9/12/23, 11:04 PM External Symmetry of Crystals, 32 Crystal Classes

EENS 2110 Mineralogy

Tulane University Prof. Stephen A. Nelson
External Symmetry of Crystals, 32 Crystal Classes

This page last updated on 20-Aug-2013

As stated in the last lecture, there are 32 possible combinations of symmetry operations that
define the external symmetry of crystals. These 32 possible combinations result in the 32
crystal classes. These are often also referred to as the 32 point groups. We will go over some
of these in detail in this lecture, but again I want to remind everyone that the best way to see
this material is by looking at the crystal models in lab.

Hermann-Mauguin (International) Symbols

Before going into the 32 crystal classes, I first want to show you how to derive the Hermann-
Mauguin symbols (also called the international symbols) used to describe the crystal classes
from the symmetry content. We'll start with a simple crystal then look at some more complex
examples.

The rectangular block shown here has 3 2-fold rotation

axes (A2), 3 mirror planes (m), and a center of
symmetry (i). The rules for deriving the Hermann-
Mauguin symbol are as follows:

1. Write a number representing each of the unique

rotation axes present. A unique rotation axis is
one that exists by itself and is not produced by
another symmetry operation. In this case, all
three 2-fold axes are unique, because each is
perpendicular to a different shaped face, so we
write a 2 (for 2-fold) for each axis

2 2 2

2. Next we write an "m" for each unique mirror plane. Again, a unique mirror plane is one
that is not produced by any other symmetry operation. In this example, we can tell that
each mirror is unique because each one cuts a different looking face. So, we write:

2m2m2m

3. If any of the axes are perpendicular to a mirror plane we put a slash (/) between the
symbol for the axis and the symbol for the mirror plane. In this case, each of the 2-fold
axes are perpendicular to mirror planes, so our symbol becomes:

2/m2/m2/m

If you look in the table given in the lecture notes below, you will see that this crystal model
belongs to the Rhombic-dipyramidal class.

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Our second example involves the block shown here to the

right. This model has one 2-fold axis and 2 mirror planes.
For the 2-fold axis, we write:

Each of the mirror planes is unique. We can tell that because

each one cuts a different looking face. So, we write 2 "m"s,
one for each mirror plane:

2mm
Note that the 2-fold axis is not perpendicular to a mirror plane, so we need no slashes. Our
final symbol is then:

2mm

For this crystal class, the convention is to write mm2 rather than 2mm (I'm not sure why). If
you consult the table below, you will see that this crystal model belongs to the Rhombic-
pyramidal class.
The third example is shown here to the right. It
contains 1 4-fold axis, 4 2-fold axes, 5 mirror
planes, and a center of symmetry. Note that the 4-
fold axis is unique. There are 2 2-fold axes that are
perpendicular to identical faces, and 2 2-fold axes
that run through the vertical edges of the crystal.
Thus there are only 2 unique 2 fold axes, because
the others are required by the 4-fold axis
perpendicular to the top face. So, we write:

4 2 2
Although there are 5 mirror planes in the model, only 3 of them are unique. Two mirror planes
cut the front and side faces of the crystal, and are perpendicular to the 2-fold axes that are
perpendicular to these faces. Only one of these is unique, because the other is required by the
4-fold rotation axis. Another set of 2 mirror planes cuts diagonally across the top and down the
edges of the model. Only one of these is unique, because the other is generated by the 4-fold
rotation axis and the previously discussed mirror planes. The mirror plane that cuts
horizontally through the crystal and is perpendicular to the 4-fold axis is unique. Since all
mirror unique mirror planes are perpendicular to rotation axes, our final symbol becomes:

4/m2/m2/m

Looking in the table below, we see that this crystal belongs to the Ditetragonal-dipyramidal
class.

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Our last example is the most

complex. Note that it has 3 4-
fold rotation axes, each of which
is perpendicular to a square
shaped face, 4 3-fold
rotoinversion axes (some of
which are not shown in the
diagram to reduce complexity),
each sticking out of the corners
of the cube, and 6 2-fold
rotation axes (again, not all are
shown), sticking out of the
edges of the cube. In addition,
the crystal has 9 mirror planes,
and a center of symmetry.
There is only 1 unique 4 fold axis, because each is perpendicular to a similar looking face (the
faces of the cube). There is only one unique 3-fold rotoinversion axes, because all of them
stick out of the corners of the cube, and all are related by the 4-fold symmetry. And, there is
only 1 unique 2-fold axis, because all of the others stick out of the edges of the cube and are
related by the mirror planes the other set of 2-fold axes. So, we write a 4, a , and a 2 for each
of the unique rotation axes.

