, you will be allocating more and more time for your
studies until finally you are confident that you’re improving. One way to make sure that you’re
on a right path to solving a problem is by keeping track of the progress. To solve the problem
illustrated in the first example, you can take self-tests every week or two and track your progress.

7. Evaluating the Results

Your job still isn’t done even if you’ve reached a solution. You need to evaluate the
solution to find out if it’s the best possible solution to the problem. The evaluation might be
immediate or might take a while. For instance, answer to a math problem can be checked then
and there, however solution to your yearly tax issue might not be possible to be evaluated right
there.
Coping skills: Life skills for stress & time management; symptoms of anxiety-overcoming anxiety-
goal setting and planning.

LIFE SKILL FOR STRESS MANAGEMENT

 The term stress has typically been use to refer both to the adjustive demands placed on an
organism and to the organism’s internal biological and psychological responses to such
demands.
 We will refer to adjustive demands as stressors, to the effects they create within an
organism as stress, and to efforts to deal with stress as coping strategies.
 According to Canadian physiologist Hans Selye (1956, 1976a), the notion of stress can be
broken down further into eustress (positive stress) and distress (negative stress). ( in most
cases, the stress experienced during a wedding would be eustress: during a funeral,
distress.) Both types of stress tax a person’s resources and coping skills, though distress
typically has the potential to do more damage.
 Hans Selye studied and found the impact of stress on rats and other animals by revealing
them to harmful or unpleasant stimuli. He observed that all animals were showing a very
similar sequence of reactions, resulting into three major stages.

In 1936 Selye explained this common reaction to the stressors as the General Adaption
Syndrome or GAS.
 Alarm – This is the introductory stage where the stressor is recognised. A state of alarm
is stress response of the body. In this level adrenaline is produced with the intention to
get the ‘fight-or-flight’ response.
 Resistance- It is next level of GAS. If the causes of stress remain constant, it becomes
essential to find a solution to eliminate this. Although the body begins to try to settle with
the demands of the environment, yet the body cannot continue this up indefinitely, so its
resources gradually depletes.
 Exhaustion is the end level of this model. In this stage, not only all the resources of a
body stops but also not able to continue with the normal activities or daily functions.
Here, the initial symptoms of an autonomic nervous system may rematerialize or recur
(increased heart rate, sweating etc.) if this level exists continuously, adrenal gland will be
damaged and the immune system will also get exhausted. The result can manifest itself in
obvious illnesses such as, depression, diabetes, problems with the digestive or
cardiovascular system along with other psychological illnesses.
Coping with Stress
Unhealthy Ways of Coping with Stress
These coping strategies may temporarily reduce stress, but they cause more damage in
the long run –
Learning Healthier Ways to Manage Stress

Stress Management Strategy (SMS)

SMS # 1 Avoid Unnecessary Stress:

 Not all stress can be avoided, and it’s not healthy to avoid a situation that needs to be
addressed. You may be surprised, however, by the number of stressors in your life that
you can eliminate.
 Learn how to say ‘no’ - Know your limits and stick to them. Whether in your personal or
professional life, refuse to accept added responsibilities when you’re close to reaching
them. Taking on more than you can handle is a surefire recipe for stress.
 Avoid people who stress you out - If someone consistently causes stress in your life and
you can’t turn the relationship around, limit the amount of time you spend with that
person or end the relationship entirely.
 Take control of your environment - If the evening news makes you anxious, turn the TV
off. If traffic’s got you tense, take a longer but less-traveled route. If going to the market
is an unpleasant chore, do your grocery shopping online.
 Avoid hot-button topics - If you get upset over religion or politics, cross them off your
conversation list. If you repeatedly argue about the same subject with the same people,
stop bringing it up or excuse yourself when it’s the topic of discussion.
 Pare down your to-do list - Analyze your schedule, responsibilities, and daily tasks. If
you’ve got too much on your plate, distinguish between the ‘shoulds’ and the ‘musts’.
Drop tasks that aren’t truly necessary to the bottom of the list or eliminate them entirely.

SMS # 2 Alter the Situation:

 If you can’t avoid a stressful situation, try to alter it. Figure out what you can do to
change things so the problem doesn’t present itself in the future. Often, this involves
changing the way you communicate and operate in your daily life.
  Express your feelings instead of bottling them up. If something or someone is bothering
you, communicate your concerns in an open and respectful way. If you don’t voice your
feelings, resentment will build and the situation will likely remain the same.
 Be willing to compromise. When you ask someone to change their behavior, be willing
to do the same. If you both are willing to bend at least a little, you’ll have a good chance
of finding a happy middle ground.
 Be more assertive. Don’t take a backseat in your own life. Deal with problems head on,
doing your best to anticipate and prevent them. If you’ve got an exam to study for and
your chatty roommate just got home, say up front that you only have five minutes to talk.
 Manage your time better. Poor time management can cause a lot of stress. When you’re
stretched too thin and running behind, it’s hard to stay calm and focused. But if you plan
ahead and make sure you don’t overextend yourself, you can alter the amount of stress
you’re under.

SMS # 3 Adapt to the Stressor

 If you can’t change the stressor, change yourself. You can adapt to stressful situations
and regain your sense of control by changing your expectations and attitude.
 Reframe problems. Try to view stressful situations from a more positive perspective.
Rather than fuming about a traffic jam, look at it as an opportunity to pause and regroup,
listen to your favorite radio station, or enjoy some alone time.
 Look at the big picture. Take perspective of the stressful situation. Ask yourself how
important it will be in the long run. Will it matter in a month? A year? Is it really worth
getting upset over? If the answer is no, focus your time and energy elsewhere.
 Adjust your standards. Perfectionism is a major source of avoidable stress. Stop setting
yourself up for failure by demanding perfection. Set reasonable standards for yourself
and others, and learn to be okay with ‘good enough’.
 Focus on the positive. When stress is getting you down, take a moment to reflect on all
the things you appreciate in your life, including your own positive qualities and gifts.
This simple strategy can help you keep things in perspective.
 Adjusting your attitude. How you think can have a profound effect on your emotional
and physical well-being. Each time you think a negative thought about yourself, your
body reacts as if it were in the throes of a tension-filled situation. If you see good things
about yourself, you are more likely to feel good; the reverse is also true. Eliminate words
 such as ‘always’, ‘never’, ‘should’, and ‘must’.These are telltale marks of self-defeating
thoughts.

