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Chap. 2 Sinusoids
• Why sinusoidal signals (Oscillation)?
- Two modes of energy propagation
1) Dynamic mode
⇒ Energy moves with mass.
2) Wave mode
⇒ Energy propagates through mass.
⇒ Signals oscillate with energy propagation.

where
A : Amplitude
ωo
ωo : frequency in radian/sec, fo = cycles/sec (Hertz)
2π
To : Period, To = 1/fo = 2π/ωo sec, y(t) = y(t + mTo ) (m = 0, ±1, ±2 . . .)
ϕ : Phase (Time-delay or advance τ = ϕ/ωo )
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• Complex Number
Wave signals are easily represented and manipulated using the complex number and the phaser.

√
i2 = −1 and i = −1
Cartesian coordinator : z = x + iy
Polar coordinator : z = rejθ , where x, y, r, θ are real
(∗ ej(θ+2πl) = ejθ · ej2πl = ejθ , l = 0, ±1, ±2 · · · )

• Euler’s formula
ejθ = cos θ + j sin θ
ejθ + e−jθ ejθ − e−jθ
⇒ cos θ = , sin θ =
2 2j
• Phaser Representation

A cos(ω0 t + ϕ) = Re{Aej(ω0 t+ϕ) } = Re{Aejϕ ejω0 t }

A sin(ω0 t + ϕ) = Im{Aej(ω0 t+ϕ) } = Im{Aejϕ ejω0 t }

⇒ Phaser : Aejϕ for cos(ω0 t) or sin(ω0 t)

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• Complex Algebra

z1 ± z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) ± (x2 + iy2 ) z1 + z2 = r1 ejθ1 + r2 ejθ2

=(x1 ± x2 ) + i(y1 ± y2 )
z1 · z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) · (x2 + iy2 ) z1 · z2 = r1 ejθ1 + r2 ejθ2
=(x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(y2 x1 + x2 y1 ) = r1 · r2 ej(θ1 +θ2 )
z1∗ = (x + iy)∗ = x − iy z1∗ = (r1 ejθ1 )∗ = r1 e−jθ1
z1 /z2 = (x1 + iy1 )/(x2 + iy2 ) z1 /z2 = r1jθ1 /r2 ejθ2
(x1 +iy1 )(x2 −iy2 )
=(x2 +iy2 )(x2 −iy2 ) = ( rr21 )ej(θ1 −θ2 )
2 y1 −x1 y2 )
= (x1 x2 +y1 y2x)+i(x
2 +y 2
2 2
z1 ·z2∗ z ·z ∗
* z1 /z2 = z ·z ∗ = |z1 |22
2 2 2

|z1 |2 = z1 · z1∗ = x21 + y12 |z1 |2 = r1 ejθ1 · (r1 ejθ1 )∗ = r12

(z1 )α = (x1 + iy1 )α (z1 )α = (r1 ejθ1 )α = r1α ejαθ1

- Exercise : (1 − j)100 = ?
• Geometric View
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• Determine roots of z N = C (N : Integer, C : Complex Number)

* zN − C = 0 : N th degree polynomial ⇒ N roots
1) Let z = rejθ , C = |C|ej(ϕ+2πl) l = 0, ±1, ±2 . . .
2) z N = rN ejN θ
3) rN ejN θ = |C|ejθ · ej2πl
1
4) r = |C| N , N θ = ϕ + 2πl ⇒ θ = ϕ+2πl
N
, l = 0, 1 . . . (N-1).
5) Solution
1 ϕ 1 ϕ+2π 1 ϕ+4π 1 ϕ+2π(N −1)
z = |C| N ej N , |C| N ej N , |C| N ej N , . . . , |C| N ej N

- Exercise : Determine the roots of z 5 = −1

π 3π 5π 7π 9π
z 5 = −1 = ejπ+2πl , l = 0, . . . , 4 ⇒ z = ej 5 , ej 5 , ej 5 (= −1), ej 5 , ej 5 .

- Exercise : Prove that N signals with the same freq. but different amplitude and phases is
periodic with the freq. That is,
∑
N
Ak cos(ω0 t + ϕk ) = A cos(ω0 t + ϕ)
k=0

∑
N ∑
N
Proof : Ak cos(ω0 t + ϕk ) = Re{Ak ejϕk · ejω0 t }
k=0 k=0

∑
N
= Re{ Ak ejϕk · ejω0 t }
k=0

∑N
= Re{( Ak ejϕk ) · ejω0 t } = Re{Aejϕ · ejω0 t }
k=0

∑
N
where Aejϕ = Ak ejϕk ( Phaser addition)
k=0

= A cos(ω0 t + ϕ)

- Exercise : x1 (t) = 1.7 cos(2π · 10t + 70π/180), x2 (t) = 1.9 cos(2π · 10t + 200π/180)

⇒ x4 (t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t) = ?

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1) X1 = A1 ejϕ1 = 1.7ej70π/180

X2 = A2 ejϕ2 = 1.9ej200π/180

2) X1 = 1.7ej70π/180 = 0.5814 + j1.597

X2 = 1.9ej200π/180 = −1.785 − j0.6498

3) X3 = X1 + X2 = (0.5814 + j1.597) + (−1.785 − j0.6498)

= 1.204 + j0.9476

4) X3 = −1.204 + j0.9476 = 1.532ej141.79π/180

5) x3 (t) = 1.532 cos(2π · 10t + 141.79π/180)

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• Maths to be frequently used

1. Integrals
∫
- sin xdx = − cos x + C
∫
- cos xdx = sin x + C
∫
- xn eαx dx
∫ ∫
- xn cos αxdx = 21 xn (ejαx + e−jαx )dx
∫ ∫
- xn sin αxdx = 2j1 xn (ejαx + e−jαx )dx

2. Summations
∑
n
n(n + 1) ∑
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
- k= , k2 =
k=1
2 k=1
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∑n
n(n + 1) 2 ∑
n
- k ={ 3
} , c = cn
k=1
2 k=1
 
∑
n−1  1−rn : r ̸= 1 ∞
∑  1
: |r| < 1
1−r 1−r
- rk = , k
r =
n :r=1 ∞ Otherwise
k=1 k=0

∑
n ∑
n ∑
n
- (αak ± βbk ) = α ak ± β bk
k=0 k=0 k=0
∑N ∑
N ∑
N ∑N
- al · bn = al · bn
l=1 n=1 l=1 n=1