Network Enterprise –

A "network enterprise" is the system that connects devices and software so they can talk to each
other, share information, run programs, and check how well everything is working. They allow
devices:

 Share information
 Run services and programs
 Analyze system performance

The enterprise network contains the infrastructure, hardware, and software systems, and the
communication protocols used by devices to communicate with each other. This network can be
set up in a way that suits specific business and technical needs. To establish an enterprise
network at faraway locations, use Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) to connect these regions.

Components of an enterprise network?

 Endpoints: These are devices like computers, laptops, mobile phones, and servers.
 Network devices: Things like repeaters (Signal device), routers, switches, firewalls, and
storage.
 Communications protocols: These are the rules that devices follow to talk to each other.
 LANs (Local Area Networks): These are networks within a specific location, like within
an office building.
 WANs (Wide Area Networks): These connect LANs that are far apart, like connecting
offices in different cities.
 Other components: These are additional parts that help users, different parts of the
business, and partners communicate and share information.
  Server - A server is a computer, network device, or software program that handles
requests. For instance, on the World Wide Web, a Web SERVER uses the HTTP protocol
(protocol is a technique used and followed to communicate) to show the web pages on a
user's computer. In a LAN, a print server watches printers and prints files sent by our
user’s computers. Other examples include network servers that manage network traffic
and file servers that store and retrieve files for us.
 Requests: A server is basically a mediator between your input: (clicking a button
to download something from somewhere) and the output you desire to get. Suppose you
are a student who wants a job in some company. When you apply in the company you
will first go through the preassessment round where some lower authority would assess
your skills and pass/fail you. Then if you pass, you reach the final HR round that you
always wanted to go to. Here The lower authority is a server accepting your request and
then passing you to go to the last HR round.

Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking hardware, are physical devices
that allow hardware on a computer network to communicate and interact with one another.
Example: Router, bridge, modem, hub. Just like we have a USB hub which allows us to insert
our mouse and keyboard as input devices.

1. Repeater –This is a device working physically at physical layer to help the signal during
communication reach far distances without getting too weak. Example: You might be knowing
that in a series electric network, the electricity is not able to travel large distances on a single
wire as the electricity gets weaker with increasing distance. The same is true with signal. So,
the repeater only does what: it regenerates the signal when it is getting too weak to transfer it
further. IT DOES NOT AMPLIFY SIGNAL. It only copies the signal bit-by-bit and transfers
it further in a star topology system.
 Topology: Topologies in network is how the physical devices are connected to
communicate with each other.
 Star topology: Here the Physical devices like computers, printers, etc. are connected to
a single HUB or switch that mediates their working. Any information travelling from
any physical device has to pass the central Hub. Ex: You are the Cr of your class. If any
student wants to talk to the teacher about something, they come to you first and you
share the information to the teacher. You are that central hub in class.
Advantage: If one connection fails, it doesn't affect the rest of the network.

2. Hub – A hub is a multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different
branches/devices, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different devices.
Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the
hub cannot control how many devices share data through it. The data can get corrupted if high
amounts of data is sent together by all the devices connected to the hub. Also, hubs do not
have the intelligence to find out the best path for data which leads to inefficiencies and
wastage.

Types of Hubs:
1. Active Hub:
 Simple Explanation: It's like a hub with own power. It can boost and clean up
signals in the network, extending the communication distance between devices.
 2. Passive Hub:
 Simple Explanation: This hub doesn't have own power. It just collects signals
from devices and sends them along without any boosting. It can't extend the
distance between communication devices.
3. Intelligent Hub:
 Simple Explanation: This hub is smart. It not only has power but also can be
managed remotely. It allows an administrator to keep an eye on the network and
configure each connection point to allow which device can do what and access
which information.
Bridge:
 Simple Explanation: A bridge is like a smart repeater. It reads where data is coming
from and where it's going. It's used to connect two networks, and it can filter data based
on IP addresses.

Types of Bridges:
1. Transparent Bridges:
 Simple Explanation: These bridges work quietly. Devices in the network don't
even know if the bridge is there. It helps data find its way without causing much
change.
2. Source Routing Bridges:
 Simple Explanation: In these bridges, devices decide the route data takes. They
send a special message to discover the best travelling path.
Switch:
 Simple Explanation: A switch is like a smart hub with many ports. It checks data for
errors before sending it, making it efficient. It separates the paths devices use to talk but
keeps the overall talking space the same.
Router:
 Simple Explanation: A router is like a switch that understands where data needs to go
based on IP addresses. It connects different networks and decides how to send data
between them. It separates talking spaces for groups of devices. Basically it routes the
data.
These devices are like traffic managers for computer networks, making sure data gets where it
needs to go smoothly.
 6. Gateway: A gateway is like a messenger between two networks that might work
differently. It takes information from one system, figures it out, and sends it to another
system. Gateways are also known as protocol converters and can work at any network
level. They are more complex than switches or routers

7. BRouter: Also called a bridging router, it's a device that does both bridge and router
tasks. It can route packets across networks and filter local area network traffic.

8. NIC (Network Interface Card): A NIC is like a connection card for your computer to
join a network. It has a unique ID and a connector for the cable that links your
computer to the router or modem. It works on both the physical and data link layers of
the network.

9. Modem: A modem is a device that changes digital signals from computers into analog
signals. These analog signals can travel over traditional phone lines.

10. Access Point: An access point is a device that creates a wireless network in places like
offices or large buildings. It connects to a wired router, switch, or hub with a cable and
sends out a WiFi signal to a specific area.

Types of Network Protocols and Their Uses : A network protocol is like a set of rules that
decide how devices in a network communicate. It determines what's being communicated,
how, and when. This allows connected devices to talk to each other, no matter their
differences.

Types of protocols:

The protocols can be broadly classified into three major categories-

1. Communication protocol
2. Management protocol
3. Security protocol

1. Communication Protocols:

Communication protocols are like essential rules for computer networks. They're super
important for networks to work properly. These protocols officially lay down the rules
and formats for how data is transferred. They handle things like language rules, error
checks, making sure things happen in the right order, and confirming identities.

Examples of Communication Protocols:

 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): This is like a rulebook for transferring

web pages between computers. Most of the time you spend on the internet
involves using HTTP.

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): It's a rulebook that makes sure data gets
delivered reliably and in the right order. Think of it as a friendly conversation
before sending important information, used in things like emails and streaming
media.

 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): A simpler rulebook that's faster but doesn't
guarantee everything arrives perfectly. It's like a quick message without many
details. Used for things where speed matters more than perfection, like online
gaming.

 IP (Internet Protocol): A rulebook for sending data from one computer to

another over the internet. It's like the postal service, making sure your data
packets find their way to the right destination.

 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): This protocol makes network

setup easier. It automatically gives devices an address and other settings so they
can talk to each other without a lot of manual setup. It's like an automated
assistant for devices on a network.
2. Network Management:

Management protocols are like guides that help keep an eye on, take care of, and
handle computer networks. They make sure everything runs smoothly and help fix any
issues that might pop up. Think of them as traffic signals on the internet highway.

Examples of Management Protocols:

ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): This is like a messaging system for devices
on a network. It helps them talk about what's going on, report problems, and figure out
if there are any traffic jams or errors.

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): Imagine it as a network manager's

assistant. It keeps an eye on how devices in a network are doing, helps identify issues,
and communicates with different parts of the network to make sure everything is
working smoothly.

Gopher: This is an old way of organizing and retrieving files. It's like a simplified file
manager on a computer. Though not used much now, it was helpful for finding and
getting files in an organized way.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Think of it as a courier service for the internet. It helps
move files between computers, like downloading programs, web pages, or anything else
available on different services.

POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3): It's like a postman for emails. POP3 helps your email
client collect messages from a remote email server, so you can read them on your
device. Once you've got them, they're usually removed from the server.
Telnet: Imagine it as a magic connection to a faraway computer. Telnet lets you connect
to a program on a remote computer and use it as if it's right in front of you. It's like a
virtual visit to another computer.
3. Security Protocols:
Security protocols are like guardians for data traveling through the internet. They set rules to
keep data safe from prying eyes and ensure that only the right people or devices can access it.
Think of them as virtual bodyguards using secret codes to protect your information.
Examples of Security Protocols:

1. SSL (Secure Socket Layer): Picture SSL as a shield for sensitive information online. It's
like a secure language that allows computers to talk to each other in code. SSL encrypts
all the data passing through, making sure no one unauthorized can understand or access
it.

2. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure): Imagine HTTPS as a locked box for
your internet requests and responses. It's the secure version of regular HTTP, ensuring
that when your computer asks for information from a website, the response is sent back in
a way that's unreadable to anyone trying to snoop.

3. TLS (Transport Layer Security): TLS is like a security guard ensuring the safety of
messages sent over the internet. It encrypts the messages, checks if they've been tampered
with, and confirms the identity of the sender. It's like a secure tunnel for communication,
used for things like loading websites securely or encrypting messages and emails.

Types of Computer Networks

A computer network is a group of computers connected to each other, sharing information
through a common path. This helps them share things like printers and files. It also lets people
communicate using email, video, and instant messaging. Additionally, computer networks allow
users to access and manage information easily, even if it's on another computer.

Types of Computer Networks

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
4. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
5. Campus Area Network (CAN)
6. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
7. Storage Area Network (SAN)
8. System-Area Network (SAN)
9. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
10. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
11. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
12. Home Area Network (HAN)

These are explained as following below.

1. Personal Area Network (PAN):

 Basics: Connects devices within one person's workspace.

 Range: About 10 meters.

 Examples: USB, computer, phone, tablet.

2. Local Area Network (LAN):

 Basics: Connects computers within a specific area like home or office.

 Technologies: Ethernet and Wi-Fi.

 Examples: Home, school, office networks.

3. Wide Area Network (WAN):

 Basics: Connects computers over large geographical distances.

 Example: Internet.

4. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN):

 Basics: Like LAN but uses wireless tech like Wi-Fi.

 Example: Wi-Fi networks.

5. Campus Area Network (CAN) :
CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer network which is
usually used in places like a school or college. This network covers a limited geographical area
that is, it spreads across several buildings within the campus.
Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings, etc.

6. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) :

A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that
connects computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication path over a
city, town or metropolitan area.
Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, large area within multiple
buildings, etc.

Virtual Private Network (VPN) :

A VPN is a type of computer network that extends a private network across the internet and lets
the user send and receive data as if they were connected to a private network even though they
are not. Through a virtual point-to-point connection users can access a private network remotely.
VPN protects you from malicious sources by operating as a medium that gives you a protected
network connection.
12. Home Area Network (HAN) :
Many of the houses might have more than a computer. To interconnect those computers and with
other peripheral devices, a network should be established similar to the local area network
(LAN) within that home. Such a type of network that allows a user to interconnect multiple
computers and other digital devices within the home is referred to as Home Area Network
(HAN). HAN encourages sharing of resources, files, and programs within the network. It
supports both wired and wireless communication.

Types of Enterprise Networks:

1. Local Area Network (LAN):

 Description: Connects computer systems within a confined space like a building

or room.

 Use Cases: Primarily used for personal or small-scale prototyping networks.

  Additional Information: Logical LANs can be virtually created within a larger
network. Each department may operate a small LAN, connecting computers
through a common switch but isolated from other departments.

2. Wide Area Network (WAN):

 Description: Spans across buildings and geographical locations, even globally.

 Key Characteristics:

 Communication is long-distance.

 Emphasizes energy efficiency, security, and dependability.

 Can be private, public, or utilize SD-WAN (software-defined WAN)

technology.

 Note: SD-WAN creates a virtualized WAN, providing flexible and secure

operations while decoupling performance from underlying components.

3. Cloud Networks:

 Description: IT services are delivered from data centers and cloud networks.

 Model: Hybrid setup with on-premise servers and off-site cloud networks.

 Cloud Stack: Involves private, public, and hybrid cloud computing models.

 Access and Control: Cloud resources and services are accessed and controlled
over the internet, often through private and secure network channels.

Enterprise Networking Trends & Concepts:

 Secure Access Service Edge (SASE):

 Overview: Introduces an additional security layer for edge network technologies.

 5G Connectivity:
  Significance: Represents a maturing networking standard with substantial data
transmission rate improvements.

 Wi-Fi 6 and 6E:

 Advantages: Approximately 30% faster than Wi-Fi 5, particularly beneficial for

in-house LAN implementations.

 Cloud-Managed Popularity:

 Observation: Ongoing rise in adoption of cloud-managed WAN, SD-WAN, and

Unified Communications, indicating a shift towards cloud-based management
solutions.

 Managed Service Options:

 Model: Introduction of new service delivery models like Networking as a Service

(NaaS), enabling organizations to access advanced networking capabilities
through subscription-based costs.

 AI and Machine Learning:

 Role: Integration of AI and ML enhances visibility and control within enterprise

networks, addressing the challenges posed by the vast amount of data generated
across nodes and network endpoints.

Benefits of Using LAN (Local Area Network):

1. Access to Important Apps:

 Easy Explanation: LANs let devices connect to important applications on servers.

  Why It's Good: Makes it easy for everyone to use essential software.

2. Centralized Data Storage:

 Easy Explanation: All devices on a LAN can store important data in one place.

 Why It's Good: Keeps data organized and easy for authorized users to find.

3. Sharing Stuff:

 Easy Explanation: LANs help share things like printers and applications.

 Why It's Good: Makes it easy for everyone to work together and use shared
resources.

4. Internet for Everyone:

 Easy Explanation: Many devices on a LAN can use one internet connection.

 Why It's Good: Saves money and lets lots of people connect to the internet at the
same time.

5. Safety First - Network Security:

 Easy Explanation: LANs use tools to keep devices safe.

 Why It's Good: Protects against bad guys and keeps data secure.

In simple terms, LANs make it easy for devices to talk to each other, share things, and stay safe
while doing it.

Types of LAN

From an architectural standpoint, a LAN can be considered either peer-to-peer or client-server. A

peer-to-peer LAN directly connects two devices -- generally, workstations or personal computers
-- together using an Ethernet cable. A client-server LAN consists of multiple endpoints and
servers that are connected to a LAN switch. The switch directs communication streams between
the multiple connected devices.
Differences Among LAN, MAN, and WAN:
LAN (Local Area Network):
 What it does: Connects devices close to each other.
 Where it's used: Homes, offices, or buildings.
 Ownership: Usually owned and managed by the organization.
 Example Tech: Ethernet (fast connection).
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):
 What it does: Connects buildings in a city.
 Where it's used: Organizations with multiple city locations.
 Ownership: Managed by a telecom company or the organization.
 Example Tech: Fiber optics, Metro Ethernet, wireless tech.
WAN (Wide Area Network):
 What it does: Connects distant business locations, even globally.
 Where it's used: Across states, countries, or globally.
 Ownership: Services bought from a telecom provider.
 Example Tech: MPLS, VPLS, Ethernet over SONET, satellite tech.
 Special Note: Each location may have its own internet connection to avoid delays.
In simple terms, LAN is for close places, MAN for cities, and WAN for faraway locations. They
use different technologies and may be managed by the organization or a telecom company.
Comparison of LANs, MANs, and WANs:
Wide Area Network (WAN):

 Coverage: Large geographical area.

 Capacity: Connects many computers globally.

 Resource Sharing: Facilitates regional resource sharing.

 Internet Connection: Provides uplinks to the Internet.

 Communication Links: Uses public carriers like satellites.

 Data Transfer: Typically has lower speed and higher delay.

 Error Rate: Generally has a higher bit error rate.

 Example: The Internet, 4G Mobile Broadband.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

 Coverage: Connects buildings within a city.

 Capacity: Intermediate, larger than LAN.

