Name: Fishatsion Zewdu

Project on:-

Materials for Electronic Applications

Liquid crystals
i. Definition
Liquid crystals, in short represented as LCs, represent a state of matter intermediate
between crystalline solids, which are characterized by a regular periodic arrangement of
atoms or molecules, and isotropic liquids, which lack any type of order.

They are formed because some organic solids do not melt directly to form liquid. They pass
through an intermediate state called liquid crystalline state or mesomorphic state. On
cooling this state is reversed to solid form and decomposition do not takes place during
transition. Such compounds are called liquid crystals.

Examples of liquid crystals include: p-Azoxyanisole

ii. Structure
Liquid crystals have rod or disc like structure.
They also align parallel to each other and flow like a liquid.Thus they have fluidity of liquid is
optical properties of that of solid.

iii. Properties
Liquid crystals have properties like:-

 Anisotropy: A physical property of liquid crystals that depends

on the direction or orientation of molecules. It is caused by the
elongated shape of the molecules. The physical properties of
the molecules are different when measured parallel or
perpendicular to their length, and residual alignment of the
rods in the fluid leads to anisotropic bulk properties.

 Isotropy: A physical property of liquid crystals that

does not depend on the direction or orientation of
molecules. Its properties are uniform in all directions—
the result of its molecules being in constant random
motion. Crystalline solids, in contrast, are anisotropic ;
optical- and other properties such as thermal and
electrical conductivity vary with direction.

Types of liquid crystals

There are mainly 5 types of liquid crystals:- Nematic, smectic, cholesteric, discotic and
polymeric.

i. Nematic liquid crystals

A nematic liquid crystal is a transparent or translucent liquid that causes the polarization of
light waves to change as the waves pass through the liquid.
The Mesomorphic state of these liquid crystals consist of rod like or thread shaped
molecules.
Viscosity in lower than liquid and they have anisotropic property.
They flow like liquid and they obey newtons law of viscosity.

Examples: p-Azoxyanisole, cyanobiphenyls..

ii. Smectic liquid crystals

Smectic phases have further degrees of order compared to the nematic phase. In the
simplest smectic phase, the smectic-A (SmA) phase, the molecules order into layers, with
the layer normal parallel to the director. Within the layers, liquid like structure remain.
Mesomorphic state of these liquids crystals consists of rod like structures arranged in layers.
One layer slide over another layer so they have soapy character.
They have high viscosity and they form non neutronioun liquid.

Examples: Ethyl p-oxy benzoate

iii. Cholesteric liquid crystals

A cholesteric liquid-crystal display is a display containing a liquid crystal with a helical
structure and which is therefore chiral. They are also known as chiral nematic liquid crystals.
They show characteristics of nematic and smectic liquid crystals.
 They show nematic behaviour and have layered structure which
gives strong colour effects in polarized light.

Lehmann found that droplets of cholestic liquid crystal rotate violently when
heated. This is called Lehmann rotation phenomenon.
Cholestric liquid crystals do not obeys newtonian flow properties.

iv. Discotic liquid crystals

Discotic liquid crystals are mesophases formed from disc-shaped molecules known as
"discotic mesogens". They are also often also referred to as columnar phases.
 They are disc shaped
 Exist in more than one mesomorphic phase.
 Classified as columnar and nematic discotic liquid crystals.
 In columnar disc are stocked one on top of the other forming
liquid columns to form two dimensional lattice.
Nematic discotic consists of an ordered arrangement of discs.

V. Polar liquid crystals

There are polymers with rod like or disc like group attached as substituent to the back bone
of main chain of the polymer.

Newtons law of viscosity

Newton's law of viscosity states that. “Shear stress is directly proportional to velocity.
gradient”

Viscosity=resistance to the flow of fluid.

Termotropic crystals
A liquid crystal is thermotropic if the order of its components is determined or changed by
temperature.

If temperature is too high, the rise in energy and therefore in motion of the components will
induce a phase transition: the LC will become an isotropic liquid. If, on the contrary,
temperature is too low to support a thermotropic phase, the LC will change to glass phase.

They orients when temperature is increased and come back to original state when the
temperature is decreased.

Polymorphism in termotropic liquid crystals

Data on several mesogenic compounds with their transition temperatures and latent heats
have recently been obtained.