SMS # 4 Accept the Things You Can’t Change:

 Some sources of stress are unavoidable. You can’t prevent or change stressors such as the
death of a loved one, a serious illness, or a national recession. In such cases, the best way
to cope with stress is to accept things as they are. Acceptance may be difficult, but in the
long run, it’s easier than railing against a situation you can’t change.
 Don’t try to control the uncontrollable. Many things in life are beyond our control
particularly the behavior of other people. Rather than stressing out over them, focus on
the things you can control such as the way you choose to react to problems.
 Look for the upside. As the saying goes, “What doesn’t kill us makes us stronger”. When
facing major challenges, try to look at them as opportunities for personal growth. If your
own poor choices contributed to a stressful situation, reflect on them and learn from your
mistakes.
 Share your feelings. Talk to a trusted friend or make an appointment with a therapist.
Expressing what you’re going through can be very cathartic, even if there’s nothing you
can do to alter the stressful situation.
 Learn to forgive. Accept the fact that we live in an imperfect world and that people make
mistakes. Let go of anger and resentments. Free yourself from negative energy by
forgiving and moving on.

SMS # 5 Make Time for Fun and Relaxation:

 Beyond a take-charge approach and a positive attitude, you can reduce stress in your life
by nurturing yourself. If you regularly make time for fun and relaxation, you’ll be in a
better place to handle life’s stressors when they inevitably come. Don’t get so caught up
in the hustle and bustle of life that you forget to take care of your own needs. Nurturing
yourself is a necessity, not a luxury.
 Set aside relaxation time. Include rest and relaxation in your daily schedule. Don’t allow
other obligations to encroach. This is your time to take a break from all responsibilities
and recharge your batteries.
 Connect with others. Spend time with positive people who enhance your life. A strong
support system will buffer you from the negative effects of stress.
  Do something you enjoy every day. Make time for leisure activities that bring you joy,
whether it be stargazing, playing the piano, or working on your bike.
 Keep your sense of humor. This includes the ability to laugh at yourself. The act of
laughing helps your body fight stress in a number of ways.

SMS # 6 Adopt a Healthy Lifestyle:

 You can increase your resistance to stress by strengthening your physical health.

How Can You Relieve Stress?

You will feel better if you can find ways to get stress out of your system. The best
ways to relieve stress are different for each person. Try some of these ideas to see
which ones work for you -
 Exercise. Regular exercise is one of the best ways to manage stress. Walking is a great
way to get started.
 Write. It can help to write about the things that are bothering you.
 Let your feelings out. Talk, laugh, cry, and express anger when you need to with
someone you trust. Do something you enjoy. A hobby can help you relax. Volunteer
work or work that helps others can be a great stress reliever.
 Learn ways to relax your body. This can include breathing exercises, muscle relaxation
exercises, massage, aromatherapy, yoga, or relaxing exercises.
 Focus on the present. Try meditation, imagery exercises, or self-hypnosis. Listen to
relaxing music. Try to look for the humor in life. Laughter really can be the best
medicine.

Some of the important ways of stress management are:

• • Affiliation – involves dealing with stress by turning to a social network for
support.
• • Humor – the individual steps outside of a situation in order to gain greater
perspective, and also to highlight any comic aspect to be found in their stressful
circumstances.
• • Sublimation – allows an “indirect resolution of conflict with neither adverse
consequences nor consequences marked by loss of pleasure. Essentially, this mechanism
 allows channeling of troubling emotions or impulses into an outlet that is socially
acceptable.
• • Positive reappraisal – redirects thoughts to good things that are either
occurring or have not occurred. This can lead to personal growth, self-reflection, and
awareness of the power/benefits of one's efforts.
• • Displacement - This is when an individual redirects their emotional feelings
about one situation to another, less threatening one.
• • Repression – Repression occurs when an individual attempts to remove all their
thoughts, feelings, and anything related to the stressful situation out of their awareness in
order to be disconnected from the entire situation.
• • Reaction formation – An individual substitutes their feelings or thoughts or
behavior with the exact opposite.
• • Acting out – Often viewed as counter-normative, or problematic behavior.
Instead of reflecting or problem-solving, an individual takes maladaptive action.
• • Passive aggression – When an individual indirectly deals with his or her anxiety
and negative thoughts originating from their stress by acting in a hostile or resentful
manner towards others.

Depending on the situation, all of these coping mechanisms may be adaptive, or maladaptive.
Relaxation Techniques
1. Deep Breathing
Sit with your legs uncrossed, good posture, and place your hands on your thighs. Close
your eyes. Inhale deeply through your nose into your abdomen for a long count of five
seconds (your chest should move only a little). Hold for a long count of two seconds, then
breathe out slowly through your mouth for a long count of five. Repeat for 10 to 15
cycles. Stop briefly if you feel light-headed.
2. Progressive Muscle Relaxation
Loosen any tight clothing, sit or lie comfortably, and close your eyes. Tense different
muscles of your body as much as you can for at least a count of 10 (never so tight or long
that it hurts!). Then, slowly release the tension and allow the muscle to relax. Let that
feeling of relaxation flow through your body. Start at your feet and move up.
3. Creative Visualisation
This is a technique where you imagine a scene, place or situation you regard as safe, restful, and
happy. Sit comfortably in a quiet place. Breathe gently through your nose, eyes closed. Picture in
your mind the place you like –a forest, the beach, a field. Try and smell the aromas, taste the air,
hear the sounds. Feel your body relax. Continue for at least 10 minutes.

Developing Positive thinking and Assertiveness

Positive thinking is an important aspect of stress management. Positive thinking just
means that you approach the unpleasantness in a more positive and productive way. You
think the best is going to happen, not the worst. Positive thinking often starts with self-
talk. Self-talk is the endless stream of unspoken thoughts that run through your head
every day. These automatic thoughts can be positive or negative. Some of your self-talk
comes from logic and reason. Other self-talk may arise from misconceptions that you
create because of lack of information. If the thoughts that run through your head are
mostly negative, your outlook on life is more likely pessimistic. If your thoughts are
mostly positive, you're likely an optimist —someone who practices positive thinking.
The benefits that positive thinking may provide include:
• • Increased life span
• • Lower rates of depression
• • Lower levels of distress
• • Greater resistance to the common cold
• • Better psychological and physical well-being
• • Reduced risk of death from cardiovascular disease
• • Better coping skills during hardships and times of stress

Developing Assertiveness
Some people are naturally more assertive than others. If your disposition tends more
towards being either passive or aggressive, you need to work on the following skills to
develop your assertiveness. Some important ways to develop assertiveness are:
Value yourself and your rights
 Understand that your rights, thoughts, feelings, needs and desires are just as important as
everyone else's.
 Recognise your rights and protect them.
 Believe you deserve to be treated with respect and dignity at all times.
 Stop apologizing for everything.
 Identify your needs and wants, and ask for them to be satisfied.
 Don't wait for someone to recognize what you need
 Understand that to perform to your full potential, your needs must be met.
 Find ways to get your needs met without sacrificing others' needs in the process.

 Acknowledge that people are responsible for their own behavior.