 Resource Sharing: Supports resource sharing in a city.

 Internet Connection: May have uplinks to the Internet.

 Communication Links: Uses fiber optics, Metro Ethernet.

 Data Transfer: Offers moderate speed.

 Error Rate: Moderate bit error rate.

Local Area Network (LAN):

 Coverage: Limited to a home, office, or building.

 Capacity: Smaller scale, personal use.

 Resource Sharing: Enables local resource sharing.

 Internet Connection: May connect to WAN.

 Communication Links: Uses technologies like Ethernet.

  Data Transfer: Higher speed within the local area.

 Error Rate: Lower bit error rate.

Advantages of Computer Networks:

1. Central Storage of Data:

 Benefit: Files are stored on a central server and can be shared with all users.

 Explanation: Everyone in the organization can access and use the same files.

2. Anyone Can Connect:

 Benefit: Easy for anyone to connect to a computer network.

 Explanation: Even kids can use the network to get information.

3. Faster Problem-Solving:

 Benefit: Problems are solved faster by breaking them into smaller tasks.

 Explanation: Each device in the network handles a part of the task, making it
quicker.

4. Reliability:

 Benefit: Data is backed up, ensuring smooth operation even if one computer has
issues.

 Explanation: If one computer fails, another copy of the data is available for use.

5. Highly Flexible:

 Benefit: Users can explore software and other things without affecting
functionality.
  Explanation: The technology allows users to try new things without causing
problems.

6. Security through Authorization:

 Benefit: Only authorized network users can access specific files or applications.

 Explanation: This ensures data privacy and security.

7. Boosts Storage Capacity:

 Benefit: Enables sharing of data and resources with others, ensuring sufficient
storage space.

 Explanation: Users can share information and resources without worrying about
running out of space.
Disadvantages of Computer Networks:

1. Lacks Robustness:

 Challenge: If the main server or linking device fails, the entire network becomes
useless.

 Explanation: Large networks need a powerful computer to avoid system failures.

2. Lacks Independence:

 Challenge: People become dependent on computers and the main file server.

 Explanation: If the server fails, the system becomes useless, making users
inactive.

3. Virus and Malware:

 Challenge: Infections can spread easily across the network.

 Explanation: If one computer gets a virus, it can affect other devices due to
connectivity.

4. Cost of the Network:

 Challenge: Setting up the network can be expensive.

 Explanation: Installing cables and hardware can cost a lot of money.

Benefits of Enterprise Networks:

Enterprise networks are super important for businesses. Imagine if different branches couldn't
quickly share information - it would be a big problem, especially for companies with offices in
different cities or even countries. They'd be like isolated islands, not talking to each other.

In today's digital world, where sharing information quickly and securely is crucial for business
success, having a strong and reliable enterprise network is a big deal. If part of the network has
issues or gets compromised, it could directly impact how well different parts of the business
work or even the whole company.

Enterprise networks also help different parts of a business work together smoothly. For
companies with offices spread out in different places, like handling everything from buying stuff
to making and selling products, the enterprise network is like the glue holding everything
together. Every bit of information needed for planning, doing the work, and delivering products
goes through this network.

And it's not just about day-to-day work. When things go wrong, like a disaster or something,
enterprise networks play a crucial role in helping the business survive. Things like backup
storage, places where the business can keep running, and even using cloud services when things
fail - all these depend a lot on the enterprise network working well. It's like the backbone that
keeps the business going, even in tough times.

Evolution of Enterprise Networks:

Enterprise networks are always changing, and one big change is the move from wired to
wireless. It's not just the switch from Ethernet to WiFi in local networks – that's old news. We're
talking about the bigger shift from things like T1 and MPLS links to using 4G LTE (and soon,
5G) in wide area networks.

This change is happening because of the increasing use of mobile devices and the benefits of
flexibility and scalability that LTE offers compared to older technologies like T1 and MPLS.
Whether it's for fixed offices, vehicles on the move, or temporary networks, LTE can be more
flexible, scalable, and cost-effective than wired options.

Another thing driving changes is how much people rely on cloud-based solutions. The traditional
way of sending all traffic from branches to headquarters (HQ) doesn't make sense anymore. It
puts a lot of pressure on MPLS links and makes the user experience worse because of delays.

That's where SD-WANs (Software Defined WANs) come in. They support different types of
connections, like MPLS, broadband, and LTE. More importantly, SD-WANs eliminate the need
to send all internet traffic back to HQ. They allow secure and direct connections from branches
to the internet.
SD-WANs also make managing networks easier. They're simpler to set up, automate, control,
expand, and secure. This matches what network administrators care about these days: making
things automated, available, secure, and scalable, instead of just having more bandwidth.

The Future of Enterprise Networks Simplified:

Enterprise networks are changing a lot, especially with the rise of something called SD-WANs.
These are becoming more popular and offer things like secure cloud connections, a great
experience when using cloud apps, and simpler management for wide area networks (WANs).
These features are exactly what companies want right now, and they'll keep wanting them in the
future. But what happens next? As networks get even more complicated, the people who handle
them (IT administrators) will want even easier ways to manage them. Even though SD-WANs
make things simpler, they might not be enough in the future.
That's where the next step comes in. Future networks will need to be super smart - able to drive
themselves, learn on their own, and fix problems without anyone doing it for them. To get these
cool abilities, we'll need to bring in things like artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning
(ML).
These smart networks won't just make managing things easier; they'll also be like superheroes
for keeping everything safe. They'll make the security stuff we already have, like firewalls and
anti-malware, even better. And they'll add extra layers of protection.
At the same time, we'll see more use of wireless tech in these networks. In a few years, WiFi 6
and 5G, which are still kind of new now, will be everywhere. This means enterprise networks
can easily send really high-quality videos and cool things like VR to lots of mobile devices. It's
like giving superpowers to these networks!

Difference between Internet, Intranet and Extranet

1. Internet:

 What it is: A big network connecting millions of computers.

 What it comprises: People using and developing the network, various resources
accessible from the network, and a setup for global collaboration.

 Example: People worldwide accessing and sharing information.

 2. Intranet:

 What it is: An internal private network within an organization, using Internet and
World Wide Web standards.

 What it does: Allows employees to access corporate information.

 Example: Company staff accessing internal documents and resources.

3. Extranet:

 What it is: A network letting external users access an organization's Intranet.

 Purpose: Extends Intranet accessibility to external partners or users.

 Example: Suppliers or clients accessing specific company information.

Difference between Internet, Intranet and Extranet :
Point of
Difference Internet Intranet Extranet
Accessibility of
Network Public Private Private
To share information with
suppliers and vendors, it uses a
Availability Global system Specific to an organization public network
Restricted area up to an
Restricted area up to an organization and some
Coverage All over the world organization stakeholders
Accessible to Accessible only to Accessible only to members of the
Accessibility of everyone members of the organization and external
Content connected organization members with logins
No. of Computers Minimal number of
Connected Largest in number devices More comparable with Intranet
Owner No one Single organization Single/Multiple organizations
Purpose of the Share information Share information within Share information between
Network worldwide the organization members and external members
Dependent on the Enforced via firewall separating
Security user's device Enforced via firewall internet and extranet
Employees of the Employees of the organization
Users General public organization connected
Policies Behind No hard and fast Imposed by the
Setup rule organization Imposed by the organization
Maintenance Maintained by ISP Maintained by CIO, HR, or Maintained by CIO, HR, or
communication communication department
 Point of
Difference Internet Intranet Extranet
department
Economical More economical Less economical Less economical
Network of
Relation networks Derived from the Internet Derived from Intranet
What we normally DELL and Intel's business
Example use WIPRO's internal network operations network

Business Uses of the Internet, Intranets & Extranets

The rise of the personal computer and of electronic networking vastly expanded the scope of
possibilities open to innovative, productivity-minded businesses. Computer networks offer
everything from new forms of communication to whole new markets. While you’re familiar
with the most famous computer network, the internet, other kinds of computer networks exist,
too, including smaller networks called intranets and extranets. Learn more about how these
networks differ and see some internet, intranet and extranet examples and uses.
Intranet vs. Extranet Meaning

1. Intranet:

 What it is: An intranet is like a private club for a specific organization, such as a
company. It's a restricted computer network just for them.

