COMPUTER NETWORKING

UNIT IV – INTERNETWORKING

CODE: IT 8137
FACILITATOR: FRANK
EMAIL: [email protected]
Internetworking Models
 When networks first came into being, computers
could typically communicate only with computers
from the same manufacturer.
 In the late 1970s, the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) reference model was created by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) to break this
barrier.
 The OSI model was meant to help vendors create
interoperable network devices and software in the
form of protocols so that different vendor networks
could work with each other.
 The OSI model is the primary architectural model for
networks that describes how data and network
information are communicated from an application on
one computer, through the network media, to an
application on another computer.

The Layered Approach

 A reference model is a conceptual blueprint of how
communications should take place.
 It addresses all the processes required for effective
communication and divides these processes into
logical groupings called layers
 When a communication system is designed in this
manner, it’s known as layered architecture.
Advantages of Reference Models
 It divides the network communication process into
smaller and simpler components, thus aiding
component development, design, and troubleshooting.
 It allows multiple-vendor development through
standardization of network components.
 It encourages industry standardization by defining
what functions occur at each layer of the model.
 It allows various types of network hardware and
software to communicate.
 It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other
layers, so it does not hamper development.
The OSI Reference Model
 The OSI isn’t a physical model, it’s a set of guidelines
that application developers can use to create and
implement applications that run on a network.
 It also provides a framework for creating and
implementing networking standards, devices, and
internetworking schemes.
 The OSI has seven different layers, divided into two
groups.
 The top three layers define how the applications
within the end stations will communicate with
each other and with users.
 The bottom four layers define how data is
transmitted end-to-end.
 The OSI reference model has seven layers:
 Application layer (layer 7)
 Presentation layer (layer 6)
 Session layer (layer 5)
 Transport layer (layer 4)
 Network layer (layer 3)
 Data Link layer (layer 2)
 Physical layer (layer 1)

The Application Layer

 The Application layer of the OSI model marks the
spot where users actually communicate to the
 computer.
 This layer only comes into play when it’s apparent
that access to the network is going to be needed
soon.
 The Application layer is also responsible for
identifying and establishing the availability of the
intended communication partner, and determining
whether sufficient resources for the intended
communication exist.

The Presentation Layer

 It presents data to the Application layer and is
responsible for data translation and code formatting.
 This layer is essentially a translator and provides
coding and conversion functions.
 The OSI has protocol standards that define how
standard data should be formatted. Tasks like data
compression, decompression, encryption, and
decryption are associated with this layer.

The Session Layer

 The Session layer is responsible for setting up, managing,
and then tearing down sessions between Presentation
layer entities.
 This layer also provides dialogue control between
devices, or nodes.
 It coordinates communication between systems, and
serves to organize their communication by offering
three different modes: simplex, half duplex, and full
duplex.
The Transport Layer
 The Transport layer segments and reassembles data
into a data stream.
 They provide end-to-end data transport services and
can establish a logical connection between the
sending host and destination host on an
internetwork.
 The Transport layer is responsible for providing
mechanisms for multiplexing upper-layer applications,
establishing sessions, and tearing down virtual circuits.
 The Transport layer can be connectionless or
connection-oriented.
The Network Layer
 The Network layer (also called layer 3) manages device
addressing, tracks the location of devices on the
network, and determines the best way to move data,
which means that the Network layer must transport
traffic between devices that aren’t locally attached.
 Routers (layer 3 devices) are specified at the Network
layer and provide the routing services within an
internetwork.

The Data Link Layer

 The Data Link layer provides the physical
transmission of the data and handles error
notification, network topology, and flow control.
 This means that the Data Link layer will ensure that
messages are delivered to the proper device on a LAN
using hardware addresses, and translates messages from
the Network layer into bits for the Physical layer to
transmit.
 The Data Link layer formats the message into pieces,
each called a data frame, and adds a customized header
containing the hardware destination and source
address.

The Physical Layer

 The Physical layer does two things: It sends bits and
receives bits. Bits come only in values of 1 or 0.
 The Physical layer communicates directly with the
various types of actual communication media.
 The Physical layer specifies the electrical, mechanical,
procedural, and functional requirements for activating,
maintaining, and deactivating a physical link between
end systems.
 This layer is also where you identify the interface
between the data terminal equipment (DTE) and the
data communication equipment (DCE).
Ethernet Networking
 Ethernet is a contention-based media access method
that allows all hosts on a network to share the same
link’s bandwidth.
 Ethernet is popular because it’s readily scalable,
meaning that it’s comparatively easy to integrate new
technologies, such as Fast Ethernet and Gigabit
Ethernet, into an existing network infrastructure.
 It really pretty simple to implement and it makes
troubleshooting fairly straightforward as well.
 Ethernet uses both Data Link and Physical layer
specifications.
Collision Domain
 Collision domain refers to a network scenario
wherein one device sends a frame out on a physical
network segment forcing every other device on the
same segment to pay attention to it.
 This is bad because if two devices on a single physical
segment just happen to transmit simultaneously, it will
cause a collision and require these devices to
retransmit.
 Think of a collision event as a situation where each
device’s digital signals totally interfere with one
another on the wire.
 Broadcast Domain: refers to a group of devices on a
specific network segment that hear all the broadcasts
sent out on that specific network segment.
CSMA/CD
 Ethernet networking uses a protocol called Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD), which
helps devices share the bandwidth evenly while
preventing two devices from transmitting simultaneously
on the same network medium.
 CSMA/CD was actually created to overcome the
problem of the collisions that occur when packets are
transmitted from different nodes at the same time.
 How does the CSMA/CD protocol work?
 When a host wants to transmit over the network, it first
checks for the presence of a digital signal on the wire. If all
is clear and no other host is transmitting, the host will then
proceed with its transmission.
 The transmitting host constantly monitors the wire to make
sure no other hosts begin transmitting. If the host detects
another signal on the wire, it sends out an extended jam
signal that causes all nodes on the segment to stop sending
Data think busy signal.
 The nodes respond to that jam signal by waiting a bit before
attempting to transmit again.

