RADIOCTIVITY

INTRODUCTION
Radioactivity is a process where an unstable nuclide breaks up to yield another nuclide of different
composition with emission of particles and energy
Radioactive decay is the spontaneous disintegration/decay of a radioactive nuclide.
Radioisotopes are isotopes which are radioactive
.
Radioactivity is a nuclear reaction and not a chemical reaction
similarities: between Nuclear and chemical reaction
(i)-both involve the subatomic particles; electrons, protons and neutrons in an atom
(ii)-both involve the subatomic particles trying to make the atom more stable.
(iii)-Some form of energy transfer to the environment take place.

Differences between chemical reactions and nuclear reactions

Nuclear reaction Chemical reaction

Takes place within the nucleus and involves Takes place on the outer energy elevel and only
neutrons and protons involves valency electrons
Release large amounts of heat energy Much less energy released
Not affected by environmental factors such as Are affected by environmental factors such as
temperature temperature and pressure
New element formed No new element formed

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIOACTIVITY
All atoms with atomic number above 82 are radioactive
Radioactivity reactions are spontaneous and produce a lot of energy
Radioactivity is not affected by external factors like temperature and pressure
Types of radiation
There are three types of radiations emitted when radioactive nuclides disintegrate

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 (i)alpha(α) particle decay (ii)Beta (β) particle decay iii)Gamma (y) particle decay

I. Is positively charged is negatively charged hence No charge

and are attracted to the attracted to the positive plate of
negative plate of electric field.
electric field

II. Has mass number 4 and no mass number and atomic has no mass number and
atomic number 2 number negative one(-1) atomic number therefore equal
therefore equal to a therefore equal to a fast moving to electromagnetic waves.
charged helium atom ( electron (0 -1e)
4 2+
2he )

they show a lesser deflection Show are greater deflection Not deflected
by electric filed ,due to their due to the lesser mass
large mass
have very low penetrating power Have medium penetrating very high penetrating power
and thus can be stopped a thin power and thus can be stopped and thus can be stopped by a
sheet of thin sheet of aluminum foil. thick block of lead..

I. have high ionizing Have medium ionizing power have very low ionizing power
power thus cause a lot of thus cause less damage to living thus cause less damage to
damage to living cells. cells than α particle. living cells unless on prolonged
exposure

Alpha decay;
a nuclide undergoing α-decay has its mass number reduced by 4 and its atomic number reduced
by 2

Examples of alpha decay

210 206
84 Pb 82 Pb + 42He 2+
226 222 4 2+
88 Ra 88 Rn + 2He

complete the equations below

266 m 4 2+
106 Sg n RF + 2He

251 238 …………………

98 Cf 92U +
285 p
112 Cn q Hs + 2 42He 2+

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z 235
a Es 93 Np + 3 42He 2+
288 278 ………………
114 Uuq 104 Rf +
226 218
88 Ra 84 Rn +

beta (β) decay

v) a nuclide undergoing β -decay has its mass number remain the same and its atomic number increase
by 1

Examples of beta (β) decay

228 228 0
88Ra 89Ac + -1e

228 228
88Ra 92Th +
232 232
. 90Th 91Pb +
l 212
kTh 93Np + 3 0-1e

Gamma y -decay

v) a nuclide undergoing y -decay has its mass number and its atomic number remain the same.

The sketch diagram below shows the penetrating power of the radiations from a radioactive nuclide.

radioactive nuclide sheet of paper aluminium foil thick block of lead

(radiation source) (block α-rays) (block β-rays) block y-rays)

α-rays β-rays y-rays

The sketch diagram below illustrates the effect of electric /magnetic field on the three radiations from a
radioactive nuclide

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Radioactive disintegration/decay naturally produces the stable 20682Pb nuclide /isotope of lead.Below is
the 238 92 U natural decay series. Identify the particle emitted in each case

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B:NUCLEAR FISSION AND NUCLEAR FUSION
Radioactive disintegration/decay can be initiated in an industrial laboratory through two chemical
methods:
a) nuclear fission
b) nuclear fusion.
a)Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is the splitting process of a a heavy unstable nuclide releasing lighter nuclides, and a
large quantity of energy when bombarded /hit by a fast moving neutron
Nuclear fission is the basic chemistry behind nuclear bombs made in the nuclear reactors.