 Who's in it: Dozens to thousands of people from the same organization.

 How it's separate: It's like having a clubhouse with its own rules. It's usually separate
from the internet, but some intranets have a door to the internet too.

 Why it's private: Some intranets keep to themselves for privacy, security, or because
they just don't need the internet.

2. Extranet:

 What it is: An extranet is like a bridge between private clubs (intranets). It connects two
or more intranets from different organizations.

 Privacy feature: Imagine if parts of a clubhouse were hidden from visitors. Extranets
can keep some areas of their intranet private from other organizations.

 Why it matters: It's like having a secret path between clubs, but it's riskier because
extranets use the internet, which can be tricky with security.

 How to get in: To enter either a private club (intranet) or use the secret path (extranet),
you usually need a passcode.

Important Uses for the Internet

When looking into the importance of intranet and internet in business, you'll find that the
internet creates opportunities for networking, information retrieval, communications,
marketing and sales. Vonage notes that companies can use the internet to sell their products to
distant customers. They can use the internet to gather information and interact with customers,
clients, government and other members of the industry, building awareness of their market.

Companies can also use the internet for internal communications and other electronic
activities. Many small businesses do this in lieu of developing their own networks.
Intranet Examples and Business Uses:

Intranets are like a company's private digital space where they do a bunch of cool stuff. Here are
some examples:

 Network Folders: Think of it like a shared folder where lots of employees can grab the
same files.

 Offline Websites: A place to test websites before showing them to everyone.

 Digital Databases: An online library to quickly find facts and figures.

 Internal Email and Messaging: For company emails and quick chats.

Using intranets can make work smoother, faster, and with fewer mistakes.

Extranet Examples and Business Uses:

Extranets are like secret passages between companies, helping them work together. Check this
out:

 Connecting Intranets: Imagine linking the private spaces of different companies for joint
projects.

 Controlled Customer Access: Companies can connect with customers in a special way,
not like on the internet.

 Sharing Services: One company might have a cool tool, and others can use it without
seeing all the secrets.

Comparing Extranet and Intranet in Company Use:

Companies use computer networks to share info inside and outside. Here's how they're
different:

 Accessibility: Extranets can be reached from outside, like from home. Intranets are for
inside the company, but some can be accessed securely from home with a VPN.

 Information Sharing: Extranets share info between companies or with customers.

Intranets keep things inside the company, like collaborating on projects.
  Hosting and Management: Extranets can be hosted by the company or a third party.
Intranets are usually managed internally.

 Applications: Both have web pages and tools, but intranets also connect to internal
servers and tools.

 Security: Extranets' security varies. Intranets are more secure, but it depends on how the
company manages it.

Layers of OSI Model

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO – ‘International
Organization for Standardization‘, in the year 1984. It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer
having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the
data from one person to another across the globe.

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):

 Role: Deals with the actual physical connection between devices.

 Functions:

 Bit Synchronization: Provides synchronization of bits using a clock.

  Bit Rate Control: Defines the transmission rate (number of bits sent per second).

 Physical Topologies: Specifies how devices/nodes are arranged (e.g., bus, star,
mesh).

 Transmission Mode: Defines how data flows between connected devices

(Simplex, Half-duplex, Full-duplex).

 Devices: Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables.

 Others:

 Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are known as Lower Layers
or Hardware Layers.

2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2):

 Role: Ensures error-free node-to-node data transfer.

 Sublayers:

 Logical Link Control (LLC): Handles error control and flow control.

 Media Access Control (MAC): Manages access to the physical network

medium.

 Functions:

 Framing: Creates meaningful frames for transmission.

 Physical Addressing: Adds sender and receiver's MAC addresses to the header.
  Error Control: Detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.

 Flow Control: Coordinates data flow to prevent corruption.

 Access Control: Manages channel access in shared networks.

 Devices: Switch, Bridge.

 Others:

 Packet in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.

 Handled by NIC and device drivers.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3):

 Role: Routes data between different networks.

 Functions:

 Routing: Determines suitable routes from source to destination.

 Logical Addressing: Assigns unique IP addresses for device identification.

 Devices: Routers.

 Others:

 Segment in Network layer is referred to as Packet.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):

 Role: Ensures end-to-end delivery of messages.

 Functions:

 Segmentation and Reassembly: Breaks message into smaller units and

reassembles at the destination.

 Service Point Addressing: Includes port addresses for correct process delivery.
  Services:

 Connection-Oriented Service: Reliable and secure, involving connection

establishment, data transfer, and termination.

 Connectionless Service: Faster communication without acknowledgments.

 Others:

 Data in Transport Layer is called Segments.

 Operated by the Operating System.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5):

 Role: Establishes, maintains, and terminates connections.

 Functions:

 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: Allows two processes

to manage a connection.

 Synchronization: Adds checkpoints to prevent data loss and ensure proper

synchronization.

 Dialog Controller: Enables communication initiation between systems.

 Others:

 Integrated with Presentation and Application layers in the TCP/IP model.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

 Role: Translates and manipulates data formats for transmission.

  Functions:

 Translation: Converts data between different character sets (e.g., ASCII to

EBCDIC).

 Encryption/Decryption: Secures data by translating it into ciphertext and back to

plaintext using a key.

 Compression: Reduces the number of bits transmitted.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7):

 Role: Provides network access for applications.

 Functions:

 Network Virtual Terminal: Allows applications to use a standard terminal to

communicate.

 FTAM-File Transfer Access and Management: Manages file transfers between

systems.

 Mail Services: Facilitates email communication.

 Directory Services: Manages directories and user access.

 Examples: Browsers, Skype Messenger.

 Others:

 Also called Desktop Layer.

Note:

 The OSI model is a reference model and isn't directly implemented on the Internet.

 The current model used is the TCP/IP model.

TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model, developed by the Department of Defense in the 1960s, serves as a practical
and widely adopted communication model based on standard protocols. Unlike the OSI model's
seven layers, the TCP/IP model streamlines the communication procedure into four layers:

1. Process/Application Layer: Equivalent to the OSI Application Layer, this layer interacts
with end-user processes, providing network services and acting as a bridge between the
user and the network.
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer: Corresponding to the OSI Transport Layer, it ensures
end-to-end communication, segmenting and reassembling data, and managing error
correction and flow control.
3. Internet Layer: This layer mirrors the OSI Network Layer, handling packet routing
across different networks. It manages logical addressing, typically using IP addresses, for
efficient data transmission.
4. Network Access/Link Layer: Similar to the OSI Data Link and Physical Layers, this
layer deals with the actual transmission of data over the network medium. It encompasses
both the Data Link and Physical Layers, ensuring reliable point-to-point and local
network communication.

The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows :

Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model:

TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol. OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.

TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.

TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable

TCP/IP does not have very strict boundaries. OSI has strict boundaries

TCP/IP follow a horizontal approach. OSI follows a vertical approach.

TCP/IP uses both session and presentation layer OSI uses different session and presentation
in the application layer itself. layers.

TCP/IP developed protocols then model. OSI developed model then protocol.

Transport layer in TCP/IP does not provide In OSI model, transport layer provides
assurance delivery of packets. assurance delivery of packets.

TCP/IP model network layer only provides Connection less and connection oriented both
connection less services. services are provided by network layer in OSI
model.

Protocols cannot be replaced easily in TCP/IP While in OSI model, Protocols are better
model. covered and is easy to replace with the change
in technology.
The first layer is the Process layer on the behalf of the sender and Network Access layer on the
behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.

Types of Network Topology

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and receiver
is referred to as network topology. The various network topologies are:

Mesh Topology:
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. In
Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP
(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Figure 1: Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are
known as links.