Ethernet at the Data Link Layer

 Ethernet at the Data Link layer is responsible for Ethernet
addressing, commonly referred to as MAC or hardware
addressing.
 Ethernet is also responsible for framing packets received
from the Network layer and preparing them for
transmission on the local network through the Ethernet
contention-based media access method.
Ethernet Addressing
 It uses the Media Access Control (MAC) address burned
into each and every Ethernet network interface card
(NIC).
 The MAC, or hardware, address is a 48-bit (6-byte)
address written in a hexadecimal format.

Ethernet addressing using MAC addresses

 The organizationally unique identifier (OUI) is
assigned by the IEEE to an organization.
 It’s composed of 24 bits, or 3 bytes, and it in turn
assigns a globally administered address also made
up of 24 bits, or 3 bytes, that’s supposedly unique
to each and every adapter an organization
manufactures.
 The high-order bit is the Individual/Group (I/G) bit.
 When it has a value of 0, we can assume that the
address is the MAC address of a device and that it
may well appear in the source portion of the MAC
header.
 When it’s a 1, we can assume that the address
represents either a broadcast or multicast address
 The next bit is the Global/Local bit(G/L), or U/L bit,
where U means universal.
 When set to 0, this bit represents a globally
administered address, as assigned by the IEEE, but
when it’s a 1, it represents a locally governed and
administered address.
 The low-order 24 bits of an Ethernet address
represent a locally administered or manufacturer-
assigned code. This portion commonly starts with
24 0s for the first card made and continues in
order until there are 24 1s for the last card made.
Ethernet at the Physical Layer
 Ethernet was first implemented by a group called DIX,
which stands for Digital, Intel, and Xerox.
 They created and implemented the first Ethernet LAN
specification, which the IEEE used to create the IEEE 802.3
committee.
 This was a 10 Mbps network that ran on coax and then
eventually twisted-pair and fiber physical media.

Some of the most common IEEE Ethernet standards

 10Base-T (IEEE 802.3) 10 Mbps using category 3
unshielded twisted pair (UTP) wiring for runs up to 100
meters.
 Each device must connect into a hub or switch, and you can
have only one host per segment or wire. It uses a physical
 100Base-TX (IEEE 802.3u) 100Base-TX, most
commonly known as Fast Ethernet. Uses EIA/TIA
category 5, 5E, or 6 UTP two-pair wiring. One user
per segment; up to 100 meters long.
 It uses an RJ45 connector with a physical star
topology and a logical bus.
 100Base-FX (IEEE 802.3u) Uses fiber cabling 62.5/125-
micron multimode fiber. Point-to-point topology; up to
412 meters long. It uses ST and SC connectors, which are
media-interface connectors.
 1000Base-T (IEEE 802.3ab) Category 5, four-pair UTP
wiring up to 100 meters long and up to 1 Gbps.
 Lab works
Ethernet Cabling
Media Connectors
 A variety of connectors are used with the associated
network media.
 Media connectors attach to the transmission media
and allow the physical connection into the computing
device.

RJ-11 Connectors
 RJ- (registered jack) 11 connectors are small plastic
connectors used on telephone cables. They have
capacity for six small pins.
RJ-45 Connectors
 RJ-45 connectors are used with twisted-pair cabling, the
most prevalent network cable in use today.
 RJ-45 connectors resemble the aforementioned RJ-11
phone jacks, but they support up to eight wires instead
of the six supported by RJ-11 connectors.

568A and 568B Wiring Standards

 568A and 568B are telecommunications standards from
TIA and EIA.
 These 568 standards specify the pin arrangements for
the RJ-45 connectors on UTP or STP cables.
 The number 568 refers to the order in which the
wires within the Category 5 cable are terminated and
attached to the connector.
 The 568A and 568B standards are quite similar; the
difference is the order in which the pins are
terminated.
 The types of Ethernet cables available are:
 Straight-through cable
 Crossover cable
 Rolled cable

Straight Through Cable

 A straight through cable is a type of twisted pair cable
that is used in local area networks to connect a
computer to a network hub such as a router or
Router to switch or hub.
 On a straight through cable, the wired pins match.
 Straight through cable use one wiring standard: both
ends use T568A wiring standard or both ends use
T568B wiring standard.
 The following figure shows a straight through cable of
which both ends are wired as the T568B standard.
Crossover Cable
 A crossover Ethernet cable is a type of Ethernet cable
used to connect computing devices together directly.
 The RJ45 crossover cable uses two different wiring
standards: one end uses the T568A wiring standard
and the other end uses the T568B wiring standard.
 It is most often used to connect two devices of the
same type: e.g. two computers (via network interface
controller) or two switches to each other.
Straight through vs Crossover Cable
 Usually, straight through cables are primarily used for
connecting unlike devices. And crossover cables are
use for connecting alike devices.

 Use straight through Ethernet cable for the following

cabling:
 Switch to router
 Switch to PC or server
 Hub to PC or server
 Use crossover cables for the following cabling:
 Switch to switch
 Hub to hub
 Router to router
 PC to PC
Rollover
 The rollover cable is a Cisco Systems proprietary cable
used to connect a computer system to a router or
switch console port.
 The rollover cable resembles an Ethernet UTP cable;
however, it is not possible to use it on anything but
Cisco equipment.
 Like UTP cable, the rollover cable has eight wires inside
and an RJ-45 connector on each end that connect to the
router and the computer port.