GST 113 NIGERIAN PEOPLE AND CULTURE

NIGERIA ETHNOGRAPHIC SURVEY

• Nigeria came into existence in 1900 when the map was drawn

• Through there were people dwelling in this area

• The map was to demarcate British trading interest from France and
Portugal.

• The British conference necessitated this mapping

• Here Africa was partitioned among mutually antagonistic European

nations to safe guard their trade interest.

• The Arabs (from the Sahara) were the 1st to establish contacts with
Africa because of their closeness and access through the desert land.

• Egypt was the gateway to Africa for the Arabs and Berbers traders who
got attracted to Africa by abundant gold ivory, ostrich feathers and
leathers.

ETHNOGRAPHY OF NIGERIA

• People of diverse ethnic extraction have inhabited the area called Nigeria

• Living independently of each other

• Each had its own army, naturally endowed resources and boundaries
recognised across generations

• Major climatic zones determined their major occupations, religious

practices and artistic forms.

• Trade with other communities were encouraged to ensure access to

commodities not owned

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• Through they traded with each other; they had natural respect for one
another’s internal affairs.

• They respected each other sovereignty

• Through they were few occasional incursions to enlarge empire/territories

to increase their revenue base through tributes

• Each ethics group evolved its own peculiar system of government for its
historical development.

• Some hand centralized administrative unit, other had none, but diffused
power across units.

• Some of these ethic nationalities are Yorubas, Bini, Irhobos, (in the west)
the Igbos, Itshekiri, Ibibio, Ijaws (in the east) Hausa, Fulani, Kanuris (in
the North) Idomas, Tivs, Eggons, Madas, GbagyaGwandarasetcetc (in the
central.

• Through these ethic groups were forced into an arrangement called

Nigeria. They still maintain their independence.

How did European come in contact with Africans?

• Africans were in contact with the Arabs before the Europeans

• The rich gold deposit in the Gold Coast now Ghana), Arabs endured the
long the long and dangerous traveling through the scorching sun of the
Sahara desert.

• Exchanged their salts with Africans for gold and other commodities

• The Arabs in turn used the gold as a means of exchange through it got to
Europe

• The Arabs then became the middle men, then occupying a vantage
position, which they capitalized on by charging Europeans heavy duties.

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• Europeans wanted to stop paying thin heavy duty therefore they sought a
direct contact with the Africans and India.

• By 18th centuries the Portuguese who had explored the whole of west
Africa and had started trading in gold from Gold Coast and Beniri and
pepper from Lagos coast.

• Africa was partitioned on paper to ensure effective control of the

hinterlands to guarantee free trade,

• At this point Nigeria was an expressing on paper, so each ethic

nationalities existed independently maintaining their distinctive cultural
identity.

WHAT IS CULTURE?

Culture is a way of life peculiar to people which is transmitted from generation

to generation through socialization (consciously guided leaning process).

Culture has two aspects namely:

• Material: Dressing, hairdo, house, cooking utensils, agricultural tools.

• Non-Material Culture: Religion/belief, ideology, skills/technique, names,

etc.

• The rate at which these aspects of culture respond to change differ

• While the national aspects respond quickly, the non-material aspects also
slowly

• The time it takes for one aspect to catch up with another is called culture
lag.

 Culture shock is the sharp contrast between cultures

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 The culture of a peoples is their identity: language, names etc are critical
to their identity.

 Once people begin to lose their identity such as mother tongue, names
acts, they bare heading for extinction.

 About 500 languages in Nigeria are in danger of being extract. Once that
in done they lose their individuality and they sol-merged into their ethnic
groups.

 Therefore let us maintain our identity and keep it.

The history of major kingdoms/state from the earliest times to about 1850

CENTRALIZED STATES OF NORTHERN NIGERIA AREA

 Centralized state means large political units each of which covers large
territorial areas.

 All parts of the state was controlled from the centre.

 By a king, through several subordinate officials, arranged according to

seniority.

 Such rulers earned their living through taxes, tributes, labour and other
resources obtained from the people.

 By 1800, there were two types of centralized state in Northern Nigeria

area.

a. There were large and highly developed state systems. Egkanen-borno,

Kano, Kastina, Zazzau, Gobin and the leading Jukun state of Kwararafa,
Kona, Pinduga and Wukari.

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b. There were other centralized state whose political structures and
institution, territorial extent and members of differentiation in the rank of
state officials were not as developed and well defined as the first one.
These are: Igala, Nupe and the Ebira (Igbirra) kingdoms.

THERE ARE FACTORS THAT FAVOURED STATE FORMATION:

a. Geographical factors-flat terrain in the Chad Basin and Hausa land.

b. Ample water supply and water ways for both human and animal
corruption and transportation.

c. Mineral resources like iron ore

d. Fertile agricultural lands and concentration of minerals in their regions

made them attractive for population concentration which was necessary
for the formation of centralised states

e. Islam, Horse and Migration played important roles in the state formation
process.

CENTRALISED STATES OF SOUTHERN NIGERIA AREA

The Kingdom of Ife, Oyo, and Bini Deltaic states-Itskiri, Efik and Ijo.

IFE: The ancient kingdom of Ife together with the old Oyo, typified represent
Home of the best example of centralized states among the Yoruba people in the
period before 1800.

Ife is regarded in some Yoruba tradition as the organic of life on early, it is also
especially regarded as the father kingdom of the Yoruba people.

 The 1st tradition has it that the Yoruba people migrated from the each into
Ile-Ife led by Oduduwa.

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  The 2nd tradition that the whole world who created in Ile-Ife by a divine
order under the leadership of Obatala, later Oduduwa and fifteen others
took over the responsibilities from him.

Ife had no army and did not exercise any political control over neighbours. The
ruler who called the Ooni and an Ife declared, Oyo and Bini came Itsekiris lived
in the lower delta.

Promise of southern Nigeria

 The Efiks from cross river group from the Benue Congo are believed to
have migrated southward from a location in the north of the cross river in
the valley of the Benue.
 The Ijos are largely fishermen from Nembe (Bran) Elem Kalabaiz (New
Calabar) Bonny and Okika. They are believed to have migrated from
central Delta to the eastern delta or outlying the region.