 Don't make the mistake of accepting responsibility for the how people react to your
 •assertive statements
 •As long as you are not violating someone else's needs, then you have the right to say or
do what you want.

 Express negative thoughts and feelings in a healthy and positive manner.

 Allow yourself to be angry, but always be respectful.
 Do say what's on your mind, but do it in a way that protects the other person's feelings.
 Control your emotions.
 Stand up for yourself and confront people who challenge you and/or your rights.

 Receive criticism and compliments positively.

 Accept compliments graciously.
 Allow yourself to make mistakes and ask for help.
 Accept feedback positively – be prepared to say you don't agree but do not get defensive
or angry.

 Learn to say "No" when you need to.

 Know your limits and what will cause you to feel taken advantage of.
 Know that you can't do everything or please everyone and learn to be OK with that.
 Go with what is right for you.
 Suggest an alternative for a win-win solution.
Being assertive means knowing where the fine line is between assertion and aggression and
balancing on it. It means having a strong sense of yourself and acknowledging that you deserve
to get what you want. And it means standing up for yourself even in the most difficult situations.
Assertiveness can be learned and developed, and although it won't happen overnight, by
practicing the techniques presented here you will slowly become more confident in expressing
your needs and wants. As your assertiveness improves, so will your productivity and efficiency.

LIFE SKILL FOR TIME MANAGEMENT

 Time management is the act or process of planning and exercising conscious control over
the amount of time spent on specific activities, especially to increase effectiveness,
efficiency or productivity.
 In short, it is the way you organize and plan how long you will spend on things that you
need to do.
 By learning how to manage your time you will be able to –

Time can be categorized into three general types:

 Predictable Time: Such activities as classes, organization meetings, team practice,

eating and sleeping. If you know the cafeteria is open between 7:00am and 7:30 pm you
should plan to eat sometime between that block of time.

 Discretionary Time: This is uncommitted time that should be planned in a manner

consistent with your lifestyle and to accomplish the priorities in your life.

 Other-imposed Time: It is unpredictable time. Activities including emergencies, job or

school related assignments and people dropping by to visi
Techniques for better time management

 Establish a Timetable: Schedule fixed commitments e.g. lectures, tutorials, sports

training. Also schedule in due dates for assignments, projects etc.- it is useful to bring
these dates forward by a few days to give you that extra time that can provide you with an
opportunity to reflect and that can also compensate for the unexpected, e.g. illnesses.
Decide how you can best use the remaining time, recognizing the importance of
allocating time for recreation, socializing, family, self etc.
 Plan Your Day: Begin each day with a list of things you both ‘have to’ and ‘want to’
accomplish. It is better to have more items on your list than less. A task will tend to
expand with the time allocated for it. If you have one or two items on your list it is likely
to take all day to do them. However if you have ten items on your list you may not
complete all ten but you are likely to have completed seven or eight during the same
allocation of time. A full day is better than an empty day.
 Prioritize the List: This is about knowing what is important. Rate the tasks in order of
priority, and tackle them in order of importance doing the most important first. Tasks can
be grouped in four categories - urgent and important; not urgent but important; urgent but
not important; and neither urgent nor important. People with good time management
create time to concentrate on non-urgent, important activities. By so doing, they
minimize the chances of activities ever becoming urgent and important.
 Practice the 4 Ds: We can spend up to half our working day going through our email
inbox, making us tired, frustrated and unproductive. A study has found that one-in-three
office workers suffer from email stress. Making a decision the first time you open an
email is crucial for effective time management. To manage this burden effectively, it
advises practicing the 4 Ds of decision-making -
o Delete - half of the emails you get can probably be deleted immediately.
o Do - if the email is urgent or can be completed quickly.
o Delegate - if the email can be better dealt with by someone else.
o Defer - set aside time at a later date to spend on emails that require longer
action.
 Work Out Your Goals: This first step towards improving your time management is to ask
yourself some questions. “Work out who you want to be, your priorities in life, and what
you want to achieve in your career or personal life”. That is then the guiding principle for
how you spend your time and how you manage it. Once you have worked out the big
 picture, even if it’s quite general, you can then work out some short-term and medium-
term goals. Knowing your goals will help you plan better and focus on the things that will
help you achieve those goals.
 Make a List: A common time-management mistake is trying to remember too many
details, leading to information overload. A better way to stay organized and take control
of your projects and tasks is to use a to-do list to write things down.
 Work Smarter, not Harder: Good time management at work means doing highquality
work, not high quantity. It advises concentrating not on how busy you are but on results.
Spending more time on something doesn’t necessarily achieve more. Staying an extra
hour at work at the end of the day may not be the most effective way to manage your
time.
 Organize Your Place of Work: Ensure that your study area is a pleasant environment.
Organize your books, papers etc. so that they are easily accessed, searching for things is a
big time waster. Have a tidy desk.
 Know Your Peak Times: Decide when you have most energy as this corresponds with
when you are most able to focus and concentrate. Schedule your most demanding work
for these times and less demanding work for other times when energy is not as high.
 Study Strategy: Study for about an hour at a time then have a short break. This is an
efficient study method because while you are taking a break the brain is still processing
the information. Breaks between study blocks also ensure that your levels of
concentration are more likely to be maintained.
 Divide and Conquer: A large assignment or project may appear overwhelming however it
becomes manageable and achievable when broken down into several smaller parts.
Complete one part at a time.
 Allocate Thinking and Reflection Time: After having completed a piece of writing it can
be very useful to leave it for a day or two and then to return to it with new ideas and
enthusiasm. Effective time management can allow you the space to do this.
 Avoid Procrastination: Develop strategies that help you resist being hindered by
procrastination. Make decisions that are valuing of you and undermining of
procrastination. It can be useful to start early in the day. Completing one small task soon
after waking up is very empowering and can reduce the risk of procrastination. Reward
yourself when you have successfully resisted procrastination and completed your tasks.
  Learn How to Deal with Interruptions: Let the person interrupting you know that you are
studying and that you really need to continue. Effective time-management allows you
free time so learn how to politely and assertive
 Take Care of Yourself: Ensure that your diet is nutritional, that you get sufficient sleep,
that you get enough exercise and have time to ‘smell the roses’, plan an hour each day for
‘Me Time’.
 Make Time for a Social Life: Ensure that you schedule time for socializing, catching up
with friends, seeing a movie, visiting family members etc. This contributes to achieving
balance in your life which is beneficial to effective study.
 Spirituality: Life is more than study and work. Give yourself time to explore the spiritual
dimension and reflect on the amazing journey that is your life. Keep the big picture in
mind - value yourself and what you want to achieve in your life.
 Save Energy: To save it you need to know where and how you’re losing it. Eliminate
negative feelings; criticism of others; defensiveness for self. As you do this, a surplus of
energy will result.