 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the
total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices
connected to each other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. The
total number of ports required=N*(N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the
total number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1,
there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2
= 10.
Advantages of this topology:
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 It is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices
through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Problems with this topology:
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of
devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.

Star Topology:
In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in
nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be
intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45
cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN
protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e.
hub.
Advantages of this topology:
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Problems with this topology:
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will
crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
Bus Topology:
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a
single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because
if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access
Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA,
Slotted Aloha, etc.

Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel
via drop lines.
Advantages of this topology:
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10
Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small
networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well
known.
Problems with this topology:
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various
protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
Ring Topology:
In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices.

A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the
data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.

The data flows in one direction, i.e.., it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring
Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.

 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to
another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
The following operations take place in ring topology are :

1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for performing
the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the
token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just
after transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token after the
acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of this topology:
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Problems with this topology:
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
 Less secure.
Tree Topology :
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are
used.

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the
repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to
the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It
is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology
crashes.
Advantages of this topology :
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that
is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Problems with this topology :
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
Hybrid Topology :
This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have
studied above. It is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these can be
individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies
seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Hybrid Topology

Figure 6: The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a
combination of all different types of networks.
Advantages of this topology :
 This topology is very flexible.
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Problems with this topology :
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and
network devices.

Distributed System
A Distributed System is a Network of Machines that can exchange information with each other
through Message-passing. It can be very useful as it helps in resource sharing.

 Client/Server Systems: The client requests the server for resources or a task to do, the
server allocates the resource or performs the task and sends the result in the form of a
response to the request of the client.
 Peer-to-Peer Systems: Nodes are an important part of a system. In this, each node performs
its own task on its local memory and shares data through the supporting medium, this node
can work as a server or as a client for a system.
 Middleware: It works as a base for different interoperability applications running on
different operating systems. Data can be transferred to other between others by using this
service.
 Three-tier: In this data of the client is stored in the middle tier rather than sorted into the
client system or on their server through which development can be done easily. This is
mostly used in web or online applications.
 N-tier: When interoperability sends the request to another application to perform a task or to
provide a service.
Types of Distributed Systems
A Distributed System is a network of machines that communicate through message-passing,
facilitating resource sharing. It encompasses various architectures, including client/server
systems, where clients request resources from servers, and peer-to-peer systems, where nodes
perform tasks locally and share data. Middleware serves as a foundation for interoperability,
allowing data transfer between applications running on different operating systems. Three-tier
and N-tier architectures optimize data storage and application development, often employed in
web and online applications.

Types of Distributed Systems:

1. Distributed Computing System:

 Cluster Computing: Involves connected computers functioning as a single unit,

enhancing performance, scalability, and flexibility. Commonly used in web
applications, security functions, database servers, and more. While offering
advantages like high performance and scalability, challenges include high costs
and fault finding complexities.

 Grid Computing: Utilizes a network of computers across different administrative

domains to collaboratively solve complex problems. It optimizes existing
hardware, encourages collaboration, and supports organizations with diverse
computing needs. Challenges include evolving standards and a learning curve for
grid software.

 Applications: Web functionalities, weather modeling, collaborative problem-

solving, and simulations.
2. Distributed Information System:

 Distributed Transaction Processing: Involves transactions across different servers

using multiple communication models. Transactions must be atomic, consistent,
isolated, and durable. Middleware components, like Transaction Processing
Monitors, manage distributed transactions, ensuring data consistency across
databases.

 Enterprise Application Integration (EAI): Integrates diverse business applications,

databases, and workflows to maintain consistent information across an
organization. EAI facilitates data exchange between internal systems and enables
seamless business processes.

 RPC (Remote Procedure Calls): Enables software elements to communicate by

sending requests with method names, leading to remote method invocation (RMI).
Applications with different databases can communicate on various platforms.
However, a drawback is that both sender and receiver must be running during
communication.

 Purposes: Targets application rules, implements EAI systems for consistent access
interfaces, and protects users from learning multiple software packages.

3. Distributed Pervasive System:

 Home System: Integrates digital devices in homes, allowing remote control and
efficient management from anywhere.

 Electronic Health System: Incorporates smart medical wearable devices for

continuous health monitoring.
  Sensor Network (IoT devices): Internet of Things (IoT) devices send, store, and
process data to enable efficient management and communication.

 Purpose: Advances pervasive computing, integrating everyday objects with

microprocessors for global availability and consistent functionality.

These distributed systems optimize resource utilization, prevent system failures, and enhance
service availability, providing a versatile solution for diverse computing needs.

Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is like renting space on the internet to store and access data and programs
instead of relying on your computer's hard drive. The architecture includes three layers: front end
(how users interact), back end (servers and storage), and cloud-based delivery over the internet.
Hosting on the cloud involves three layers: infrastructure, platform, and application.

Benefits of Cloud Hosting:

1. Scalability: Easily adjust server size based on demand.

2. Instant Access: Resources are instantly available.

3. Cost Savings: Reduces hardware costs, maintenance, and energy consumption.

4. Reliability: Virtual servers ensure continuous availability.

5. Physical Security: Data centers provide secure facilities.

6. Outsourced Management: Infrastructure management is handled externally.

Examples of Cloud Computing Services:

1. Amazon Web Services (AWS): Offers Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) for virtual
computing.

2. Microsoft Azure Platform: Provides Platform as a Service (PaaS) for .NET Framework
applications.

3. Google: Offers Software as a Service (SaaS) based on infrastructure, funded by

advertising revenue.
Grid Computing: Grid computing is a network of computers working together to tackle
complex tasks, acting as a virtual supercomputer. It involves control nodes, providers
contributing resources, and users accessing them. Middleware manages the network, ensuring
proper resource usage and security. Unlike cloud computing, grid computing allows
heterogeneous networks with different operating systems.

Advantages of Grid Computing:

1. Decentralization: No centralized servers are required.

2. Heterogeneous Networks: Supports various operating systems on the same network.

3. Parallel Processing: Tasks can be performed simultaneously across different locations.

Disadvantages of Grid Computing:

1. Evolution Stage: Grid software is still developing.

2. Fast Interconnect Needed: Requires a rapid connection between computer resources.

3. Licensing Challenges: Costly licensing across multiple servers.

4. Reluctance to Share: Some groups are hesitant to share resources.

Cloud computing simplifies data management, enhances accessibility, and offers flexibility,
while grid computing provides collaborative processing power for complex tasks.

GPRS (General Packet Radio Service):

Definition: General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a mobile communication standard

operating on 2G and 3G cellular networks. It facilitates moderately high-speed data transfers
through packet-based technologies.

Working of GPRS: GPRS is a packet-switching technology allowing data transmission through

mobile networks. It supports internet connectivity, multimedia messaging, and various data
transmissions. GPRS is utilized in devices like cellphones, laptops, and handheld devices with
GPRS modems. Data is split into packets, sent through the core network and radio, and
reassembled at the receiver's end. It operates on the GSM standard for 2G networks, with a
theoretical maximum speed of 115 kbps, although most networks operate around 35 kbps. Often
referred to as 2.5G, GPRS is a gateway to internet accessibility.

Key Features:

 GPRS can operate symmetrically or asymmetrically.

 Multislot provider classes determine frequency and time slots, affecting theoretical
connection speed.

 Service classes like GSM-IP (global-system mobile communications internet protocol)

enable audio calls and internet browsing.

 GPRS allows network operators to deploy an IP-based core architecture for integrated
audio and data applications, beneficial for 3G networks.

Advantages of GPRS:

1. Widespread Availability: GPRS is available in many areas, making it suitable for rural
regions and emerging nations.

2. Compatibility: GPRS is supported by various devices, including smartphones, providing

connectivity even in areas with no access to faster networks.

3. Cost-Effective: As a relatively older technology, GPRS infrastructure is often more cost-

effective, making it accessible in economically constrained regions.