BINI: the kingdom of Bini started about three thousand years ago, first as
village communities Initially, the villager were ruled by the legendary Ogiso
(ruler of the sky). The inception of the modern ruler ship in Bini dates back to
the foundation of a new dynasty by Oranmiyan, an Ife prince. Bini social-
political organization centred around the Oba and a number of town and palace
chiefs. The Oba controlled the economic life at the empire through the guild
system and through the collection of tolls at the gate of Bini. Extensive trade
and campaigns for territorial expansion were important features of Bini relations
with her immediate neighbours. Internal disaffection and incessant disputes
between the leadership chiefs and the royalty undermined the political strength
of the empire.

NON-CENTRALISED STATES OF THE CENTRAL NIGERIA AREA

With the exception of the centralised states of the Jukun and moderately
centralised states of Igala, Ebira and Nupe probably more than 250 out of the
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300of Nigerians Ethnic groups lived in non-centralised states. This means that
hundreds of ethnic groups lived in small chiefdoms, small settlements and
villages acknowledging little or no central political authority at all.

With the exception of the central states mentioned there are no political
organizations with powerful kings and large numbers of hierarchical states
officials who were sustained by taxes and tributes from the people.

People live in clans and hamlets scattered over wide areas in dispersed
settlements. Even in the hills and plateaux which were clear manifestations as
abode of refuge and where most of the various ethnic groups lived, largely in
dispersed settlements.

NON-CENTRALISED STATES OF SOUTHERN NIGERIA AREA

The Igbo: The origin of the Igbo is traced to difference places such as Egypt,
Israel or simply to some place in the Middle Eastern territory. They are largest
said to belong to the Negro race.

The society is segmentary where social units are based on kingship and the
smallest unit was the family, then the extended family, then the lineages which
is the highest social unit was the clan which was composed of a number of
villages also claiming common ancestry, socio-political organization kevels of
kingship relations.

THE ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

 The West Africa which had contact with the outside world through the
Sahara Desert.
 Trade over the Sahara suppled W/A with much needed salt in exchange
for gold and slaves captured during inter-ethnic wars.
 Those slaves were sold to Arab Merchants.

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 By the end of the 18thCentury Europe through the Portuguese had started
trading in gold sourced from Gold Coast. They sought direct contact with
Africa to avoid the heavy duties they were paying to the Arabs.
 The Portuguese also bought human beings from the Africans they met on
the coast to supply the labour for their new colony of Sao Thome.
 Soon after wards they bought slaves to work for them on their plantations
in America.
 During the 26th century, trade in slaves from west economic opportunities
for Africans living in the area in exchange for slaves, Africans got cheap
Iron, cloths, copper, brass and guns/fire arms from the Europeans.
 The introduction of guns later introduced a new culture of violence and
massive destruction to Africans. As the guns enable them to expand
territories by conquering neighbouring communities with which they had
lived peacefully for years.
 Subsequently, most towns and states such as old Calabar and new
Calabar and Bonny, developed on or near the coast.
 By the 17th Century, slaves had become the most important item in trade
between Europe and Africa.
 Slave trade later became the most lucrative and rewarding of all trades
(including trading in gold) to Africans.
 The trade in human beings lasted for four centuries. (400 years)
 While it lasted, Africa lost more than 10 million of its labour force who
were shipped across the Atlantic to work on the sugar or cotton plantation
as slaves unpaid.
 In fact Historians have established that for every African slave who
arrived European plantations, ten deed in transit due to the horrible and
dehumanizing manner in which they were shipped across the Atlantic.

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 WHAT ARE THE REASONS FOR SLAVE TRADE?

1. Territorial and commercial expansions in Europe and America for which

indigenous Indians and Europeans
2. Disease prevalence in Europe and America to which Africans were
resistant.
3. Unfitness of indigenous Indian and Europeans
4. Africans fierce resistance to Europeans occupation
5. Development of sailing technique which made access to Africa possible
through the Atlantic Ocean.
6. Prevalence of diseases like malaria and yellow fever in Africa which
prevented the establishment of sugar and cotton plantations on Africa
soil.
7. Africans were used to keeping slaves.
8. Africans desire for European goods especially their guns.
9. To meet Europeans demand for slaves.
10.Sold slaves were not desirable and considered worthless to their masters
or communities.

EFFECTS

1. With the industrial revolution in Britain trade in human being was no

longer necessary as they were need for markets for their industrial
products.
2. Africa also provided needed raw materials
3. Genuine commitment to Christianity, in which all form of slavery was
views as sin against God.
4. In 1833, Britain abolished the states of slave in all possessions.

THE 19TH CENTURY JIHAD

 It is holy war fought against the ungodly Habe Kings of Hausa lands

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 Though the Habes Kings were Muslims they were accused of being
pagans because they violated the tenets of Shariah or Muslim laws.
 They exploited the peasants through taxation, they were corrupt and
highhanded.
 This led to discontentment among the peasants and glowing class of
Muslims were organised under Uthman Danfodia and demanded for a
change.
 Agitation for change began in GOBIR which was a powerful Hausa state
in the 18th century
 By 1804, Jihad broke out of Bobir and within a decade (10years), it
engulfed most Hausa land, parts of Borno, Gombe, Bauchi, Adamawa
and Ilorin.
 Consequently, Sokoto became the new capital from where based Jihadist
administered justice based on Shariah as demonstrated by the first four
Caliphs who ruled the Muslim world (after the death of Prophet
Mohammed).
 Uthman Danfodia’s jihad was not isolated event in history.
 It was inspired by the earlier jihads in Futa Djallon in 1725 led by
Karamoko and in Futa Toro led by Suleiman in 1776.
 Danfodia jihad was not the last in Africa, it inspired another in Macina
led by Seku Ahmadu (aka Ahmed Lobbo).
 One important feature of jihad was that the subjugation and eventual
administration were carried out by indigenous Africans who were
influenced by Arabians’ Islamic religion.
 Jihad led to massive construction of mosques and the adoption of Islam
as the state (official religion).

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  As a result of the several jihads and counter jihads, nearly two thirds of
West Africa came under Muslim government before the Europeans
conquest.
 In Nigeria, while the jihadists were busy capturing towns/villages and
imposing Islamic rule in the northern parts if Nigeria.
 The southern parts were capture and influenced by Christian religion.