The following examples show the rich polymorphism shown by thermotropic liquid crystals.
4,4’-Dimethoxyazoxy benzene(p-azoxyanisole)
Solid ⇌ Nematic ⇌ Isotropic (liquid)

4’-n-octyl-4-cyanobiphenyl
Solid ⇌ smectic ⇌ nematic ⇌ isotropic

M-(4-n-pentyloxy benzylidene-4-n-hexylaniline)
Solid ⇌ Smectic A ⇌ Smectic B ⇌ Smectic C
⥮
Isotropic ⇌ nematic ⇌ Smectic E ⇌ Smectic D

As the pressure is raised both solid to nematic and nematic to isotropic (liquid) transition
temperature increases.

Lyptropic liquid crystals

Soap-like molecules, with a hydrocarbon structure at one end and a polar structure at the
other, form liquid crystals that change phase according to their concentration in water.

They exhibit liwuid-crystalline properties in certain concentración ranges. They show

amphiphilic carácter. They have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts with in the same
molecule. Solvent molecules around the molecule provide fluidity.
Molecular arrangements in liquid crystals

In nematic crystals molecules are arranged parallel to each other but not layered where as
in smectic molecules and arranged at regular intervals and they are layered.

Applications of liquid crystals

1. Research on optical & electrical properties of these unique compounds

attracted very much by scientific and industrial community. Later, research at a
number of industries, universities and government laboratories began to focus
on their applications, which exploited the electro-magneto-optic characteristics
and photoelectric properties of nematic and cholesteric type liquid crystals.

2. Cholesteric liquid crystal substances, when applied to the surface of the skin,
have been used to locate veins, arteries, infections, tumors and the fetal placenta
which are warmer than the surrounding tissues.

3. Nematic liquid crystal are useful research tools in the application of magnetic
resonance. Molecules that are dissolved in nematic liquid crystal solvents give a
very highly resolved NMR spectrum exhibiting intermolecular dipole-dipole
fine structures. Analysis of the spectra of molecules in liquid crystal solvents
yield information regarding the anisotropy of chemical shifts, direct magnetic
dipole-dipole interaction, indirect spin-spin couplings, bond angles, bond
lengths, molecular order and relaxation process.

4. Liquid crystals have been used in chromatographic separations138 as

solvents to direct the course of chemical reactions and to study molecular
arrangements and kinetics and as anisotropic host fluid for visible, UV and IR
spectroscopy of organic molecules.

4. liquid crystals are widely used in cosmetic industry in manufacturing of

liquid crystal makeup removers, lipsticks and lip glasses containing cholesteric
liquid crystals.
5. Liquid crystals are using extensively in pharmaceutical industries.

6. Liquid crystal displays are common in calculators, digital watches,

oscillaographic systems, television displays using L.C. screens has also been
developed. Cholesteric liquid crystals have also been used for novelty items
such as toys and decorative materials.

7. Liquid crystal polymers also gained much interest on industrial applications.

polyester liquid crystals were developed for fire resistant, and are used as
coating for multifibre, optical cables due to good surface roughness, low
coefficient of friction. Polyesters are used for moulding with improved elastic
modulus. Ferroelectric liquid crystals, mesomorphic free radicals are used for
EPR study and colourless large pitch cholesterics has been developed.

Electronic display: Thin layer of liquid Crystal is placed between two electrodes and their
parallel arrangement is disturbed when electricity is applied and become opaque.
Monitoring temperature: Colour of the liquid Crystal changes with temperature. This
property is useful in monitoring Temperature of body in medical field and of mechanial
systems in industry

Engineering thermoplastics- polycarbonate

They are polyesters formed by condensation of phenols and diphenyl carbonate. For
example Bisphenol-A condenses with diphenyl carbonate to for polycarbonate.

Properties

 High performance engineering thermoplastics

 Transparent, tough and strong
 Resistant to water, acids and detergent
 Not strained by oils and greases
 Reacts with bases, organic and halogenated solvents
 Resistant to high temperature upto 140◦ C
 Maintains toughness at low temperature upto -20◦ C
 Good electrical insulation properties

Uses:

 Used as moulding for computers, hair driers, CDs and DVDs.

 Used in automobile industry
 Used for making saty helmets, wind shields and police shields
  As it is not stained by oils and greases, it is used for making food processing bowls
 Used in the anufacture of baby bottle, syringes, cameras etc

Conducting polymers

Conducting polymers are electrically conductive materials composed of organic polymers;

their major advantage is their processability [56,57]. Conducting polymers contain
functional groups that have pseudocapacitance characteristics and thus exhibit conductivity
as the material itself.

Conducting polymers are organic polymers that conduct electricity. They are also called as
synthetic metals.Normally polymers are insulators but conjugated polymers show slight
conductivity and their conductivity is further enhanced when they are doped with suitable
dopant.Conducting polymers are thermoplastic in nature.