Tools for Time Management

Put ‘first things first’ and prioritize: The significance of importance and urgency in
choosing our actions is illustrated in the chart below created by Stephen Covey,
author of the book “The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People”.
ABOUT ANXIETY

 Anxiety is a normal response to stress experienced by everyone.

 In its milder form, anxiety can energize and motivate you.
 In its more extreme form, anxiety prepares you for action (i.e. to fight or flee).
 Anxiety becomes problematic when it is ■ too intense ■ persists ■ interferes with life

Some Common Symptoms of Anxiety

PHYSICAL

 ■ Trembling
 ■ Muscle Tension
 ■ Shortness Of Breath
 ■ Accelerated Heart Rate
 ■ Heart Palpitations
 ■ Sweating
 ■ Cold, Clammy Hands
 ■ Dizziness
 ■ Dry Mouth
 ■ Easily Startled
 ■ Fatigue
 ■ Frequent Urination
 ■ Trouble Swallowing
 ■ Reduced Appetite/Nausea/Diarrhea
 ■ Headaches

BEHAVIOURAL

 ■ Avoidance
 ■ Disturbed Sleep
 ■ Not Attending Classes
 ■ Procrastination
 ■ Increased Alcohol Use
 ■ Increased Caffeine Use
 ■ Distractibility
 ■ Restlessness
COGNITIVE

 ■ Repetitive Thoughts
 ■ Negative Self-Talk
 ■ Disorientation
 ■ Thoughts Of Dying
 ■ Thoughts Of Going Crazy
 ■ Thoughts Of Being Out Of Control
 ■ Persistent Worries
 ■ Difficulty Concentrating
 ■ Frightening Images

The six main categories of anxiety disorders are phobias, panic disorder (with or without
agoraphobia), generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, acute stress disorder
and posttraumatic stress disorder (American Psychiatric Association [apa], 2000). Each of these
anxiety disorders is distinct in some ways, but they all share the same hallmark features:

• irrational and excessive fear

• apprehensive and tense feelings
• difficulty managing daily tasks and/or distress related to these tasks

OVERCOMING ANXIETY

Self-treatment

There are several exercises and actions to help a person cope with milder, more focused, or
shorter-term anxiety disorders, including:

 Stress management: Learning to manage stress can help limit potential triggers.
Organize any upcoming pressures and deadlines, compile lists to make daunting tasks
more manageable, and commit to taking time off from study or work.

 Relaxation techniques: Simple activities can help soothe the mental and physical signs
of anxiety. These techniques include meditation, deep breathing exercises, long baths,
resting in the dark, and yoga.

 Exercises to replace negative thoughts with positive ones: Make a list of the negative
thoughts that might be cycling as a result of anxiety, and write down another list next to it
containing positive, believable thoughts to replace them. Creating a mental image of
 successfully facing and conquering a specific fear can also provide benefits if anxiety
symptoms relate to a specific cause, such as in a phobia.

 Support network: Talk with familiar people who are supportive, such as a family
member or friend. Support group services may also be available in the local area and
online.

 Exercise: Physical exertion can improve self-image and release chemicals in the brain
that trigger positive feelings.

Counseling

 A standard way of treating anxiety is psychological counseling. This can include

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), psychotherapy, or a combination of therapies.

CBT

 This type of psychotherapy aims to recognize and change harmful thought patterns that
form the foundation of anxious and troublesome feelings. In the process, practitioners of
CBT hope to limit distorted thinking and change the way people react to objects or
situations that trigger anxiety.

For example, a psychotherapist providing CBT for panic disorder will try to reinforce the fact
that panic attacks are not really heart attacks. Exposure to fears and triggers can be a part of
CBT. This encourages people to confront their fears and helps reduce sensitivity to their usual
triggers of anxiety.

Medications

 A person can support anxiety management with several types of medication.

 Medicines that might control some of the physical and mental symptoms
include antidepressants, benzodiazepines, tricyclics, and beta-blockers.
 Benzodiazepines: A doctor may prescribe these for certain people with anxiety, but they
can be highly addictive. These drugs tend to have few side effects except for drowsiness
and possible dependence. Diazepam, or Valium, is an example of a commonly prescribed
benzodiazepine.
 Antidepressants: These commonly help with anxiety, even though they also target
depression. People often use serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI), which have fewer side
 effects than older antidepressants but are likely to cause jitters, nausea, and sexual
dysfunction when treatment begins.
 Other antidepressants include fluoxetine, or Prozac, and citalopram, or Celexa.
 Tricyclics: This is a class of drugs older than SSRIs that provide benefits for most anxiety
disorders other than OCD. These drugs might cause side effects, including dizziness,
drowsiness, dry mouth, and weight gain. Imipramine and clomipramine are two examples
of tricyclics.
 Additional drugs a person might use to treat anxiety include:

 monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)

 beta-blockers
 buspirone
Seek medical advice if the adverse effects of any prescribed medications become severe.

Prevention

 There are ways to reduce the risk of anxiety disorders. Remember that anxious feelings
are a natural factor of daily life, and experiencing them does not always indicate the
presence of a mental health disorder.
 Take the following steps to help moderate anxious emotions:

o Reduce intake of caffeine, tea, cola, and chocolate.

o Before using over-the-counter (OTC) or herbal remedies, check with a doctor or
pharmacist for any chemicals that may make anxiety symptoms worse.
o Maintain a healthy diet.
o Keep a regular sleep pattern.
o Avoid alcohol, cannabis, and other recreational drug

GOAL SETTING AND PLANNING

Goal Setting theory

 Professor Edwin A Locke (born 1938) is an American psychologist and a pioneer in goal
setting theory.
 Locke developed his Goal Setting Theory in 1968 in order to explain human actions in
specific work situations.
 The theory argues that goals and intentions drive human behav- ior.
 They also are determined by our values and beliefs.
 Firstly, the goal must be accepted and acknowledged; and secondly, feedback must be used
to develop areas of weakness.
 Giving feedback on the strategies that are used to obtain goals is very important, especially
for complex work, as challenging goals place emphasis on the final outcome rather than on
performance strategies.
 There are 3 types of goals: Outcome goals, process goals, and performance goals.

 Based on time : Short-Term Goals Long-Term Goals

There are three goal-setting methods

o 4C F—Clarity, Challenge, Complexity, Commitment & Feedback.
o SMART—Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic & Timely.
o Backward Goal Setting—work back from the end goal.