EFFECTS

1. One thing that is common to both the Arab Islam and European
Christianity is that they were intolerant to indigenous way of life by
imposing their ideas on how life should be lived.
2. Africans were cut off from their indigenous philosophy of the social
world.
3. The use of force was more on the part of the jihadists but Africans exalted
the jihads while foreigners carried out Europeans conquests.
4. Both jihad and Europeans conquests composed on Africans Monotheism
(beliefs in one supreme God) in place of Polytheism (beliefs in many
gods one of which is superior to the others).
5. While Islam and Christianity are missionary religious and religions of the
books, African traditional religion are not.
6. Both Islam and Christianity came with a system of government.
7. Africans were introduced to foreign languages (Arabic, French and
English languages).
8. Africans were introduced and integrated into the world capitalist
economy of individualism as against community spirit (communalism).

THE COLONIAL EXPERIENCE

Colonialism is the practice by which a powerful country controls another

country especially by force, and for the interest of the former.

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Colonialism in Nigeria began with a subtle process of exploration and
adventure.

 The Arabs came through the desert while the Europeans came through the
Atlantic Ocean to trade with Africans.
 However the idea to colonialize did not begin with contacts with
Europeans, it actually started with the partitioning of Africa, arrived at
the Berlin conference (1804)
 In spite of African armies numerically strength, Europeans conquest was
possible because of their superior armies, better equipped with guns than
the Africans armies.

Reasons for the conquest: For instance the maxim gun fires eleven shots per
second i.e (1) 66 per minute against Africans gun that fires one per minute (2)
they had access to machine guns (3) Europe’s armies were use to large scale
wars fought with sophisticated weapons (4) European troops were composed of
conscripted Africans to fight their brethren on a pull-time basis, etc.

Despite their sophisticate weapons, Africans did not cheaply surrender, as it

took Europeans more than twenty-five years (25years) to subdue them.

SOME OF THE REASONS ARE:

 They were not used to the terrains in which they were fighting.
 The cannons and machine maxim guns being used were heavy to carry
through the bush.
 The invaders had the toughest times in Igboland and Tiv land (because
they dud b=not have centralized states)
 Africa rich natural endowments provided the attraction to Europe and
sustained their interest in the war.
 The conquest of Nigeria place her palm oil, cocoa, timber, cotton, tins
and g/nuts at Britain’s disposal.

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 Essentially, British conquests were to secure land in which her traders
had business interests (eg. Gold, coast (Ghana) Gambia, Nigeria and
Sierra Leone).
 British occupation and eventual colonialization of Nigeria did not
happen by accident;
 It was followed by series of explorations to together enough information
about its people, its product and its geography to get the necessary
information, European explorers – Mungo Park visited Nigeria in 1795,
1805-06, Oudney, Denhane and Clapperton 1823-25; Clapperton and R.
Lnader 1825-27; Richard and John Lander 1830 were dispatched at
different times to come out and explore Nigeria and its potentials.
 The exploration last from 1795-1830, but the undiscerning Africans who
merely took them as tourists in the lands willingly supplied, the
explorers information served peaceful ends; the promotion of trade and
opening up of the continent to Christian missionary activities.
 But upon their understanding of the scramble for Africa, he intention
changes to complete occupation by force and colonialization;
 The Europeans justify their actions on the basis that it was for Africans
interest to be colonialized.
 The cause of imperialism was furthered when a small group of African
elites were provided western education e.g. Samuel Ajayi Crowther, a
freed slave who became Anglican Bishop of West Africa.
 Following the conquest, colonial rule was simultaneously established in
the conquered territories.
 Colony was established in Lagos, efforts were made between 1901 and
1903 to occupy Sokoto Caliphate while army were dispatched to
established control over the Igbo between 1901 and 1919.

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  Suitable forms of administration were evolved to establish control,
which was not only effective but economical.
 Administrative styles such indirect rule etc chosen were informed, great
size, complex ethnic composition etc.
 Administrative convenience, uneven distribution of resources, and to
unite rain way system, Lagos colony was merged with the protectorate
of southern Nigeria in 1906.
 In 1914, sir Fredrick Lord Lugard amalgamated the southern and
northern protectorates give birth to the country called Nigeria
 While the indirect rule succeeded in the northern part, it failed in
southern part especially in Igbo land.

Reasons

 Centralised government in the north they were already used to

taxation etc
 Igbo land- indirect rule failed because they had no centralize
government, no taxes etc.
 Appointment warrant chiefs was unknown to them taxes led to the
Aba women riot in 1929.
 Policy of Association (Britain) Policy of Assimilation.

ASPECTS OF NIGERIA NATIONALISM AND ATTAINMENT OF

INDEPENDENCE

 Nationalism in Africa has its roots in the world war (1939-1945) which
introduced political and social reforms.
 During the WW2, colonial governments were force to accept their
obligation to develop their colonies in the interests of the inhabitants.
 They also agreed to allow the inhabitants have a say in their own future.
 Decolonization in Nigeria started with WW2.

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  Britain and France were force by America a free British and Russia
colony to introduce reforms in their colonies.
 Africans were strategic to the WW2 because the warring world powers
needed their support.

REFORMS IN BRITISH WEST AFRICA

1. The 1st reform in British West Africa was colonial development and
welfare act of 1939.
2. The funds for this development were provided by British taxpayers for
the 1st time.
3. Schools were built, roads and hospital were constructed.
4. In 1942, Africans were appointed for the 1 st time to the executive councils
of the gold coat and Nigeria.
5. In 1946, Nigeria got a new constitution called Richards constitution
which created an unofficial majority in the legislature council.
6. As a result of increased agitations for constitutional change and self-
government by the end of the WW2, Nigeria got her political
independence in 1960 three years after Ghana.
7. Nigeria’s independence, through Anthony Enahoro moved the motion in
1958, it had to wait till 1 st October, 1960 because of the size and diversity
of the country.
8. Nigeria independence was slowed down because Sir (Lord) Fredrick
Lugard’s 1914 amalgamation instead of bringing about one
administration unit, imposed three administrative units.
i. The protectorate of northern Nigeria, with its head quarters in
Lungeru(later Kaduna) administered by a Lieutenant-governor
ii. Lagos colony and the protectorate of southern Nigeria, with H/Q in
Enugu was under another Lieutenant-governor.