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Examples of nuclear equations showing nuclear fission

Supply the missing information to te equations below

1 235 90 a 1
0n + bU 38 Sr + 54Xe + 3 0 n + energy

1 27 28
0n + 13 Al 13 Al + y + energy
235
92 U + 10 n 147
57 La + 87
35 Br + ---- + energy

1 235 1
0n + b U 0n + ………….. energy
247
96Cm + 10 n ……….+ 1
0 n + energy
235
95U + 10 n ……….+ 142
56 Ba +310 n + energy

NUCLEAR FUSION.
Nuclear fusion is the process which smaller nuclides join together to form larger / heavier nuclides
releasing a large quantity of energy..
Nuclear fusion is the basic chemistry behind solar/sun radiation.
Two daughter atoms/nuclides of Hydrogen fuse/join to form Helium nuclide on the surface of the sun
releasing large quantity of energy in form of heat and light

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2 2 a 1
1H + 1H bHe + 0n + energy

2 2 1
1H + 1H ……….. + 1 H+ energy
14 17 1
7N + …………. 8O + 1 H+ energy
53 4 1
24N + 2He . 0n + …………….+ energy

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Similarities between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission

In both a large quantity of energy

Both processes results in chain reactions
In both cases sub-atomic particles such as neutrons accompany the peocess

Differences between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission

Nuclear nuclear fission nuclear fusion
Heavy nucleus is split to smaller nuclei Smaller nuclei combine to form heavy
nucleus
Have a lower activation energy Have a higher activation energy
Produces larger amount of energy than Produces relatively lower amount of
nuclear fusion energy

: HALF LIFE PERIOD (t1/2)

The half-life period is the time taken for a radioactive nuclide to spontaneously decay/ disintegrate to half
its original mass/ amount.
It is usually denoted t 1/2.
The rate of radioactive nuclide disintegration/decay is constant for each nuclide.

The table below shows the half-life period of some elements.

Element/Nuclide Half-life period(t 1/2 )

238 9
U 4.5 x 10 years
92
14
5600 years
C
6
229
1620 years
Ra
88

The less the half life the more unstable the nuclide /element.
The half-life period is determined by using a Geiger-Muller counter (GM tube)
.A GM tube is connected to ratemeter that records the count-rates per unit time.
This is the rate of decay/ disintegration of the nuclide.
If the count-rates per unit time fall by half, then the time taken for this fall is the half-life period.

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APPLICATIONS OF HALF LIFE

I. Carbon dating
II. Detecting leakages
III. Monitoring plant growth
IV. In medicine to monitor plant growth.

Examples
a)A radioactive substance gave a count of 240 counts per minute but after 6 hours the count rate
were 30 counts per minute. Calculate the half-life period of the substance.
If t 1/2 = x

then 240 120 60 30

From 240 to 30 =3x =6 hours
=>x = t 1/2 = ( 6 / 3 )
= 2 hours
b) The count rate of a nuclide fell from 200 counts per second to 12.5 counts per second in 120
minutes.
Calculate the half-life period of the nuclide.

c) After 6 hours the count rate of a nuclide fell from 240 counts per second to 15 counts per second
on the GM tube. Calculate the half-life period of the nuclide.

d) Calculate the mass of nitrogen-13 that remain from 2 grams after 6 half-lifes if the half-life
period of nitrogen-13 is 10 minutes.

e) What fraction of a gas remains after 1hour if its half-life period is 20 minutes?

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f) 348 grams of a nuclide A was reduced to 43.5 grams after 270days.Determine the half-life period
of the nuclide.

g) How old is an Egyptian Pharaoh in a tomb with 2grams of 14C if the normal 14C in a present
tomb is 16grams.The half-life period of 14C is 5600years.

h) 100 grams of a radioactive isotope was reduced 12.5 grams after 81days.Determine the half-life
period of the isotope.