 These methods complement each other. The first, ‘4C F,’ is derived from the academic
research of Dr Edwin Locke and Dr Gary Latham in the 1960s. This method encourages you
to think about a goal in its widest sense and is complemented by using the second method,
SMART, to then state the goal in a specific way

Method 1—4c f

 The work of Dr Edwin Locke and Dr Gary Latham in the 1960s stated that there are five
fundamental principles for setting effective goals. They also said that the extent to which
these principles existed within the goal related directly to the achievement of that goal. Those
principles are:
 Clarity
o To help understand what you wish to achieve at this stage it is useful to look at the
defini- tion of the word ‘clarity’: ‘Clearness or lucidity as to perception or
understanding; freedom from indis- tinctness or ambiguity.’
 Challenge
o A challenge can be defined as: ‘A call or summons to engage in any contest, as of
skill, strength.’
 Complexity
o One definition of the word complex is: ‘Complex—composed of many interconnected
parts.’
 Commitment
o Before anyone commits himself or herself to a goal they will probably want to see
evidence that there are sufficient resources available. Without these resources they
will not be able to achieve the desired goal and this is an essential element in gaining
commitment
 Feedback
o Once you have set a goal and delegated the task, it is vital that you not only monitor
progress but also provide regular feedback to the team member

Method 2—SMART

Specific

Very often, when you examine a particular goal, you will find that it can be broken down into
separate, more specific goals. The first step in this process is to ask the five ‘W’ questions:

 What: What do I want to accomplish?

 Why: Specific reasons for, or purpose or benefits of accomplishing the goal.
 Who: Who is involved?
 Where: Identify a location.
 Which: Identify requirements and constraints.

Measurable
 The second term stresses the need for concrete criteria for measuring progress toward the
attainment of the goal.
 The thought behind this is that if a goal is not measurable, it is not possible to know whether
a team is making progress towards successful completion.
 Measuring progress will help a team stay on track, reach its target dates, and experience the
sense of achievement that spurs it on to the continued effort that is required to reach the goal.
 A measurable goal will usually answer questions such as:
o How many?
o How much?
o How will I know it’s accomplished?
Attainable or Achievable
 There is little point in setting a goal that is either too difficult to achieve or beyond your
capabilities, as this will only serve to de-motivate you and destroy your self-confidence.
 The importance of being able to accomplish a goal is equally vital when you are setting
goals for others, as it is for yourself.
 When setting a goal you must use your knowledge and current skills as a barometer for
ensuring that the goal is ‘attainable.’

Relevant
 Goals that are relevant to your boss, your team, and your organization will receive the needed
support. A relevant goal can answer ‘yes’ to these questions:
o Is it worth the cost & resources required?
o Is this the right time to be doing it?
o Does it fit in with our overall strategy?
 A simple test to discover a goal’s relevance can be judged by asking: ‘If I don’t accept this
goal is there any detrimental effect on, or is an opportu- nity missed for, the organization or
an individual?’

Time Bound
 It is essential that goals have a timeframe or target date.
 A commitment to a deadline helps a team focus their efforts towards completion of the goal
and prevents goals from being overtaken by other, unrelated routine tasks that may arise.
 A time-restrained goal is intended to establish a sense of urgency.

Method 3—Backwards Goal Setting

 The third method of goal setting we will discuss is known as ‘Backwards Goal Setting.’ As
the name suggests, the principle is to work backwards from what you want to achieve.
 By working backwards from your end target, you can then establish all of the steps that will
be required to be taken.
 This method will quickly demonstrate how realistic your goal is within the timeframe you
have chosen to work within.
 By using this method you can swiftly identify key milestones and dependencies.
 This method keeps you focused on working effectively and incorporates only those resources
you currently have at your disposal.
 Module 4

 Life skill in different area:

 Life skill for preventing addiction-

 life skill for career planning and development-

 life skill for women empowerment-life skill training for various groups

(Adolescents, youth).
Life Skill for Preventing Addiction

 Research has shown that life skills programs are the most effective single activity in school-
based substance abuse prevention.
 2004 national survey report recommends a broad prevention programme to prevent onset of
drug use • Accurate information • Life skills training
 Life Skills Training (LST) program is an effective primary prevention program for
adolescent drug abuse that addresses the risk and protective factors associated with drug use
initiation and teaches skills related to social resistance and enhancing social and personal
competence
 Over the past two decades, the LST program has been shown to be highly effective in a series
of randomized, controlled efficacy studies and two large-scale effectiveness trials. Evaluation
studies have consistently shown reductions in smoking, alcohol use, and marijuana use of
50% or more in students receiving the LST program relative to controls, as well as reductions
in illicit drug use and improvements in a host of important risk and protective factors for
adolescent drug abuse.
 Furthermore, prevention effects with the LST program have been found with a number of
different program providers, with students from different geographic regions (e.g., urban,
suburban, rural), socioeconomic, and racial-ethnic backgrounds.
 Based on this body of evidence, the LST program has been identified by many federal
agencies as one of the most effective prevention approaches currently available. LST has
earned national recognition from the American Psychological Association

Program Overview and Core Components

 The LST prevention program consists of three major components.
 The first component is designed to teach students a set of general self-management skills,
and the second focuses on general social skills. These two components are designed to
enhance personal and social competence and to decrease motivations to use drugs and
vulnerability to social influences that support drug use.
 The third component of LST focuses on information and skills that are specific to drug use in
order to promote drug resistance skills, antidrug attitudes, and antidrug norms.
An Overview of Substance Abuse
 The phenomenon of substance abuse is not limited to the use of hard drugs alone.
 The excessive use of addictive substances such as opioids, OTC drugs, tobacco, alcohol, and
marijuana also falls within the ambit of substance abuse.
 This types of addiction can have a negative effect not only on the individual but also on their
family, community, and social circle as a whole.
 Tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, as well as opioids and stimulants of various kinds, can affect
the mental and physical health of an individual.
 These substances, being highly addictive, can also ruin a person physically, emotionally, and
financially.
 Due to these reasons, schools, colleges, health centers, and communities must work together
to ensure that teenagers and young adults are made aware of the dangers of substance abuse,
and its potential consequences, as soon as possible.

Substance Abuse Among Teenagers and Adolescents

 Teenagers and adolescents are particularly vulnerable to the allure of addictive substances for
many reasons.
 Moreover, as the teenage brain is still developing, drug use can have long-term behavioral
and cognitive effects on adolescents. As of 2017, 16.6 percent of 12th graders have engaged
in binge drinking and more than 10 percent have used traditional tobacco products such as
hookah and cigarettes.
 Some of the reasons why adolescents are more likely to consume illicit or addictive
substances have been listed below:
 Curiosity: Being younger, adolescents typically have less life experience and therefore
have a greater amount of curiosity and naivety. They are curious about the world and are
eager to try new things. They are also relatively unaware of the potential negative
consequences of addiction and its associated problems. This is one of the major reasons
why they can be easily lured into trying drugs, alcohol, tobacco, and addictive
substances.
 Peer Pressure: Adolescents crave acceptance and camaraderie within their peer group
and are therefore more susceptible to the effects of peer pressure than adults. As a result,
they may try drugs or alcohol just to impress their friends or avoid rejection, even when
they do not personally enjoy the experience. Therefore, adolescents, who are surrounded
 by addicts, are more likely to succumb to peer pressure and try drugs and alcohol
themselves.
 Stress: The world is full of potential sources of stress and many adolescents have not yet
developed the coping mechanisms to deal with stress in a healthy and productive manner.
Stress caused by studies, exams, school, and relationships can all drive adolescents to try
and seek relief in the form of drugs, alcohol, opioids, etc. Therefore, youngsters must be
taught early on to effectively manage their emotions, in order to avoid such an outcome.