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iii. While Lugard himself was in Lagos coordinating the activities of his
Lieutenant.
9. Until 1946 when Nigeria had the Richards condition, the north and south
were administered separately.
 Governor Richards brought the north south in a central legislative.
Assembly for the first time.
 Dr NnamdiAzikiwe who had formed a party called the national council of
Nigeria and Cameroons (NCNC) with Herbert Macaulay led a strong
protect against it for lack of consultation.
10.Governor Macpherson who succeeded Richardsconsulled with Nigerians
and produced the Macpherson constitution in 1951.
 Though it retained unofficial majority, it created three region and regional
governments.
11.This constitution popularized ethnic politics and created ethnically-based
political parties.

 The north formed the northern people congress (NPC), wert had Action
Group (AG) while the east found succour in the national council of
Nigerian citizen (NCNC).
12. Council of ministers were formed with an unofficial majority containing
four representatives from each region.
 It sprinted real legislative power to each regional assemblies.
13.Governor Lyttelton’s constitution increased the powers of the regional
assemblies and made membership of the federal house of representatives
elective.
 The northern region was allowed to supply.
 Way of the federal house of representative members.
 The remaining way was shared by west and east.

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  Who gave the north singular majority to produce the Nigeria’s first prime
ministerSir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa during the 1954 general election.
14.In the 1954 general elections, coalition government between the NPC and
NCNCwas formed.
 The north achieved self-government in 1959, while the west and east
achieved it 1957.
 In 1959 another election was held and NPC and declared the winner.
 Nigeria became independent on 1 stOctober 1960 but with a legacy of
regional and ethnic hostility.
 Other manifestations of ethnic hostility Suspicion and politics in post
independent Nigeria were coup details and counter coup, civiliar and
incessant ethno-region riots.
 Fulani herdsmen, farmers, kidnapping, and crises of all sorts. Such an
communal political and religions crises.

POST INDEPENDENCE NIGERIA TO PRESENT

 Independence 1960, October 1

 Nigeria inherited 3 regions -Western region
-Eastern region
-Northern region
 Parliamentary system of government

-ceremonial president

-prime minister who is the head of government

 Mid-week region was later created

Problem At Independence

 Ethnic domination
 Loyalties

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  Marginalization
 Ethnic politics
 A glural election was held 1959
 Another general election was held 1964
NPC -Northern people congress
NCNC –National council of Nigeria citizen
AG –Action Group
 15th Jan 1966 the 1st coup led by 5 majors
July 1966 the 2nd coup Gen Gowon
 Nigeria civil war – which lasted for 30months
 Gen Gowon declared that there was No Victor No Vanquish
 Created 12 states
 He created the 3Rs
Rehabilitation
Reconstruction
Reconciliation
 By 1975 Gowon was toppled by Gen Murtala Mohammed = created
19states.
 1976 he was associated in coup dictate.
 Gen Obasanjo took over = operations feed the nations.
 1st October 1999 = Obasanjo organized election contested by 5 political
parties.
UPN-united party of Nigeria- Awolowo
NPN- national party of Nigeria- Shagari
NPP- Nigeria people party- Azikiwe
GNPP- great Nigeria people party- Waziri
PRP – People Redemption Party – Amir Kano
 1983 – General Buhari toppled Shagari –back to land
 1985 – Gen. IBBtappoled Buhari –SAP

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  1993 - Chief EnerstShonekon -33months 31 states
 1993 –Gen. Abacha – 36H State vision 2010
 1998 Gen. Abdulsalim – 9 months
 1999 chief. Obansajo – NEEDS, NAPEP
 2007 – Alhaji Umaru Musa Yar’adua – May 29 –over 30 political parties
7 point agenda
 2011- Dr. Goodluch Jonathan
 2015 President Muhammed BuhariTransformation Agenda

NIGERIA TRADITION, ECONOMY, SOCIAL, CULTURE AND

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION/INSTITUTIONS.

Law: it is a means of social control, it is the expression of the ruling class

ideology

One political system- two legal system

Penal code – Islamic law from Sudan

Criminal Law – Criminal law from Australia

The law are both foreign because of their sources.

 Alternative dispute resolution (ADR)

Economy: African economy

 70% of the population live in the rural area, producing the food for the
vast majority of the people using crude implement.
 Nigeria depend on oil for her foreign earning but before oil was
discovered, agriculture was the main stay of the economy.
 Agriculture has suice been abandoned as a result of the money being
realised from oil.
 The Urban dwellers interface with the rural dwellers to sources in the
urban.

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  A lot of them still depend in the urban areas
 The Nigeria economy is complex mix of federal capitalist and socialist.
 Nigerians are cut from their roots as a result of colonialism. Colonialism
integrated the country into the capitalist mode of production, which now
defines the character of the economy.
 Capitalism encourages private ownership of the means of production,
profit and competition.
 This is largely seen in the urban areas, but in the rural areas, people still
live communal lives (community spirit). This introduces some form of
contradiction between the life live in the urban areas and the rural areas.

Society: The Nigerian society is made up of several ethnic nationalities:

Each ethnic group existed independently but interacted with other

ethnic group in form of trade, war etc.

 These ethnic groups constitute the Nigerian society.

Tradition: Nigeria is multi-ethnic and religious group. This therefore suggest

different culture amongst the people.

Islamic Religious subsumed other culture of the people who adhere to the
religion since Islamic is a total way of life, so every other this is done and seen
from the eye of the religion.

Christianity too had impact on our cultural heritage.

However ethnic groups still keep some elements of their culture, which can be
seen in their dressing, dancing names, food, language etc. there is no single
Nigerian tradition because of our diverse nature.

Political organizations:

We had both centralized and de-centralized states before the coming of the
colonialist. Our political organization now revolves around political parties or

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democracy – with three of government which are: federal, State and local
governments.

With some elements of feudalising (chiefs, Emirs, Kings etc) who own the land
and the peasant work for them pay tribute, taxes or rent on those land.