A graph of activity against time is called decay curve.

A decay curve can be used to determine the half-life period of an isotope since activity decrease at equal
time interval to half the original

The graph below shows the rate of decay of carbon-14

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(i)From the graph show and determine the half-life period of the isotope.

From the graph t 1/2 changes in activity from:

( 100 – 50 ) => ( 5700 – 0 ) = 5700 years
( 50 – 25 ) => ( 11400 – 5700 ) = 5700 years
Thus t ½ = 5700 years

(ii)Why does the graph tend to ‘O’?

Smaller particle/s will disintegrate /decay to half its original.
There can never be ‘O’/zero particles

The table below shows the change in mass of a radioactive isotope with time

Time (days) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Mass (g) 10.0 8.7 7.5 6.2 5.0 4.1 3.4 2.9 2.5 2.3

On the grid provided ,plot a graph of the percentage of bismuth remaining against time. (3mks)

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 a) From the graph determine
I. half life of the radioisotope

II. the mass after the 7th day

III. the mass after the 20th day

IV. The table below shows the measurements of radioactivity in counts per minute from a
radioisotope iodine-128
Counts per minute 240 204 176 156 138 122 112
Time in days 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

a) Plot a graph of counts per minute against time

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 b) Use your gaph to determine the half life of iodine-128

b) From youethe graph determinecount rate after;

I. 12 minutes

II. 22minutes

c) After how many minutes was the count rate ;

(i) 160 counts per minute

(ii) 197 counts per minute

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A quantity of 44Y was monitored with a GM tube and the folllowinf results were obtained over a
period of 70 minutes.
Counts per minute 800 580 427 305 225 165 122 85
Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

I. the grid provided plot a graph of counts per minute against time.

II. Determne the half life of Y

III. On Starting with 32g of 44Y,how much of the isotope would remain after 110 minutes.

IV. Give two applications of half life

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E: APPLICATION AND USES OF RADIOCTIVITY.
The following are some of the fields that apply and use radioisotopes;
a)Medicine: -\
• Treatment of cancer to kill malignant tumors through radiotherapy e,g colbalt-60 and
caesium-137
• -Sterilizing hospital /surgical instruments by exposing them to gamma radiation.
• -to monitor growth in bones and healing of fractures
• For providing power in heart pacesetters

b) Agriculture:
• monitor plant growth by tracing the route of the radioisotope.
• Radioactive phosphorus is used to determine rate of absorption of phosphate fertilizers

c) Food preservation:
X-rays are used to kill bacteria in tinned food to last for a long time.
d) Chemistry:
To study mechanisms of a chemical reaction, one reactant is replaced in its structure by a radioisotope
e.g.
During esterification the ‘O’ joining the ester was discovered comes from the alkanol and not alkanoic
acid.
During photosynthesis the ‘O’ released was discovered comes from water.

e) Dating rocks/fossils:
Comparing the mass of 14C in living and dead cells, to determine their age,

F: DANGERS OF RADIOCTIVITY.
1. Exposure to theses radiations causes chromosomal and /or genetic mutation in living cells.
2. Living things should therefore not be exposed for a long time to radioactive substances.
3. One of the main uses of radioactive isotopes is in generation of large cheap electricity in nuclear
reactors.
4. Those who work in these reactors must wear protective devises made of thick glass or lead sheet.
5. Accidental leakages of radiations usually occur
6. In 1986 the Nuclear reactor at Chernobyl in Russia had a major explosion that emitted poisonous
nuclear material that caused immediate environmental disaster
7. In 2011, an earthquake in Japan caused a nuclear reactor to leak and release poisonous
radioactive waste into the Indian Ocean.
8. The immediate and long term effects of exposure to these poisonous radioactive waste on human
being is of major concern to all environmentalists.

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Control
Proper use,storage and disposal of radioactive materials
Regular checks of equipment which emit radiations

Revision quiz RADIOACTIVITY

1. 1993 Q P1A 7
The Table below gives the rate of decay for radioactive element Y.