Life Skills Training for Substance Abuse Prevention

 The above-mentioned facts and figures are some of the reasons why life skills training are
such an important part of any credible substance abuse prevention program.
 Children, adolescents, and young adults need to be taught the essential skills needed for
dealing with the problems and adversities of life in a healthy and productive manner, without
resorting to drugs and alcohol as a crutch in times of hardship.
 Thus, life skills training can go a long way in helping youngsters deal with the
aforementioned issues while avoiding destructive behavior like substance abuse.

 Some of the core life skills taught to students at a good substance abuse prevention program
include:
 Resistance: Adolescents and young adults need to be taught the necessary skills needed
for resisting the efforts and encouragement of their peers to make them use addictive
substances. They need to be taught how to avoid such situations where they are
pressurized to consume drugs or alcohol. They must also learn how to deal with such
situations if they do happen to be caught up in them for some reason, in the absence of an
adult or teacher.
 Decision making: Teenagers need to be taught how to make crucial decisions within a
short period of time, under stressful and dangerous circumstances. They have to learn
how to weigh the pros and cons of every available option before making the choice that
will be the most beneficial for them in the long term. This skill will help them say no to
drugs even when it offers an easy short-term solution to their problems.
 Self-management: A good life skills training program must teach students how to
manage feelings of stress, anxiety, loneliness, rejection, and alienation. Such feelings are
not uncommon during the teenage years and may drive adolescents to consume drugs and
alcohol if they are not properly managed and channeled in the right direction.
  Social Communication: Social and effective communication skills are essential for
communicating in an effective manner and avoiding unnecessary misunderstandings.
Effective communication and social skills can also help at-risk adolescents seek the
necessary support and help from their community, that they need to lead a healthy and
addiction-free life. Youngsters can also use their communication skills to share their
feelings of loneliness, stress, and isolation with friends and loved ones.

Overview of Life Skills-based Approach for Drug Education in Schools

 Following is an overview of drug education components, including teaching methodologies
appropriate for delivery of these components.
 Two key components of programs include:
(i) Content -drug specific Knowledge, Attitudes and Skills (K.A.S.)
(ii) Teaching Methodology
LIFE SKILL FOR CAREER PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

 Career refers to the progress and actions taken by a person throughout a lifetime, especially
related to that person's occupations. A career is often composed of the jobs held, titles earned
and work accomplished over a long period of time, rather than just referring to one position.
Choosing a Career is a crucial step in a person’s life.
 The decision of a career requires much care and thought. Selecting a Career is a process
which involves different steps. Some of the important steps to be followed in choosing a
Career includes Career Planning, Career management etc.

Career Planning
 Career planning may be defined as “A goal that you desire to achieve in a selected field or
occupation with a well thought out plan to get you there.”

Meaning of Career Planning

 A career pertains to all jobs that are held during ones ‘life.
 Edwin B. Flippo defined a career as a sequence of separate but related work activities that
provides continuity, order and meaning in a person’s life.
 Douglass T Hall defined a career as “an individual perceived sequence of attitudes and
behavior associated with work related experience and activities over the span of person’s
life”.
 Writher and Davis defines various terms of career planning as hereunder;
 A career path is the sequential pattern of jobs that form a career.
 Career goals are the future positions one strives for as a part of a career.
 Career planning is the process by which one selects career goals and path to these goals.
 Career development is those personal improvements one undertakes to achieve a personal
career plan.
 Career management is the process of designing and implementing goals, plans and strategies
to enable the organization to satisfy employees needs while allowing the individual to
achieve their career goals.

 A career goal helps you focus and make decisions on what you want to do for a living. It
directs you, motivates you and helps you to accomplish what you want. A career goal helps
 you focus and make decisions on what you want to do for a living. A career goal can be a
specific job—such as a clerk or teacher—or a career goal can be a particular field you want
to work in, such as transportation or education.
 Career planning is estimating, predicting and calculating all the steps necessary to achieving
your goals. The career planning process can be divided into six steps:
1. Self-Assessment
2. Career Exploration
3. Targeting
4. Career Preparation
5. Marketing Yourself
6. Career Management

Career guidance centres

 Career guidance centres help to assess people's interests, personality, values and skills,
and also help them explore career options and research graduate and professional schools.
 Career counseling provides one-on-one or group professional assistance in exploration
and decision making tasks related to choosing a major/occupation, or further professional
training. The field is vast and includes career placement, career planning, learning
strategies and student development.
 One of the major functions of Career guidance centres is to provide information and
guidance on Career opportunities.
 Some of the major sources of Career information are Job Fair, Career Magazines,
Computerised job Search etc.

Stages of Career Development

 There are five main stages of career development. Each stage correlates with attitudes,
behaviors, and relationships we all tend to have at that point and age.
 As we progress through each stage and reach the milestones identified, we prepare to
move on to the next one.
Table 1.1 CAREER DEVELOPMENT STAGES

STAGE DESCRIPTION

1 GROWING This is a time in early years (4–13 years old) when you begin to
have a sense about the future. You begin to realize that your
participation in the world is related to being able to do certain tasks
and accomplish certain goals.
2 EXPLORING This period begins when you are a teenager, and it extends into your
mid-twenties. In this stage you find that you have specific interests
and aptitudes. You are aware of your inclinations to perform and
learn about some subjects more than others. You may try out jobs in
your community or at your school. You may begin to explore a
specific career. At this stage, you have some detailed “data points”
about careers, which will guide you in certain directions.
3 ESTABLISHING This period covers your mid-twenties through mid-forties. By now
you are selecting or entering a field you consider suitable, and you
are exploring job opportunities that will be stable. You are also
looking for upward growth, so you may be thinking about an
advanced degree.
4 MAINTAINING This stage is typical for people in their mid-forties to mid-sixties.
You may be in an upward pattern of learning new skills and staying
engaged. But you might also be merely “coasting and cruising” or
even feeling stagnant. You may be taking stock of what you’ve
accomplished and where you still want to go.
5 REINVENTING In your mid-sixties, you are likely transitioning into retirement. But
retirement in our technologically advanced world can be just the
beginning of a new career or pursuit—a time when you can reinvent
yourself. There are many new interests to pursue, including teaching
others what you’ve learned, volunteering, starting online businesses,
consulting, etc.
LIFE SKILL FOR WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Concept of Empowerment of Women

 Empowerment literally means making or becoming powerful.
 Empowering actually means strengthening them to confirm family, community, caste and
traditional forces such as patriarchal forces. This inevitable confrontation ensures their
full participation in every aspect of social and economic development.
 The term is used to frame and facilitate the struggle for social justice and women’s
equality through the transformation of economic, social and political structures at the
national levels.
 Empowerment is an active, multidimensional process which enables women to realize
their full identity and powers in all spheres of life as a process to strengthen the elements
of the society. Empowerment is generally used to describe a process by which powerless
people, conscious of their own situation and organized collectively to gain greater access
to public services and to benefits of economic growth. Empowerment can take place at a
hierarchy of different levels- individual, household, community and societal.