Federal: Bia – cameral legislature

Senate

The House of Representatives

State: The state Houses of Assembly

Local Government: The Legislature House

The Presidential System of government.

Executive President

Executive Governor

Executive Chairman

 The executives Three arms of government

 The legislature each having a role or function in the
 The Judiciary presidential system

NIGERIA ROLE IN AFRICA AND WORLD AFFAIRS

 Giant of Africa
 Abolition of Apartheid in South Africa
 Enhancement id Nigeria’s relations with members countries of other
major industrialized countries.

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  Containment support for international organization such as Economic
Community of West Africans States (ECOWAS) The Africans Union
(AU) etc.
 Relations with other African states constitutes the cornerstone of Nigeria
foreign policy.

FACTORS INFLUENCING NIGERIA’S FOREIGN POLICY

1. The ethnic and religious mix

2. Nigeria’s legacy as an ex-British colony combined with its energy-
producing role in the global economy, predisposed Nigeria to be pro-
western on most issues.
3. The countries membership in and commitment to several international
organizations such as the United Nations affect the foreign policy
position.
4. Nigeria’s perceived role as the giant of Africa and the potential leader of
the black race.

RELATIONS WITH NEIGHBOURING STATES

 Nigeria had cordial relations with all its neighbours – Benin, Niger,
Chad, Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea as well as with other countries
in the west African sub region, with most of which it had bilateral
agreements.
 The had been occasional border disputes with Chad and Cameroon and
military action was contemplated by the civilian government in 1982
and 1983.
 The expulsion of illegal immigrations mainly Ghanaians was another
crisis point which was amicably resolved.

RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER AFRICAN COUNTRIES

 Nigeria was a founding member if OAU (AU).

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  Nigeria played a role in the independence of Zimbabwe
 Nigeri has contributed military personals in peace keeping forces eg.
ECOWAS Cease-fire Monitoring Group ECOMOG) sent to Liberia,
S/Leon
 Nigeria supported the Africa national congress for its effort against the
apartheid regime in S/Africa
 Nigeria gives aids and technical Assistance to several African states
through the African development Bank E.g. Technical Aid Corps.

PEACE AND CONFLICT STUDIES, COMMUNICATION AND

CULTURE FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Peace and conflict is a social science filed that identifies and analyses violent
and nonviolent behaviours as well as the structural mechanisms attending social
conflicts with a view towards understanding those processes which lead to a
more desirable human condition. A variation on this, peace studies (irenology),
is an interdisciplinary effort aiming at the prevention, de-escalation, and
solution of conflicts by peaceful means, thereby seeking ‘victory’ for all parties
involved in the conflict.

This is in contract to war studies (polemology) which has as its aim on the
efficient attainment of victory in conflicts, big and large by violent means and to
the satisfaction of one or more, but not all, parties involved, disciplines involved
may include political science, geography, economics, psychology, sociology,
international relations, history, anthropology, religious studies, and gender
studies, as well as variety of others.

HISTORY OF PEACE STUDIES

The First World War was a turning point in western attitudes to war. At the
1919 peace of Paris where the leaders of France, Britain and the USA (led by

23
Clemenceau Lloyd George and Wilson) met to decide the future of Europe,
Woodrow Wilson proposed his famous Fourteen points for peace-making.

These included breaking up European empire into nations and the estanlisment
of the league of nations. These moves, intended to endure a peaceful fur=ture,
were the background to a number of development in the emergence of peace
and conflict studies as an academic discipline (but they also, as Keynes
preacieint pointed out, laid the seeds for future conflict). The founding of the
first chair in international relations (at Aberystwyth University, Wales) whose
remit was partly to further the cause of peace, occurred in 1919.

After world war II, the founding of the Un system provided a further stimulus
for more rigorous approaches to peace and conflict studies to emerge. Many
University in schools of higher learning around the world began to develop
which upon questions of peace (often in relation war) during this period. The
first academic program in the US in peace studies was not to develop until
1948, and then only at Manchester College in Indiana, a small library arts
college. It was not until the late 1960s in the US that student concern about the
Vietnam war force ever more universities to offer course about peace, whether
in a designated peace studies courses or as a course within a traditional journal.
Work by academic such as Johan Galtung and John Burton, and debates in for a
such as the journal of peace research in the 1960s refl3ected the growing
interest and academic stature of the field.

There is now a general consensus on the importance of peace and conflict

studies amongst scholars from a range of disciplines in and around the social
sciences, as well as from many influential policymakers around the world.
Peace and conflict studies today is widely researched and taught in a large and
growing number of institutions and locations. The number of universities
offering peace and conflict studies courses is hard to estimate, mostly because

24
courses may be taught out of different departments and have very different
names.

CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE

Galtung’s negative and positive peace framework is the most widely used today.
Negative peace refers to the absence of direct violence. Positive peace refers to
the absence of indirect and structural violence, and is the concept that most
peace and conflict researchers adopt.

Several conceptions, models, or modes of peace have been suggested in which

peace research might prosper.

 The first is that peace is a natural social condition, whereas war is not.
The premise is simple for seek to avoid war and conflict.
 Second, the view that violence is useful or unskilful, and that non-
violence is skilful or virtuous and should be cultivated. This view is held
by a variety of religious traditions worldwide: Quakers, Mennonites and
other peace churches within Christianity; Jains, Yoga, Buddhism, and
other schools of Indian religion and philosophy, Islam (Violence itself is
a crime the Quran).
 Third is pacifism: the view that peace is a prime force in human
behaviour.
 A further approach is that there are multiple modes of peace

Conflict triangle

Johan Galtung’s conflict triangle works on the assumption that the best way
todefine peace is to define violence, its antithesis. It reflects the normative aim
of preventing, managing, limited and overcoming violence. [14]

 Direct (overt) violence, e.g., direct attack, massacre.

25
  Structural violence. Death by avoidable reasons such as malnutrition.
Structural violence is indirect violence caused by an unjust structure and
is equation withan act of God.
 Cultural violence. Cultural violence occurs as a result of the cultural
assumption that blind one to direct or structural violence. For example,
one may be indifferent toward the homeless, or even consider their
expulsion or extermination a good thing.

Each corner of Gultung’s triangle can relate to the other two. Ethnic cleansing
can be an example of all three.