Disadvantages of GPRS:

1. Slower Speeds: GPRS offers lower bandwidth compared to 3G and 4G networks,

resulting in slower data transfer.

2. Limited Performance: The performance of GPRS is not on par with more advanced
technologies, affecting user experience, especially in terms of speed and reliability.

Applications of GPRS:

1. Internet Connectivity: GPRS facilitates internet access, making it valuable for users in
areas with limited network infrastructure.
 2. Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS): GPRS supports MMS, allowing users to send
multimedia content like images and videos.

3. Data Transmission: GPRS is used for various data transmissions, contributing to the
connectivity of devices like laptops and handheld devices.

While GPRS may no longer be the fastest option, its widespread availability and compatibility
continue to make it relevant, especially in regions where more advanced technologies are not yet
prevalent.

How GPRS Works:

GPRS introduces several essential features to facilitate the end-to-end transmission of IP-based
data packets. It is an enhancement of the GSM standard, incorporating attributes, interfaces, and
inter-network operations for roaming support.

Key Features and Operation:

1. Packetized Communication: GPRS enhances the GSM architecture to enable

packetized communication services at speeds up to 114 kbit/s. It operates in the packet
transfer mode, transmitting data when necessary.

2. Volume-Based Billing: Unlike traditional connection-based billing, GPRS allows users

to be billed based on the volume of data exchanged. This enables users to stay connected
without incurring additional charges.

3. Effective Data Distribution: GPRS enables more efficient data distribution by

eliminating the need to use speech channels for data transmission. Users experience
higher data rates compared to typical dial-up connections.

4. Speed and Accessibility: GPRS offers speeds ranging from 40 to 172.2 kbps, surpassing
the average speed of dial-up data services (9.6 kbps). Users can access rich media
applications and information without the need for downloading.

5. Multimedia Applications: GPRS facilitates the use of multimedia applications on

mobile devices, unlocking new technological and creative possibilities. It extends mobile
services to applications previously available only on desktop computers.
 6. Internet Access: GPRS networks allow for internet access on mobile devices, enabling
services such as web surfing, email, chat, and FTP. GPRS connections are considered a
sub-network of the Internet, using similar protocols.

7. Devices and Modems: GPRS operates on cell phones, laptops, and portable devices
equipped with GPRS modems or GPRS Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) cards. GPRS
modems facilitate message exchange between computers.

8. Quality of Service (QoS): GPRS incorporates the concept of Quality of Service,

adapting services to meet application requirements. QoS conditions include priority,
reliability, delay, and throughput.

Integration into GSM Architecture: To integrate GPRS into the GSM architecture, new
network nodes called GPRS Support Nodes (GSN) are introduced:

 Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): It is a router responsible for controlling nearby
stations, offering a packet transit interface to the Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN).
SGSN manages GPRS mobile device authentication, network registration, mobility
management, and pricing data collection.

 Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): GGSN acts as a gateway connecting to

external data networks. It provides IP addresses to mobile terminals, connects to external
networks as a router, and operates as a packet filter for incoming traffic. GGSN also
records pricing data related to external internet services.

GPRS wireless packet data has three main characteristics:

 An always-online function that eliminates the need for dial-up, enabling programs
accessible with just one click.
 The upgraded usual systems mean that carriers do not have to update their equipment;
instead, GPRS is put on top of the current equipment.
 An essential part of future 3G networks, meaning the packet data core network for 3G
systems EDGE and WCDMA, GPRS is a necessary foundation for the future.

Services Provided by GPRS:

GPRS offers a range of services, making it a versatile technology for mobile communication.
Here are some of the services provided by GPRS:

1. Broadcasting and SMS Messaging:

 GPRS supports broadcasting and SMS messaging services, allowing users to send
and receive short text messages efficiently.

2. Cellular-Based Push-to-Talk:

 GPRS facilitates cellular-based push-to-talk services, akin to a walkie-talkie,

enabling instant communication over the cellular network.

3. Presence and Instant Messaging:

 Presence and instant messaging services are supported by GPRS, providing users
with real-time communication and the ability to know the availability status of
contacts.

4. Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS):

 GPRS enables multimedia messaging services, allowing users to send and receive
messages with multimedia content such as images, audio, and video.

5. Point-to-Point and Point-to-Multipoint Services:

 GPRS supports both point-to-point and point-to-multipoint services, offering

flexible communication options for users.

Advantages of GPRS:

Despite some drawbacks, GPRS technology provides several benefits for users and network
providers. Here are some advantages:

1. Simplified Billing:

 GPRS packet transfer simplifies consumer billing compared to circuit-switched

services. Users are billed based on data volume rather than connection length,
promoting cost-efficiency.

2. Increased Speed:
  GPRS offers higher data rates than the original GSM system, providing speeds up
to 86 kbit/s. This enables applications such as streaming, gaming, and enterprise
monitoring.

3. "Always-On" Connectivity:

 GPRS ensures always-on connectivity, offering constant Internet connectivity,

quick messaging, and improved SMS transfers. It was a significant advancement
in speed compared to traditional GSM technology.

Challenges of GPRS:

Despite its advantages, GPRS faces certain challenges that may impact its usage:

1. Sunsetting of 2G and 3G:

 GPRS relies on 2G and 3G networks, which are being phased out to make room
for newer networks. Users may need to transition to new technologies as carriers
shut down existing networks.

2. Limited Cell Capacity:

 GPRS is theoretically suitable for slow, occasional data transfers, but its limited
cell capacity may impact data-intensive applications. Radio resources are shared
with voice calls, influencing overall network capacity.

3. Risk of Slower Speeds:

 Achieving the maximum GPRS data transmission speed requires an individual

user to occupy all time slots, which may not be practical. The supported data rates
are slower compared to newer wireless protocols like HSPA and LTE.

Top 8 Applications of GPRS:

GPRS supports various applications for wireless mobile subscribers and business users,
providing higher-value services. Some notable applications include:

1. Communication:

 GPRS facilitates mobile communication systems for obtaining messages or data,

including fax, email, intranet/internet access, and unified messaging.
 2. Value-Added Services:

 GPRS supports value-added services such as information services and games,

enhancing the content offered by telecom companies to improve service quality.

3. E-commerce:

 E-commerce applications involve conducting business over the Internet or

through a data system, including online purchases, banking, and financial trading.

4. Vertical Applications:

 Vertical applications use mobile frameworks to aid specific tasks in a company's

value chain, including sales support, dispatching, fleet management, and parcel
delivery.

5. Advertising:

 GPRS enables push-type information services, allowing companies to provide

advertising services, including location-sensitive advertising based on the user's
location.

6. Telematics and Location-Based Services:

 Location-based services link push or pull information services to the user's current
location. Telematics technology, built on GPRS, includes fleet tracking, roadside
assistance, and city-specific information.

7. Consumer Applications:

 GPRS supports various consumer applications, including weather updates, traffic

information, entertainment, stock market updates, travel schedules, money
transfers, and mobile application security.

8. Remote Operations:

 GPRS facilitates remote operations, allowing tasks such as transmitting invoices,

receiving data updates, and performing job-related activities efficiently.

GPRS's versatility and range of applications make it a valuable technology in the realm of
mobile communication.
What is 3G Technology

3G (Third Generation Technology):

If you desire augmented bandwidth, support for multiple mobile applications, and clarity of
digital signals, then 3G (Third Generation Technology) is the gateway for you. While GSM
technology was initially designed for circuit-switched data transfer, 3G enhances this capability
by efficiently transmitting packet-switched data at improved bandwidth. Offering more advanced
services to mobile users, 3G supports multimedia services and boasts better spectral efficiency
than 2G technologies. 3G is also known as IMT-2000.

3G Technology & Its Characteristics:

 Transmission Technologies: 3G technologies utilize TDMA (Time Division Multiple

Access) and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access).

 Value-Added Services: They offer services like mobile television, GPS (Global
Positioning System), and video conferencing.