4 2

There are 3 mirror planes that are perpendicular to the 4 fold axes, and 6 mirror planes that are
perpendicular to the 2-fold axes. No mirror planes are perpendicular to the 3-fold rotoinversion
axes. So, our final symbol becomes:

4/m 2/m

Consulting the table in the lecture notes below, reveals that this crystal belongs to the
hexoctahedral crystal class.
The 32 Crystal Classes

The 32 crystal classes represent the 32 possible combinations of symmetry operations. Each
crystal class will have crystal faces that uniquely define the symmetry of the class. These
faces, or groups of faces are called crystal forms. Note that you are not expected to memorize
the crystal classes, their names, or the symmetry associated with each class. You will, however,
be expected to determine the symmetry content of crystal models, after which you can consult
the tables in your textbook, lab handouts, or lecture notes. All testing on this material in the lab
will be open book.

In this lecture we will go over some of the crystal classes and their symmetry. I will not be able
to cover all of the 32 classes. You will, however, see many of the 32 classes during your lab
work. Note that it is not easy to draw a crystal of some classes without adding more symmetry
or that can be easily seen in a two dimensional drawing.

The table below shows the 32 crystal classes, their symmetry, Hermann-Mauguin symbol, and
class name.

Crystal System Crystal Class Symmetry Name of Class

1 none Pedial
Triclinic
i Pinacoidal

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2 1A2 Sphenoidal
Monoclinic m 1m Domatic
2/m i, 1A2, 1m Prismatic
222 3A2 Rhombic-disphenoidal
Orthorhombic mm2 (2mm) 1A2, 2m Rhombic-pyramidal
2/m2/m2/m i, 3A2, 3m Rhombic-dipyramidal
4 1A4 Tetragonal- Pyramidal

4 Tetragonal-disphenoidal
4/m i, 1A4, 1m Tetragonal-dipyramidal
Tetragonal 422 1A4, 4A2 Tetragonal-trapezohedral
4mm 1A4, 4m Ditetragonal-pyramidal
2m 1 4, 2A2, 2m Tetragonal-scalenohedral
4/m2/m2/m i, 1A4, 4A2, 5m Ditetragonal-dipyramidal
3 1A3 Trigonal-pyramidal
1 3 Rhombohedral
32 1A3, 3A2 Trigonal-trapezohedral
3m 1A3, 3m Ditrigonal-pyramidal
2/m 1 3, 3A2, 3m Hexagonal-scalenohedral
6 1A6 Hexagonal-pyramidal
Hexagonal
1 6 Trigonal-dipyramidal
6/m i, 1A6, 1m Hexagonal-dipyramidal
622 1A6, 6A2 Hexagonal-trapezohedral
6mm 1A6, 6m Dihexagonal-pyramidal
m2 1 6, 3A2, 3m Ditrigonal-dipyramidal
6/m2/m2/m i, 1A6, 6A2, 7m Dihexagonal-dipyramidal
23 3A2, 4A3 Tetaroidal
2/m 3A2, 3m, 4 3 Diploidal
Isometric 432 3A4, 4A3, 6A2 Gyroidal
3m 3 4, 4A3, 6m Hextetrahedral
4/m 2/m 3A4, 4 3, 6A2, 9m Hexoctahedral

Note that the 32 crystal classes are divided into 6 crystal systems.

1. The Triclinic System has only 1-fold or 1-fold rotoinversion axes.

2. The Monoclinic System has only mirror plane(s) or a single 2-fold axis.

3. The Orthorhombic System has only two fold axes or a 2-fold axis and 2 mirror planes.

4. The Tetragonal System has either a single 4-fold or 4-fold rotoinversion axis.

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5. The Hexagonal System has no 4-fold axes, but has at least 1 6-fold or 3-fold axis.

6. The Isometric System has either 4 3-fold axes or 4 3-fold rotoinversion axes.

Triclinic System

Characterized by only 1-fold or 1-fold rotoinversion axis

Pedial Class, 1, Symmetry content - none

In this class there is no symmetry, so all crystal faces are unique and are not related to
each other by symmetry. Such faces are called Pedions, thus this is the Pedial Class.
Only a few rare minerals are in this class.

Pinacoidal Class, , Symmetry content - i

Since in this class there is only a center of symmetry, pairs of faces

are related to each other through the center. Such faces are called
pinacoids, thus this is the pinacoidal class. Among the common
minerals with pinacoidal crystals are: microcline (K-feldspar),
plagioclase, turquoise, and wollastonite.

Monoclinic System

Characterized by having only mirror plane(s) or a single 2-fold axis.

Sphenoidal Class, 2, Symmetry content - 1A2

In this class there is a single 2-fold rotation axis. Faces related

by a 2-fold axis are called sphenoids, thus this is the
sphenoidal class. Only rare minerals belong to this class.

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Domatic Class, m, Symmetry content - 1m

This class has a single mirror plane. Faces related by a

mirror plane are called domes, thus this is the domatic
class. Only 2 rare minerals crystallize in this class.

Prismatic Class, 2/m. Symmetry content - 1A2, m, i

This class has a single 2-fold axis perpendicular to a single mirror

plane. This class has pinacoid faces and prism faces. A prism is
defined as 3 or more identical faces that are all parallel to the same
line. In the prismatic class, these prisms consist of 4 identical
faces, 2 of which are shown in the diagram on the front of the
crystal. The other two are on the back side of the crystal.