Cost of conflict

Cost of conflict is a tool which attempts to calculate the price of conflict to the
human race. The idea is to examine this cost, not only in terms of the death
casualties and economic cost borne by the people involved, but also the social,
developmental, environmental and strategic costs of conflict. The approach
considers direct costs of conflict, for instance human deaths, expenditure,
destruction of land humiliation, growth of extremism and lack of civil society.

Some factors that lead to crisis in Nigeria, religion ethnicity polities,

domination, suppression.

The normative aims of peace studies are conflict transformation and conflict
resolution through mechanisms such as peacekeeping, peacebuilding (e.g.,
tackling disparities in rights, institution and the distribution of world wealth)
and peace making (e.g mediation and conflict resolution). Peace keeping falls
under the aegis of negative peace. [17]

One of the interesting developments within peace and conflict studies is the
number of military personnel undertaking such studies. This poses some
challenges, as the military is an instruction ostensibly committed to combat. In
the article “teaching peace to the military”, published in the journal peace

26
review, James page argues for five principles that ought to undergird this
undertaking, namely, respect but do not privilege military experience, teach the
just war theory, encourage students to demythologize, and recognize the
importance of military virtue.

From conflict resolution to liberal peacebuilding and statebuilding

Scholars working in the areas of peace and conflict studies have made
significant contributions to the policies used by non-governmental
organisations, development agencies, International Financial Institutions,
policies and the UN system in the specific areas of conflict resolution and
citizen diplomacy, development, political, social, and economic reform,
peacekeeping mediation, early warning, prevention. Peacebuilding, and
statebuilding. This represented a shift in interest from conflict management
approaches oriented towards a ‘negative peace’ to conflict resolution and
peacebuilding approaches aimed at a positive peace. This emerged rapidly at the
end of the cold war, and was encapsulated in the report of then UN secretary-
General Boutros-Ghali, an agenda for peace.

Indeed, it might be said that much of the machinery of what has been called
liberal peacebuilding’ by a number of scholars rests, or statebuilding’ by
another groups of scholars in based largely on the work that has been carried out
in this area. many scholars in the area have advocated a more ‘emancipatory’
form of peacebuilding, however, based upon a ‘Responsibility to protect’
human security, local ownership and part participation in process, especially
after the limited success of liberal peacebuilding/state building in places as
diverse as Cambodia, the Balkans, Timor Lester, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Nepal,
Afghanistan and Iraq. This research agenda is in the process of establishing a
more nuanced agenda for peacebuilding which also connects with the original,
qualitative and normative oriented work the emerged in the peace studies and
conflict research schools of the 1960s (eg. See the Oslo Peace Research Institute

27
research project on “Liberal Peace and the Ethic Peacebuilding” and the
“Liberal Peace Transitions” project at the University of St. Andrews and more
critical ideas about peacebuilding that have recently developed in many
European and non-western academic and policy circles.

CRITICISM AND CONTROVERSY

A number of critics have been aimed at peace and conflict studies from outside
the realms of university system. These often claim the following: (1) that they
do produce practical prescriptions for managing or resolving global conflicts
because “ideology always trumps objectivity and pragmatism (2) they ate
focused on putting a “respectable face on western self-loathing”: (3) their
programs are hypocritical because the “tacitly or openly support terrorism as a
permissible strategy for the “disempowered” to redress real or perceived
grievance against the powerful; (4) peace studies curricula are (according to
human rights activist Caroline Cox and Philosopher Roger Scruton)
“intellectually incoherent, riddled with bias and unworthy of academic status..”
(5) peace studies faculty are not fully competent in the disciplines (such as
economics) whose ideas were invoked as solutions to problems of conflict: (6)
policies proposed to “eliminate the causes of violence” are uniformly leftist
policies, and not necessarily policies which would find braod agreement among
social scientists.

Barbara Kay a columnist for the National Post, specifically the views of
Norwegian professor John Galtund, who is consisted to be leader in modern
peace research. Kay wrote that Galtung has written on the “structural Fascism”
of “rich Western Christian” democracies, admires Fidel Casro, and has
criticized the west’s support for “persecuted elite personages” such as
AleksanderSolzhenitynans Andrei Sakharov. Glaltung has also praised Mao
Zedong for “endlessly liberating” china. Galtung has also stated that the united
states is a “Killer country” that is guilty of “nero-fascist state terrorism” and has

28
reportedly stated that the destruction of Washington, D.C could be justified by
America’s foreign policy. He has also compared the U.S to Nazi Germany for
bombing Kosovo during the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia.

In the summer 2007 edition of city Journal, Bruce Bower sharply criticized
peace studies. He noted that Marxist of far-left professors runs many peace
studies programs in American Universities. He also cited a quote from peace to
and conflict studies, a widely used 2002 textbook David Barash and Charles
Webel’s which praises Lenin, who “maintained that only revolution-not reform-
could undo capitalism’s tendency towards imperialism and thence to war.”
More broadly, he argued that peace studies are dominated by the belief that
“America that is the wellspring of the world’s problems” and that while
professors of peace studies argue “that terrorist positions deserve respect at the
negotiating table, “they” seldom tolerate(s) alternative views “and that” peace
studies, as a rule, rejects questioning of its own guiding ideology.

Kay and Bower also specifically criticized professors Gordon Fellman, the
chairman of Brandeis University’s peace, Conflict, and Coexistence Studies
Program, whom they claimed has justified Palestinian suicide-bombings against
Israelis as “ways of inflicting revenge on an enemy that seems unable or
unwilling to respond to rational pleas for discussion and justice.

Katherine Kersten, a senior fellow at the Minneapolis-based conservative think

tank center of the America Experiment, says peace studies programs are
“dominated by people of a certain ideological bent, and [are] thus hard to take
seriously. “Robert Kennedy, a professor of Catholic studies and management at
the university of St. Thomas, criticized his university’s peace studies program in
an interview with Minneapolis Star Tribune in 2002, stating that the program
employs several adjunct professors, “whose academic qualifications are not as
strong as we would ordinarily look for” and that “The combination of the

29
ideology bite and the maybe less-than-full academic credentials of the faculty
would probably raise some questions about how scholarly the program is.”