 Data Transfer Rates: The defining feature of 3G is fast data transfer rates. While specific
rates are being decided, expected speeds are around 2 Mbit/s for stationary users and 348
kbit/s for users in motion.

 Flexibility: 3G is flexible and supports five major radio technologies operating under
CDMA, TDMA, and FDMA.

 Compatibility: 3G systems are compatible with 2G technologies, allowing for a smooth

transition.

 Expandability: The vision of 3G is to be expandable on demand, providing more

coverage and growth with minimal investment.

3G Technologies:

1. CDMA 2000: Introduced by Third Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2), CDMA

2000 supports verbal and textual services concurrently, has a high data transfer rate of
approximately 200 kbps, and offers wireless capability.
 2. W-CDMA (UMTS): W-CDMA, also known as UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System), conforms to ITU IMT 2000 standard. It supports high-
speed data transfer rates, wideband Spread Spectrum, and improved audio-visual effects.

3. TD-SCDMA: Time Division-Synchronous Code Division Multiple Access, developed by

China Wireless Telecommunication Standard group and approved by ITU. It operates
based on time synchronization with CDMA, providing flexibility to spectrum usage.

How 3G Works:

3G technology combines the best features of different 2G versions, resulting in a high data
transfer rate, wide frequency band, WiFi connectivity, and multimedia capabilities. Key
technologies involved in 3G are CDMA 2000, W-CDMA (UMTS), and TD-SCDMA.

 CDMA 2000: Utilizes IS-95 B, providing access to IMT-2000 Band and evolving into
CDMA 2000 1x EV-DO (Evolution Data Only) and CDMA 2000 1x EV-DV (Evolution
Data and Voice).

 W-CDMA (UMTS): Offers challenges due to its complex design, with features like
hybridization with IS-95, high download speed (14.7 Mb/s), and wideband Spread
Spectrum.

 TD-SCDMA: Developed by China, it operates on time synchronization with CDMA,

providing flexibility in spectrum usage for uplink and downlink transmission.

3G Mobile Technology:

3G mobile technology is a combination of the best features of different 2G versions. Carriers

offering 3G technology include CDMA 2000, W-CDMA (UMTS), and TD-SCDMA. 3G
provides high data transfer rates, WiFi hotspots, and multimedia features, combining earthly and
heavenly features.

How 3G (CDMA 2000) Works:

CDMA 2000 is approved by 3GPP2 and combines with IS-95 B, providing access to IMT-2000
Band. CDMA 2000 1x EV-DO and CDMA 2000 1x EV-DV offer high-speed data transfer rates.

How 3G (W-CDMA / UMTS) Works:

W-CDMA is based on radio transmission and offers wideband Spread Spectrum, high download
speed (14.7 Mb/s), and improved audio-visual effects.
How 3G (TD-SCDMA) Works:

TD-SCDMA, developed by China, uses time synchronization with CDMA, providing flexibility
for uplink and downlink transmission based on symmetrical or asymmetrical information.

3G mobile technology provides connectivity speeds of up to 144 kbps, wireless broadband, and
entertainment features like music and video downloads, 3D games, and video conference calls.

As technology continues to advance, people eagerly anticipate the future evolution of 4G

standards, expecting further improvements in the field of telecommunications.

4G Technology

4G, or Fourth Generation Technology, represents an advancement over 3G, offering increased
bandwidth and a range of services. The specific definition of 4G is still under discussion, but it's
expected to bring high-quality audio/video streaming over end-to-end Internet Protocol (IP). This
technology encompasses various standards like UMTS, OFDM, SDR, TD-SCDMA, MIMO, and
WiMAX.
4G Mobile Technology:
The development of 4G Mobile Technology is ongoing, and standards are yet to be formally
defined. Key anticipated improvements include enhanced security features, higher download
rates (up to 100 Mbps for mobile access and 1 Gbps for local wireless access), and the
incorporation of OFDMA for more efficient data packet transmission. IPv6 has been approved as
a 4G standard, emphasizing secure, high-speed, and reliable connectivity.

4G Network:
4G Networks, being the fourth iteration of wireless generation, is still in the development phase.
The primary focus is on high-speed data transfer and ensuring online security. The expected
speed of up to 100 megabits per second makes 4G promising for delivering an enhanced
experience, particularly for audio/visual and multimedia services.
How 4G Works:
4G stands out as the Fourth Generation, presenting the latest technology in high-speed data
transfer with added security measures. Although the precise standard for 4G is yet to be
finalized, foundational technologies like WiMAX and LTE are considered essential. WiMAX
(Worldwide Interoperability of Microwave Access) and LTE (Long Term Evolution) play crucial
roles in supporting wireless broadband and high-speed internet access. LTE, being compatible
with 3G, not only promises increased speed but also ensures seamless integration with existing
infrastructure.
As technology advances, the future of mobile business is being shaped by 4G, providing
improved speed, reliability, and expanded capabilities. The ongoing evolution of wireless
standards signifies the growing demand for faster and more efficient communication in the
digital age.

Conclusion:
In essence, 4G represents the next phase in wireless communication technology, poised to
deliver faster and more reliable connectivity. The ongoing development and standardization
efforts aim to bring forth a new era of communication, impacting various industries and
significantly enhancing the online experiences of users. As 4G technology progresses, it holds
the potential to transform the way we communicate and access information in our increasingly
digital world.

Difference between 3G and 4G Technology

1. Technology Generation:

 3G: Stands for Third Generation, optimized for data and broadband services.

 4G: Stands for Fourth Generation, designed to provide faster and more efficient
mobile broadband experiences.

2. Information Transfer Rate:

 3G: Offers relatively lower data transfer rates, typically up to a few megabits per
second.
  4G: Provides higher data transfer rates, offering faster and more seamless
connectivity. Speeds can reach up to hundreds of megabits per second.

3. Capacity:

 3G: Limited capacity compared to 4G, which can handle more data traffic and
connections simultaneously.

 4G: Increased capacity, allowing for a greater number of connections and

improved overall network performance.

4. Information Processing Design:

 3G: Utilizes a variety of technologies, including CDMA, TDMA, and FDMA.

 4G: Employs advanced technologies such as LTE (Long Term Evolution) and
WiMAX, enabling more efficient data processing and transmission.

5. Latency:

 3G: Generally has higher latency compared to 4G, resulting in a slight delay in
data transmission.

 4G: Offers lower latency, reducing the delay in data transfer and enhancing real-
time communication.

6. Applications and Services:

 3G: Initially introduced multimedia services like video calling and mobile TV.
Limited support for advanced applications.

 4G: Enables a wide range of applications, including high-definition video

streaming, online gaming, and advanced multimedia services. Better support for
data-intensive applications.

7. Variety of Connections:

 3G: Supports a moderate number of simultaneous connections.

  4G: Accommodates a larger number of simultaneous connections, making it
suitable for densely populated areas and IoT (Internet of Things) devices.

8. Network Architecture:

 3G: Uses a combination of circuit-switched and packet-switched networks.

 4G: Primarily relies on packet-switched networks, offering more efficient data

transmission.

9. Evolution and Standardization:

 3G: Represents an evolution from 2G technologies and adheres to ITU IMT-2000

standards.

 4G: Represents the latest standard, with LTE and WiMAX as key technologies.
Continues to evolve to meet the increasing demands of users.

In summary, 4G technology surpasses 3G in terms of speed, capacity, and support for a broader
range of applications, making it a more advanced and capable wireless communication standard.

Let’s see the difference between 3g and 4g technology:

S.NO 3G Technology 4G Technology

While it stands for 4th generation

1. It stands for 3rd generation technology. technology.

2. The maximum upload rate of 3G technology While the maximum upload rate of 4G
 S.NO 3G Technology 4G Technology

is 5 Mbps. technology is 500 Mbps.

The maximum download rate of 3G While the maximum download rate of

3. technology is 21 Mbps. 4G technology is 1 Gbps.

While it uses the packet switching

technique as well as the message
4. It uses a packet switching technique. switching technique.