In 1977 Alan J Heegar reported high conductivity in oxidized iodine doped polyacetylene
Conductivity of polyacetylene is 1. 7 x 10 -9S cm-1 and the conductivity is enhanced 108 times
when it is doped with iodine.
Conductivity of doped polyacetylene is 103Scm-1 which is almost equal to conductivity of
copper Conductivity of polyaniline is 10-10Scm-1

Intrinsic conjugated pi electron conducting polymers

Conductivity of these polymers is due to presence of conjugated pi electron that is
delocalized. Example: Polyacetylene, polypyrrole, polyanline
All the three forms of polyaniline conduct electricity. In an electric field, pi electrons are excited and
transported but the conductivity is not sufficient for industrial applications.

Doping conducting polymers

Polymers are doped with either electron donor or electron accepter to enhance the
conductivity of polymer.

Doped conducting polymers are well described in terms of the type of charge carriers
within, i.e. polarons and bipolarons25. When these positively charged species reside on
carbon atoms in the conjugated backbone, they represent carbocations.

There are basic two types of doping.

i. P type doping

The term electrochemical p-doping (n-doping), in connection with conducting polymers, is

generally understood as a process that involves both oxidation (reduction) of the polymer
backbone and the concomitant changes in the electronic structure.

Polymer chain is doped with lewis acid that the removes electron from the polymer
(oxidation). Holes are created neighbouring electrons moves to the hole and conductivity is
exchanged due to the mobility of electrons.

ii. N type doping

Polymer chain doped with lewis bases such as Li, Na, Napthylamine, negative charges are
added(reduction) on the polymer. This enhance the conjunction that improves conductivity.

Conductivity of depends polymers on the length of polymers, doped level and temperature
Greater the length, more in the conjunction.

 Conductivity increases with amount of dopant.

 Conductivity increases with increase in temperature.

Extrinsically conducting polymers

Those conducting polymers which owe their conductivity due to the presence of externally
added ingredients in them are called extrinsically conducting polymers.

The conductivity of these polymers is due to presence of externally added ingredients. They
are of two types:

Conducting element filled polymers: When the polymer is filled with

conducting elements like carbon black, metallic fibres, metal oxides,
their conductivity raises. Here the polymer acts as the binder of the
conducting elements. However, addition of these elements affects
tensile strength and impact strength of the polymer. This problem is
 overcome by blending a conventional polymer with a conducting
polymer.

Blended conducting polymer: Conducting polymers are added to

conventional polymers. The blended polymers have better physical and
mechanical properties.

Applications of conducting polymers

Each polymer type has already found widespread use in many, mainly optical and electronic
applications such as batteries, displays, plastic wires, optical signal processing, information
storage, solar energy conversion, etc.

 Used in Rechargeable light weight batteries.

 Used in photovoltaic devices like in al/polymer /au photovoltaic cells.
 In telecommunication systems.
 Electrically conducting poly aniline is used for producing
“smart windows”. Poly aniline shows different colors in
different oxidation states. Hence its color changes in response
to temperature changes.
 They are also used in organic LEDS.
 In electronic devices such as transistors and diodes.
Biodegradable polymers

Biodegradable polymers are a special class of polymer that breaks down after its intended
purpose by bacterial decomposition process to result in natural byproducts such as gases
(CO2, N2), water, biomass, and inorganic salts. There are vast examples and applications of
biodegradable polymers.

Biodegradable Synthetic Polymers:

 Tissue Engineering.
 Biocompatibility.
 Lactic Acid.
 Poly (Lactic Acid)
 Biomaterial.
 Caprolactone.
 Glycolic Acid.
 Polycaprolactone.

Biodegradation is the degradation of a material by environmental factors such as sunlight,

temperature changes or by the action of microbes (bacteria, fungi, etc). The use of
biodegradable polymers is increasing day by day. Many natural polymers like rubber and
cellulose are bio gradable. They degrade gradually by bacterial action.

Applications

Biogradable polymers find extensive use in the medical field. They are used commercially in
tissue engineering and drug delivery field of biomedicine.

 Biodegradable polymers are used to join fractured

bones. They provide the required strength to the bone
and after the bone heals, they harmlessly degrade over
time.
 In controlled drug delivery, the polymer slowly degrades into
smaller fragments releasing drug gradually and in a controlled
manner.
 It is used in dental devices, biodegradable vascular stents,
biodegradable soft tissue anchors, etc.
 Biodegradable polymers are also being increasingly used in the
manufacture of plastic bags, toys and other plastic products.
These polymers are ecofriendly as they gradually degrade in the
environment .