Number of days Mass (g)

0 384
270 48

Calculate the half-life of the radioactive element Y.

2. 1995 P1A Q30

(a) 100g of radioactive 23391 Pa was reduced to 12.5g after 81 days.
Determine the half-life of Pa. (2 marks).

b) 23391 Pa decays by Beta emission. What is the mass number and the atomic
number of the element formed? (1 mark)

3. 1996 P1A Q 20
Complete the diagram below to show how α and β particles from radioactive can be
distinguished from each other. Label your diagram clearly. (3 marks)

Source of radiation Paper Metal foil

4. 1997 P1A Q 7
M grammes of a radioactive isotope decayed to 5 grammes in 100 days.
The half –life of the isotope is 25 days.
(a) What is meant by half-life? (1 mark)

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(b) Calculate the initial mass M of the radioactive isotope. (2 marks)

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5. 1998 P1A Q1
An isotope of Uranium 234 94U decays by emission of an alpha particle to thorium. Th.

(a). Write the equation for the nuclear reaction undergone by the isotope. (1 mark)

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(b). Explain why it is not safe to store radioactive substances in containers made from
Aluminum sheets. (1 mark)
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6. 2000 Q 13
A radioactive isotope X2 decays by emitting two alpha (a) particles and one
beta (β) to from 214
Bi
83
(a) What is the atomic number of X2?
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(b) After 112 days, 1/16 of the mass of X2 remained. Determine the half life of X2

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7. 2002 Q 10
The graph below represents a radioactive decay series for isotope H.
Study it and answer the questions that follow

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(a) Name the type of radiation emitted when isotope H changes to isotope J.

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(b) Write an equation for the nuclear reaction that occur when isotope J changes to isotope K

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c) Identify a pair of isotope of an element in the decay series

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8.
100 g of a radioactive substance was reduced to 12.5 g in 15.6 years.
Calculate the half – life of the substance. (2 marks)

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9.
(a) Complete the nuclear equation below. (1 mark)
37 37
18A….. 19B +………..

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(b) State one:
(i) Use of radioisotopes in agriculture (1mark)

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(ii) Danger associated with exposure of human beings to radioisotopes (1 mark)

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10. 2007 Q 14
a) Distinguish between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. (2 marks)

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Describe how solid wastes containing radioactive substances should be disposed of.
(1 mark)

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11,. 2008 Q 24
a) A radioactive substance emits three different particles. Give the symbol of the particle

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 with the highest mass. (1 mark)
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b) (i) Find the values of Z1 and Z2 in the nuclear equation below
Z1 1 94 140 1

U + n Sr + Xe +2 n
92 0 38 Z0 0

ii) What type of nuclear reaction is represented in represented in b (i) above?

(1mark)
Temperature (0C)

t0 t1 t2 t3 t4
Time (minutes)
Give the name of the:
a) Process taking place between t0 and t1. (1mark)

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b) Energy change that occurs between t3 and t4

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12. 2009 Q 6d P2
(d) Naturally occurring uranium consist of three isotopes which are radioactive.
Isotopes 234 u 235u 238u
Abundance 0.01% 0.72% 99.27%
(i) Which of these isotopes has the longest half-life? Give reasons. (1 mark)

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(ii) Calculate the relative atomic mass of uranium. (2 marks)

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(iii) 235 92U is an alpha emitter .If the product of the decay of this nuclide
is thorium (Th) .Write a nuclear equation for the process. (1 mark)

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 iv) State one use of radioactive isotopes in the paper industry (2 marks)

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13. 2011 Q 2
Complete the nuclear equation below:
131 131
I Xe +
53 54
The half life of 13153 I is 8 days.
Determine the mass of 13153I remaining if 50 grammes decayed for 40 days.

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Give one harmful effect of radioisotopes. (1 mark)
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14. 2012 Q9 P1
120g of iodine – 131 has a half life of 8 days decays for 32 days. On the grid provided,
plot a graph of the mass of iodine – 131 against time. (3 marks)

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