Responses

Such views have been strongly opposed by scholars on a number of grounds.

They underestimate the development of detailed interdisciplinary, theoretical,
methodological, and empirical research into the causes of violence and
dynamics of peace that has occurred via academic and policy networks around
the world.

In response to Barbara Kay’s article, a group of peace studies exports in Canada

response that Kay’s argument that the field of peace studies supports terrorism
“is nonsense.” They argued that:

Dedicated peace theorists and researchers are distinguished by their

commitment to reduce the use of violence whether committed y enemy nations,
friendly governments or warlords of any stripe…Ms. Kay attempt to portray
advocates for peace as native and idealistic, but the data shows that the large
majority of armed conflicts in recent decades have been ended through
negotiations, not military solutions.

Most academics in the area argue that the accusation that peace studies
approaches are not objectives, and derived from mainly leftist or inexpert
sources, are not practical, support violence rather than reject it, or have not led
to policy developments, are clearly incorrect. They note that the development of
UN, and major donor policies (including the EU, US, and UK, as well as many
others including those of Japan, Canada, Norway, etc.) towards and in conflict
and countries have been heavily influenced by such debates. A range of key
policies document and response have been developed by these governments in
the last decade and more, and in UN (or related) documentation such as Agenda
for Democratization; the Millennium Development Goals, Responsibility to

30
protect, and the High Level Panel Report. They have also been significant for
the work of the World Bank, International Development Agencies, and a wide
range of Non- Governmental Organisations. It has been influential in the work
of, among others, the UN, UNDP, UN Peacebuilding Commission, UNHCR,
the World Bank, EU, OSCE, for national donors uncluding USAID, DFID,
SIDA, NORAD, Japan Aid.

CULTURE: Nigeria cultural heritage

Culture in a way of life peculiar to a people which in transmitted from

Generation to generation through socialization (currently failed largely procen).

Culture has two aspects namely

Material culture: Dressing, hairdo house cooking utensils, agricultural tools.

Non- material culture: Religion/belief ideology, shills/ techniques, names etc.

Political culture:

We speak of political culture just as we speak of economic culture and religion,

culture.

It is a set of attitudes toward a special set of political objects and process, these
are indeed material and non-material a speak of the political culture.

People within a swen political culture have attitude which they display towards
symbol or object which represents political.

Introduction

The political culture of a nation is the faith of distribution of patterns of

orientation or popular attitude towards political object among the member of
that nation. A nation political culture, leme, involving the political style, values
noms emotion, belief and symbols attachment that are dominant among a
population.

31
The political culture of Nigeria varies from culture to culture. Their processes of
electing or selecting their leader arises from their known, value beliefs etc.
specific to a thrown.

In the national life perspective- we have adopted democracy which involves

election of leaders through the ballot boxes either secret or open. Their form of
political culture needs to be constantly modify the confirm to our names, value
etc.

1. Nigeria culture heritage

 Nigeria With A Population of 150m people occupying an area of 357,000
square miles.
 Highest population in black Africa and also the largest concentration of
slave in the world.
 Has about 352 ethnic groups whose number paused from fifteen million
in care of the major ethnic groups to few hundred for the small groups.
 Nigeria is therefore a land of great diversity of many culture,
opportunities and contract.
 Environmental variation are reflected in the large number of cultivated
crops and products as well as variations in languages and culture.
 As a result of these, Nigeria in their described as a land of great diversity,
united by force of geography, economy, history, necessarily and defence.
 As Nigeria is a multi-ethnic society, an also is the culture, marriage,
religion worship, language, music, air and economy.
 Where as much is known about the various ways of life worship of the
culture area of Nigeria,
1. The economic culture, which is perhaps must important aspect of the
perhaps life is not often appreciated.
 The economic culture of a people is dynamic an it respond to change
within the immediate environment and other parts of the world.
32
  Economic activities form part of an interpret part of the peoples life. A
noble means of live hood is not only an accessory to healthy growth of
the population and is culture is culture, if is a fine compulsory sub-non
for the development of the nation.
 Nigeria has 2 method of season-the rainy season and dry season, 2
district vegetation zone, the forest and the savanna. In the south the
rainy season last for roughly six months while it is much shorter in the
north. There is an annual harmattan the identity of which increases as
one travels from south to north, because of the devised climatic
conditions.
 The climate condition determine the occupation of each area an well as
the type of crops that could be cultivated successfully and profitably.
North-grain and staples diet=south-root crops.

POLITIES IN NIGERIA

POST INDEPENDENCE NIGERIA TO PRESENT.

 Nigeria attained independence in 1960.

 At independence Nigeria inherited the parclmentary system of goods
from the British their Colonial president

President (Ceremonial)

Prime Minister – who is actually the head of government

At independence, the Nigeria state inherited three region which were

-Northern region

-Eastern region and

-Western region

-mid-west region

33
 Mid-west region was as a result of agitation of marginalization and
domination of the minority ethnic groups sand witched among the
majority (Yoruba) ethnic groups.

These agitation were not common to only the Western region but also the North
region by the middle belt people now know as the North-central region and by
the river the people are as sand witched among the Ibos now known as the
South-South people.

How ever ,neither the north or the East were further applied as was the care with
the western region. The general disrupting action that created the 1960
generation elections sowed seed of discord which also manifested itself in the
1964 general election. It is the mishandling of elections in 6he western region
and the subsequent total breakdown of law and order that resulted in complete
insecurity of life and prosperity. The government was cript and lacked purpose,
the nation was sick.

The election of 1964 was thought on regional loyalty, with a strong tribal or
ethnic trains, the government that emerged was a coalition of two regionally-
taxed parties leaving, the third party also regionally tared as an opposition.

All patriotic teaching were lost and selfishness, greed, corruption sectionalism
and tribalism were extolled. It is all there that provided bares or for the 15 th
January 1966 coup which led to a counter coup in July 1966.

The heightened hospitality against Easterners, especially Ibos in the northern

region in particular led to west Ibos leaving their movable and immovable
property in other parts of Nigeria and led to the Easterner region.

This situation led to the 30 months civil war that was fought by the federal
troops and seceding Biafra Republic led by Col. Ojukwu.