The frequency range of 3G technology is While its frequency range is from 2

5. from 1.8 GHz to 2.5 GHz. GHz to 8 GHz.

While it is lenient horizontally as well

6. It is lenient horizontally. as vertically.

While it is the integration of Wireless

It is a wide area cell-based network LAN as well as Wide Area cell-
7. architecture. based network architecture.

There are turbo codes are used for error 4G technology uses concatenated codes
8. correction in 3G technology. for error correction.

The technology used in 3G is The technology used in 4G is

WCDMA(Wideband Code Division LTE(Long-Term Evolution), and
Multiple Access), Digital Broadband Packet WiMAX(Worldwide Interoperability
9. Data CDMA 2000, UMTS, EDGE, etc. for Microwave Access).
 S.NO 3G Technology 4G Technology

Internet Service is ultra-broadband in

10. Internet Service is broadband in 3G. 4G.

11. Data bandwidth is 2 Mbps – 21 Mbps. Data bandwidth is 2 Mbps – 1 Gbps.

What is VoIP

VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)

Introduction: VoIP, or Voice over Internet Protocol, is revolutionizing how people make
phone calls. It is not only convenient but also cost-effective. This technology transforms
analog audio signals into digital data, which then travels through the internet to its
destination.
**1. VoIP Basics:
 VoIP allows voice calls over the internet instead of traditional phone lines.
 It frees users from telephone wiring and additional fees.
**2. Popularizing VoIP:
 Embraced in Western countries for both business and personal use.
 Considered a useful and cost-efficient medium.
**3. Common VoIP Methods:
 Analog Digital Adopter (ATA):
 Replaces the phone socket, connecting a telephone set to the computer.
 Some companies offer free service with the ATA or provide software for
installation.
 IP Phone:
 Similar to a regular mobile phone but configured for calls through IP
addresses.
 Designed with router configuration for internet-based calls.
 Computer-to-Computer Network:
 The easiest method.
 Requires relevant software installation, a sound card, internet address,
microphone, and a speaker.
 Often offered as a free service with Internet Protocol.
**4. Advantages of VoIP:
 Cost-Effective: Uses existing internet infrastructure, reducing expenses.
 Accessibility: Allows long-distance calls at affordable rates.
 Convenience: Enables calls from anywhere with an internet connection.
 Business Use: Convenient for professionals on business trips.
**5. How VoIP Works:
 Voice is converted into a digital signal for transmission over the internet.
  If a regular phone number is called, the signal is converted back to an analog signal
before reaching the destination.
 VoIP can be used directly from a computer with a special VoIP phone or through a
traditional phone connected to a VoIP adapter.
**6. Equipments Required:
 A high-speed internet connection through a cable modem or local area network.
 For computer use, software and an inexpensive microphone are needed.
 VoIP phones plug directly into the broadband connection, operating like traditional
telephones.
**7. Advantages of VoIP Services:
 Feature-Rich Services: Some VoIP services offer additional features not available
with traditional phones.
 Cost Savings: Eliminates the need for both broadband and traditional telephone line
subscriptions.
 Smooth Connection: Provides a smoother connection compared to analog signals.
**8. Disadvantages of VoIP:
 Power Outages: Some VoIP services may not work during power outages.
 Emergency Services: Not all VoIP services directly connect to emergency services.
 Directory Assistance: Availability of directory assistance varies among VoIP
providers.
In conclusion, VoIP is transforming communication by offering a cost-effective, feature-
rich, and flexible alternative to traditional phone systems.

What is IPTV

IPTV (Internet Protocol Television)

Introduction: Wi-Fi TV brought the idea of accessing TV channels wirelessly through a cable
operator. IPTV takes this concept further, turning TV into a wireless internet-powered system. It
provides viewers with full control, allowing them to reverse, forward, record, or surf through
different channels while watching one using the picture-in-picture option.

1. What is IPTV:

 Definition: IPTV stands for Internet Protocol Television, an application that enables
access to television broadcasts through internet protocol.
  Significance: It marks a shift from passive channel watching to active control,
empowering users to choose when and what to watch.

2. Changing TV Dynamics:

 Traditional TV Viewing: Viewers traditionally watched channels broadcast by cable

operators passively.

 IPTV Advancements: IPTV eliminates restrictions, allowing users to watch their

favorite programs at their convenience.

 User Empowerment: Users are no longer constrained by set schedules, providing a more
flexible TV viewing experience.

3. Different IPTV Technologies:

 Analog Digital Adopter (ATA):

 Role: Replaces the traditional socket, connecting a telephone set to the computer.

 Variety: Different companies offer various ATA models, some bundled with free
services or software.

 Simplicity: Install the software, and the system functions as a telephone,

eliminating the need for separate telephone wiring.

 IP Phone:

 Concept: Similar to a regular mobile phone but configured for calls through IP
addresses.

 Configuration: Designed with router configuration for internet-based calls,

integrating the phone into the broader IP network.

 Computer-to-Computer Network:

 Ease of Use: Easiest and common method, requiring basic components like a
sound card, internet address, microphone, and a speaker.

 Cost: Often offered as a free service with Internet Protocol, requiring only the
installation of relevant software.
4. Advantages of IPTV:

 Increased Flexibility:

 User Control: Allows pausing, rewinding, and fast-forwarding content at the

viewer's convenience.

 No Time Limitations: No limitations on watching programs on a set schedule,

providing flexibility for busy viewers.

 Improved Picture Quality:

 Enhanced Viewing Experience: Higher picture quality due to the use of an

internet connection instead of traditional airwaves.

 Compatibility: Renders a clearer, sharper image, especially beneficial for high-

definition TVs.

 More Content Options:

 Diverse Content: Access to a wider range of content, including niche channels

catering to specific interests.

 Customization: Viewers have the flexibility to choose content based on personal

preferences.

 Easy Integration with Other Devices:

 Seamless Connection: Integration with various devices such as computers,

smartphones, and tablets for a comprehensive viewing experience.

 User Convenience: Enables users to watch TV content on their own terms,

regardless of the device.

5. Disadvantages of IPTV:

 High-Speed Internet Requirement:

 Accessibility: IPTV requires a high-speed internet connection, which may not be

universally accessible or could be more expensive in some areas.
  Potential Limitations: Limited availability might pose challenges for users in
regions with slower internet connections.

 Susceptibility to Interruptions:

 Reliability Issues: IPTV can be more susceptible to interruptions and outages,

particularly if the internet service experiences downtime.

 Service Dependability: Users may face disruptions, impacting the reliability of

the IPTV service.

 Limited Channels and Packages:

 Provider Constraints: Some IPTV providers may offer limited channels and
packages compared to traditional TV providers.

 User Expectations: Viewers might find a narrower selection of channels and

packages compared to traditional TV services.

6. Legality of IPTV:

 Legal Considerations: Legality depends on factors such as the user's location and the
IPTV service's base.

 Viewing vs. Distribution: Generally legal for viewing as long as users avoid
downloading or sharing copyrighted content.

 User Responsibility: Users are encouraged to research the legal implications in their
specific region.

7. IPTV VPN:

 Pros:

 Bypassing Restrictions: Helps users bypass restrictions imposed by internet

service providers, providing access to otherwise restricted content.

 Privacy Protection: Ensures privacy by encrypting internet traffic, shielding

users from potential surveillance.

 Cons:
  Internet Speed Impact: May impact internet speed as traffic must pass through
the VPN server before reaching its destination.

 Bandwidth Considerations: Users engaging in bandwidth-intensive activities,

like streaming in high definition, may experience delays.

 Overall Assessment: Despite potential speed impacts, the advantages of privacy

protection and bypassing restrictions make using an IPTV VPN worthwhile for many
users.

In conclusion, IPTV transforms TV into a versatile, user-friendly, and content-rich experience,

offering viewers more control over their television-watching habits. The technology brings both
benefits and challenges, requiring users to make informed decisions based on their preferences
and circumstances.