The Goals of Women Empowerment are

 To challenge patriarchal ideology
 To transform the structure and institutions
 reinforce and perpetuate the gender discriminate and social inequality and
 To enable the poor women to gain access to and control of material and informational
resources. It can change power relations by addressing itself to the three dimensions of
material, human and intellectual resources.

Four dimensions of Empowerment are Distinguishable

 Power within- individual changes in confidence and consciousness
 Power to – increase in skills. Abilities including earning an income, access to markets
 Power over- change in power relations within the households, communities
 Power with organization of the powerless to enhance individual skills and abilities.
Thus it is a kind of social change beginning with individuals and progress through the collectives
of women empowered. Thus in order to empower women they should possess certain skills in
order to sustain in the day to –day living and raising their status in the society.

Life Skills for Women Empowerment: An Overview

Learning to know- Cognitive Abilities
 Information gathering skills - Evaluating future consequences of present action
for self and other determination,
 alternative solution to problems
 Skills of analysis of self and others on motivation
 Critical thinking skills

Learning to be - Personal Abilities

Skills for increasing internal focus of control
 Self-esteem – confidence building skills
 Self-awareness skills including awareness of rights, values, attitudes
 Goal setting skills
 Self-evaluation, self-assessment

Learning to Live Together- Interpersonal Abilities

Interpersonal communication skills – Verbal and non-verbal
 active listening
 Expression of feeling
 Negotiation and refusal skills
 Assertive skills
 Refusal skills
 Empathy
 Abilities to listen to and understand another need and circumstances and express that
underestimate, cooperation and team work.
 Advocacy skills
 Networking and motivation skills
 Skills influence and persuasion
Process

Empowerment as an individual and collective process is based on five principles

• Self reliance
• Self awareness
• Collective mobilization and organizations
• Capacity building
• External exposure and interaction

Empowerment is a long process. It passes through three stages.

 I Stage: women should be trained to look into the situation from different perspective
and recognize their power relation that perpetuates their oppression. At this stage, the
women share their feelings and experience with each other and build a common
vision and mission.
 II Stage: Women tried to change the situation by bringing about a change in their
gender and social relations.
 III Stage: The process of empowerment makes them more mature to realize the
importance of collective action.

Empowerment can be activated through Five Strategies

 To promote the level of awareness and information skills of women is an important part
of strategy. Awareness is the pre requisite for challenging the forces of oppression status.
It results in greater participation of women in decision making within and outside family.
 The economic approach emphasizes development of women’s skills, promotion of their
savings and investment and enlarged economic opportunities.
 The third approach namely development approach attributes poverty to their
powerlessness and adequate to access to health care. Education and services resources.
 Another approach advocates collective organization of women as well as gender
sensitization, gender planning and strategy and consciousness raising activities. More
recently, an organization approach has been advocated which believes that organized
women can alter the gender and social relations in public and private lives.
 Finally, political approach to empowerment believes that women can be developed on par
with men. This would require greater participation of women in active politics. Since the
 concept of empowerment with the individual and group level. Interventions are directed
at individual and collective level, similarly the output emanate both about the individual
and group level. Both the individuals and groups get empowered as a result of planned
interventions.

At the Individual Level

 Acquitting of literacy and numeracy skills
 Awareness of legal rights
 Awareness of state and development activities
 Critical political consciousness an, electoral process
 Enhanced social status as perceived by self and others.
 Freedom from money lenders, landlords
 Active role in organization of group and other political bodies, panchayat.
 Enhanced decision making powers within in the household

Group Level
 Perfection of self-management skills
 Presence of clear procedures and rules, attendance in regular meetings
 The group also acquires skills in problems identification, analysis and arriving at
 Solutions. They also represented in local government bodies
 Functioning of local schools, primary health centres
LIFE SKILL TRAINING FOR VARIOUS GROUPS (ADOLESCENTS, YOUTH)

ADOLESCENTS
 Adolescence is the period of developmental transition between childhood and adulthood,
involving multiple physical, intellectual, personality, and social developmental changes.
 We can observe high risk behaviour among the adolescents. Due to rapid growth and
changes they will fall in confusion and imbalance stage.
 World Health Organization (WHO) defines that individuals in the age group of 10-19 are
known as adolescents and this period/stage of human is Adolescence. Adolescence, a
vital stage of growth and development in humans and it marks the period of transition
from childhood to adulthood.

The following are the key issues and concerns of Adolescent Students.
Developing an Identity
 Self-awareness helps adolescents to understand themselves and establish their personal
identity. Lack of information and skills prevent them from effectively exploring their
potential and establishing a positive image and sound career perspective.
Managing Emotions
 Adolescents have frequent mood changes reflecting feelings of anger, sadness, happiness,
fear, shame, guilt, and love. Very often, they are unable to understand the emotional
turmoil. They do not have a supportive environment in order to share their concerns with
others. Counselling facilities are not available in most of the institutions.
Building Relationships
 As a part of growing up, adolescents redefine their relationships with parents, peers and
members of the opposite sex. Adults have high expectations from them and do not
understand their feelings.
 Adolescents need social skills for building positive and healthy relationships with others
including peer of opposite sex. They need to understand the importance of mutual respect
and socially defined boundaries of every relationship.
Resisting Peer Pressure
 Adolescents find it difficult to resist peer pressure. Some of them may yield to these
pressures and engage in experimentation. Aggressive self-conduct; irresponsible
behaviour and substance abuse involve greater risks with regard to physical and mental
 health. The experiment with smoking and milder drugs can lead to switching over to hard
drugs and addiction at a later stage.
Acquiring Information, Education and Services on issues of Adolescence
 Exposure to media and mixed messages from the fast changing world has left adolescents
with many unanswered questions. The widening gap in communication between
adolescents and parents is a matter of great concern. Teachers still feel inhibited to
discuss issues frankly and sensitively. Adolescents seek information from their peer
group who are also ill informed and some may fall prey to quacks. Fear and hesitation
prevents them from seeking knowledge on preventive methods and medical.