The most common minerals that occur in the prismatic class are the micas (biotite and
muscovite), azurite, chlorite, clinopyroxenes, epidote, gypsum, malachite, kaolinite,
orthoclase, and talc.

Orthorhombic System

Characterized by having only two fold axes or a 2-fold axis and 2 mirror planes.

Rhombic -disphenoidal Class, 222, Symmetry content - 3A2

In this class there are 3 2-fold axis and no mirror planes. The
2-fold axes are all perpendicular to each other. The
disphenoid faces that define this group consist of 2 faces on
top of the crystal and 2 faces on the bottom of the crystal that
are offset from each other by 90o. Epsomite is the most
common rare mineral of this class.

Rhombic-pyramidal Class, 2mm (mm2), Symmetry content - 1A2,

2m

This class has two perpendicular mirror planes and a single 2-fold
rotation axis. Because it has not center of symmetry, the faces on
the top of the crystal do not occur on the bottom. A pyramid, is a
set of 3 or more identical faces that intersect at a point. In the case

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of the rhombic pyramid, these would be 4 identical faces, labeled

p, in the diagram.

Hemimorphite is the most common mineral with this symmetry.

Rhombic-dipyramidal Class, 2/m2/m2/m, Symmetry content - 3A2,

3m, i

This class has 3 perpendicular 2-fold axes that are perpendicular to 3

mirror planes. The dipyramid faces consist of 4 identical faces on
top and 4 identical faces on the bottom that are related to each other
by reflection across the horizontal mirror plane or by rotation about
the horizontal 2-fold axes.

The most common minerals in this class are andalusite, anthophyllite,

aragonite, barite, cordierite, olivine, sillimanite, stibnite, sulfur, and
topaz.

Tetragonal System

Characterized by a single 4-fold or 4-fold rotoinversion axis.

Tetragonal-pyramidal Class, 4, Symmetry content - 1A4

Since this class has a single 4-fold axis and no mirror

planes, there are no pyramid faces on the bottom of the
crystal. Wulfinite is the only mineral known to
crystallize in this class.

Tetragonal-disphenoidal Class, , Symmetry content - 1 4

With only a single 4-fold rotoinversion axis, the disphenoid faces consist of
two identical faces on top, and two identical faces on the bottom, offset by
90o. Note that there are no mirror planes in this class. Only one rare
mineral is known to form crystals of this class.

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Tetragonal-dipyramidal Class, 4/m, Symmetry content - 1A4, 1m, i

This class has a single 4-fold axis perpendicular to a mirror plane. This
results in 4 pyramid faces on top that are reflected across the mirror plane
to form 4 identical faces on the bottom of the crystal. Scheelite and
scapolite are the only common minerals in this class.

Tetragonal-trapezohedral Class, 422, Symmetry content - 1A4, 4A2

This class has a 4 fold axis perpendicular to 4 2-fold axes. There are
no mirror planes. Only one rare mineral belongs to this class.

Ditetragonal-pyramidal Class, 4mm, Symmetry content - 1A4, 4m

This class has a single 4-fold axis and 4 mirror planes. The mirror planes are
not shown in the diagram, but would cut through the edges and center of the
faces shown. Note that the ditetragonal pyramid is a set of 8 faces that form
a pyramid on the top of the crystal. Only one rare mineral forms in the
crystal class.

Tetragonal-scalenohedral Class, 2m, Symmetry Content - 1 4, 2A2,

2m

This class has a 4-fold rotoinversion axis that is perpendicular to 2 2-

fold rotation axes. The 2 mirror planes a parallel to the and are at
45o to the 2-fold axes. Chalcopyrite and stannite are the only common
minerals with crystals in this class.

Ditetragonal-dipyramidal Class, 4/m2/m2/m, Symmetry

content - 1A4, 4A2, 5m, i

This class has the most symmetry of the tetragonal system. It

has a single 4-fold axis that is perpendicular to 4 2-fold axes.
All of the 2-fold axes are perpendicular to mirror planes.
Another mirror plane is perpendicular to the 4-fold axis. The
mirror planes are not shown in the diagram, but would cut
through all of the vertical edges and through the center of the
pyramid faces. The fifth mirror plane is the horizontal plane.
Note the ditetragonal-dipyramid consists of the 8 pyramid
faces on the top and the 8 pyramid faces on the bottom.

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Common minerals that occur with this symmetry are anatase, cassiterite,
apophyllite, zircon, and vesuvianite.

Note that I will not have time in lecture to cover the rest of the 32 crystal classes, that is those
belonging to the hexagonal and isometric systems. These are difficult to draw, and are best left
for the student to study using the textbook, pages 183-207, and the crystal models in lab.

Examples of questions on this material that could be asked on an exam

1. Why are there only 32 classes of crystals?

2. What criteria is involved in dividing the 32 crystal classes into 6 crystal systems?

3. Note that exams where you will be asked to recognize the different crystal classes and
their symmetry, the exams will be open book, so you will have access to the tables and
figures in these notes.

Return to EENS 2110 Page

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