34
After the civil war Gen. Gowon who was then head of state declared that there
was no victor and no vanquili and introduced the 3RS

Rehabilitation

Created 12 states

Reconstruction and from the 4 regions

By 1975, Gen. Gowon was toppled in a military coup led by Gen Murtala
Moh’d in 1976. After the assassination Gen. OlusenguObaranjo took over to
Alhaji Shehu Shasani on October, 1979.

By December 1983, after the general election that returned Alhaji Shagun to
power, the military toppled the same regime and Gen. Muhammed Buhari
because head of state.

General Buhari was toppled by Gen. Ibrahim B. Babangida on August 1985,

Gen. IBB created more states from the 19-21 state IBB handed over to an in
term national government, after anmiling the acclaimed treest, and arrest
election in Nigeria, popularly known as June 12, 1993.

The ING led chief Enerestshonek on lasted for 3 months when he was said to
have regime pouring way for Gen. Sani Abacha a maximum ruler. Who brought
the number the states to 36 + FCT making 37 states.

He died a very uncertain circumstances and Gen. Abdulsamir Abubakar took

over in 1998. He organized election and former head of state general Obasanjo
became president as chief Obasanjo in 1999-2007.

He organized the 1st civilian to civilian hand over and handed on the 29 th may
2007 to Alhaji Umar Musa Yar’adua an unsuccessful attempt to encourage his
tenure through a constitutional amendment popularly known as third term.

35
Today Nigeria has close to 30 political parties. But only PDP, ANPP, AC, PPP
(Progressive people parties) have been able to produce states governors.

The election triburials are still sitting and judgment have been delivered, a few
others are being awaited.

Nigeria Tradition, Economy, Social Culture and the Nigeria Economy Political
organization.

The Nigeria economy is socially a rural economy, largely agrarian (agriculture)

with industrialization and commercial activities taking their roots from
agriculture. The four factors of production are employed in the economy, land,
labour, capital and entrepreneur.

Tools

Tools carried with occupations: farmers made use of those, cutlasses, sickle,
knives etc.

Capital: Capital or finance was organized at the individual level, by those who
needed it for their economic used to organized capital. Through saving,
borrowings, gifts and proceeds from the date of goods. They were cooperative
savings clubs in many societies such as “Adache” “Isusu” “Odeha” “Ugbakego”
becoming a source of capital in modern day Nigerian societies through the
interest rate has made it limited to the few upper class.

Labour: Labour requirements were met through the lineages or family unit.
Most activities, be it economic, political or religious, were performed within the
lineage circuit. The institution of domestic slavery provided warriors, wealthy
trades and the political elite with labour, whichcould be used for diverse
activities.

36
Another source was through the cooperative work groups. This involves the
drafting of many able bodies’ people in the community into a labour force for a
single person.

Hausa- cooperative work group –‘gayya’ well organised and provided occasion
for mery-making, drumming and dancing. In other ethnic group it called names
such as ‘Oluwa’, farm for wages (payment).

Land: Every society had its laws and regulations on the access to and
distribution of its land and how to settle disputes over land. Through these laws
varied from one community to another. Land was corporately owned, it was the
force, which united all the members of a community.

Local saving method- ‘Adachi’ ‘Isusu’ ‘Ogeha’ etc. through this finance are
mobilized.

Gowon Regime

Development Plan

1970-1974

1975-1978

1979-1982

1983-1986

Mustala Regime

19 states

Obasanjo Regime

1976-1979

-Operation feed the nation

Shagari - Green revolution

37
Buhari –Back land

IBB –SAP

Obasanjo –Needs

CULTURE

Culture is a way of life peculiar to a people, whichis transmitted from

generation to generation through socialization (consciously guided learning
process).

Culture has two aspects namely:

Material culture

 Dressing, hairdo, house, cooking utensils, agricultural tools.

Non-Material Culture

 Religion/belief, ideology, skills technique, names etc.

The rate at which these aspects of culture respond to change differ while the
material aspects respond quickly than the non-material aspects do slowly.

 The time it takes for one aspect to catch up with another is called
culture lag
 Culture shock-the sharp difference between cultures of different people
or of the same social life operate in sharp difference or contrast to the
same social life is called culture shock.

The culture is a people is there identity, language resource are critical to that
once people begin to lose their identity eg. Mother tongue, names etc they
people become extinct.

Social culture: Our social culture still revolves around the types of traditional
institution found in our various places.

38
In the area of marriage, inheritances, succession i.e at the family level or
societal level, land ownership all revolves around the traditional institutions,
resolution of disputes amongst members of society are all dependent on the type
of traditional institution prevailed in an area.

Political Organization

Feudalism existing side by side with other forms of organization

Traditional rulers -Federal system - State –local government

Governors -Chairman

AIDS AND ITS IMPLICATION

AIDS - Acquired immune deficiency syndrome is caused by HIV virus

 Does not know boundaries

 Has no respect for class or age
 Does not discriminate on race
 Has defied medical efforts

HIV/AIDS: has claimed more lives than all wars put together

It has been the worst plague since the 14th century

HIV/AIDS infection is a sexually transmitted disease and its major source of

transmission is through sex

Source the principal source of transmission in Nigeria is through sexual

intercourse, precaution efforts have focused on behavioural change
among the information and education

-to avoid risky behaviours such as multiple sexual partners and

unprotected sex, while encouraging faithfulness in relationships or
sexual absence before marriage

39
 -message for those who don’t want to abstain has been the use of
condom.

-condom has been discovered not be a 100% protection

-the disease was first reported in Nigeria in 1985 four years after it
was discovered in Africa.

-the disease carries along with it shames and stigma

-the disease was first discovered in 1981 in the United States

-70% percent of the global injection is in Africa

-the regions of highest prevalence are in the North central and in

the Southern, East and South-South

-Benue state is reported to have the highest rate of infection and

prevalence rate of 21%.

IMPLICATION

-Lost of able bodies men and women

-increase in the numbers of orphans, widows, and widowers

-Increase numbers if household with children as family heads

-Resources for development are channelled to fight the epidemic and manage
infection

-The stigma attached to the disease is making people not coming out to obtain
help.

-Stigmatisation is found to be the greatest killers of people found to be infected

with the disease.

40