Communicating and Negotiating safer life situations

 Sexually active adolescents face greater health risks. Girls may also face mental and
emotional problems related to early sexual initiation. Resist the vulnerability to drug
abuse, violence and conflict with the law and the society.

Imparting Life Skills among Adolescents

 Life Skills education involves a dynamic teaching process. The methods used to facilitate
this active involvement.
 Method followed in teaching of Life Skills ought to be builds upon the social learning
theory and on what we know of how young people learn from their environment; from
observing how others behave and what consequences arise from behaviour.
 Any method should involve the process of Participatory learning using 4 basic
components:
 1. Practical activities
 2. Feedback and reflections
 3. Consolidation and reinforcement
 4. Practical application to day to day life challenges

Peer Educators Approach

 Peer Educators Approach is one of the best approaches to impart Life Skill Education.
 This approach, involves one teacher and 3-4 student representatives from each school
(forming the core Life Skills team) at the school.
 They learn these skills through active learning and participation in a 6 session inter
school training workshop programme. They further train their peers at school in these
 skills through the same process. They follow up with the main resource team for
feedback, discussions, training material etc. Each workshop is specially designed to
impart a particular skill and involves all or some of the techniques such as:
 Class discussions, Brainstorming, Demonstration and guided practice, Role plays,
Audio and visual activities e.g., arts, music, theatre, dance, Small groups,
Educational games and simulations, Situational Analysis and Case studies,
Storytelling, Debates, Decision mapping or problem trees.

Process to be followed while using the above techniques to impart Life Skills Education

Class discussions:
 Decide how to arrange seating for discussion
 Identify the goal of the discussion and communicate it clearly
 Pose meaningful, open-ended questions.
 Keep track of discussion progress

Brainstorming
 Designate a leader and a recorder
 State the issue or problem and ask for ideas
 Students may suggest any idea that comes to mind
 Do not discuss the ideas when they a first suggested
 Record ideas in a place where everyone can see them
 After brainstorming, review the ideas and add, delete, categorise

 Role plays
 Describe the situation to be role played
 Select role players
 Give instructions to role players
 Start the role play
 Discuss what happened

 Small groups
 State the purpose of discussion and the amount of time available
 Form small groups
  Position seating so that members can hear each other easily
 Ask group to appoint recorder
 At the end have recorder describe the groupȂs discussion
 Educational games and simulations

Games: Remind students that the activity is meant to be enjoyable and that it does not matter
who wins

Simulations
 Work best when they are brief and discussed immediately
 Students should be asked to imagine themselves in a situation or should play a
 structured game of activity to experience a feeling that might occur in another
 setting
 Situational Analysis and Case studies
 Guiding questions are useful to spur thinking and discussion
 Facilitator must be adept at teasing out the key points and step back and pose
 some bigger overarching questions
 Teacher must act as the facilitator and coach rather than the sole source of answer and
knowledge.

 Storytelling
 Keep the story simple and clear. Make one or two main points.
 Be sure the story (and pictures, if included) relate to the lives of the students.
 Make the story dramatic enough to be interesting. Try to include situations of happiness,
sadness, excitement, courage, serious thought, decisions, and problem solving
behaviours.

 Debates
 Allow students to take positions of their choosing if too many students take the
 same position, ask for volunteers to take the opposing point of view
 Provide students with time to research their topic.
 Do not allow students to dominate at the expenses of other speakers.
 Make certain that students show request for the opinions and thoughts of other debates.
 Maintain control in the classroom and keep the debate on topic.
YOUTH
 Life skills are a comprehensive set of universal cognitive and non-cognitive skills and
abilities, connecting behavior, attitudes, and knowledge, which youth can develop and
retain throughout their lives.
 Life skills increase young people’s well-being and help them to develop into active and
productive members of their communities.
 Life skills as the key to success for today’s youth Although young people around the
world are more and more likely to pursue formal education, upon graduation they often
find that they are not adequately prepared for the world of work.
 Because skills relevant to key growth sectors of the modern economy – both technical
and “soft” skills – are often not covered in traditional education systems, employers often
find a “skills mismatch” between the competencies youth need to succeed in the
workplace and those they actually possess.
 This is a critical challenge for today’s youth, and one key approach to overcoming this
challenge is through the provision of life skills training. The skills mismatch has
continued to grow with globalization and as many countries transition to a more service-
oriented economy.
 Employers are finding that regardless of their level of education, most new hires lack
communication and client-relations skills; organizational and prioritization skills such as
time-management; and flexibility and adaptability.
 Entry-level employees in many emerging markets may be technically overqualified, but
lack teamwork and interpersonal skills, making collaboration with colleagues and
problem-solving between team members difficult.
 These challenges are particularly important in light of the “youth bulge” – a peak number
of young people aged 15-24 – projected in the next several decades in almost all
developing countries.
 This can create a window of opportunity for economic growth by tapping into the
potential for increased productivity and higher earnings for young people – but only if
they are adequately equipped for the modern labor market.
 Hence, it is imperative that global and national economies be ready to reap the benefits of
this demographic trend and ensure that all youth have the opportunity to succeed. There
is growing awareness of the need for life skills training to help youth manage the
transition from school to work and become active, healthy citizens.
  Schools and universities are increasingly adding life skills as a part of the formal
curriculum, as an afterschool activity, or as a part of career guidance services – often with
the support of youth organizations that oversee or directly implement these training
programs.
 In addition, employers who see a need for improved life skills in their workplace,
especially for entry-level employees, are increasingly turning to youth organizations to
provide youth with on-the-job training. These are promising developments and indicate
the many opportunities for youth organizations to cooperate with the public and private
sectors for greater program impact

Life skills programs targeting youth in low- and middle-income countries have been shown to:

 Improve economic outcomes for youth: Life skills programs have been shown to
increase the earning potential of young people.In addition, they position youth to obtain
jobs of better quality and formality, measured by written contracts and employer-paid
insurance.
 Improve education outcomes for youth: Recent research has demonstrated that when
young people are provided interventions that include non-academic supports in social-
cognitive skills, learning outcomes improve as do completion/graduation rates.

 Increase employer satisfaction with new hires: Life skills programs strengthen young
people’s abilities in many areas that employers consider particularly important when
hiring new employees. Employers often report a higher level of satisfaction with entry-
level employees who have gone through life skills training than those who have not.

 Change personal behavior and social attitudes of youth: Life skills programs allow
youth to create a life plan and equip them with the skills to take steps toward achieving
their goals. They also help young people to better understand healthy personal behaviors,
thus decreasing outcomes such as teen pregnancies, drug and alcohol use, and
interpersonal violence. As a result, they help to increase young people’s sense of self-
esteem and expectations for their future and the future of their children.
Life skills for youth