MOTION DESIGN GUIDE

LINEAR
ACTUATORS

Sponsored by:
brought to you by:

www.festo.com www.linearmotiontips.com
MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I LINEAR ACTUATORS

Many applications call for the use of electromechanical linear actuation — which
includes electric motors paired with various mechanical components for controlled
movement of equipment or payloads. Options for linear actuation have proliferated
in recent years. Actuators and linear-motion options today are also easier than ever to
integrate into machinery ... and they’re often less costly than in the past.

Most linear actuators turn an electric motor’s rotary power into linear motion in one
of three ways:
• Through a rack-and-pinion set
• Through a chain or belt (via a sprocket or pulley mounted to the motor output)
• Through a screw drive — whether ballscrew, leadscrew, or roller screw

A fourth option for linear actuation is linear motors — a technologically advanced ▼

direct-drive method of transmitting motor power into axis motion. These entirely DANIELLE COLLINS
omit the mechanical linkage for rotary-to-linear conversion and instead include a Senior editor
moving forcer that moves along a stationary platen.

In this Design Guide, we’ll focus on actuators employing all of these variations and
the applications for which they’re most suitable. We’ll also do a deeper dive on a
couple linear-bearing options for electrically actuated systems.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
▼

▼
Benefits and drawbacks of various linear actuator subtypes.....................................4
LISA EITEL
Ballscrews in linear actuation . ...................................................................................5 Executive editor

Linear motors for actuation of axes............................................................................6

Profiled rail in linear actuation ...................................................................................8
All about 12-volt linear actuators.............................................................................10
High-speed linear actuators......................................................................................12
Linear actuator types to deliver thrust force............................................................14
Servo pneumatics — not an oxymoron....................................................................15
Selecting a linear actuator........................................................................................17
Linear actuators to match the rigidity and accuracy of linear stages......................19
Back to basics: Accuracy or repeatability — or both?.............................................21
Sponsored by:

© Copyright 2022 WTWH Media

www.wtwhmedia.com I marketing.wtwhmedia.com I www.designworldonline.com I www.linearmotiontips.com
@designworld /DesignWorldNetwork @linear_motion www.festo.com
Benefits and drawbacks of various
linear actuator subtypes
L
inear actuators come in myriad configurations CAN-STACK LINEAR ACTUATORS
to suit almost any application, environment, or
These palm-sized linear actuators drive
industry. They’re primarily categorized by their small and relatively forgiving axes.
drive mechanism; then manufacturers use other
features such as the type of guide and housing to
NEMA STEPPER ACTUATORS
further differentiate them. Below is an explanation of
These linear actuators typically
the most common linear actuator categories. include a leadscrew.

BELT AND SCREW-DRIVEN ACTUATORS PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS

Although belt and screw drives are different
Most essentially deliver two-position motion
technologies, it makes sense to put them in the same and adjustments must be made manually.
category because they are the two most common types
of electromechanical actuators. Most manufacturers of
linear actuators offer both belt and screw-driven options.
ROD-TYPE ELECTRIC ACTUATORS
Belt-driven actuators can use a variety of guide
A rotary-to-linear (usually screw-based)
mechanisms ... plain bearings, the more advanced mechanical device converts rotary motion
option of wheel-based linear guides, and recirculating from an electric motor to linear motion.
These are particularly common on mobile
bearings (riding on a profiled rail or round shaft) are
vehicles and medical equipment.
most common. Because their strengths are high speeds
and long strokes, belt-driven systems are often housed SLIDER-TYPE ELECTRIC ACTUATORS
in an aluminum extrusion or in an open configuration
These actuators include fully self-supporting
with no protective housing. single-axis stages — and are more common on
factory-automation equipment. Such designs
Within the linear-screw category, there are two usually include a frame with linear bearings to
subcategories — ballscrew and leadscrew drives. While both bear and guide the load.

ballscrew actuators have higher repeatability and thrust

forces than leadscrew actuators, both provide inherent
gearing through the lead (pitch) of the screw.
RACK-AND-PINION ACTUATORS
The most common guide system for screw-driven
actuators is the profiled rail, although leadscrew types These linear actuators excel on
gantries, seventh-axis systems for
are sometimes guided by plain bearings. Because roboticized facilities, and other
screw-driven actuators require end bearings that long-axis installations. A unique
feature of rack-and-pinion sets is
must be rigidly mounted, they are often enclosed in
their ability to independently drive
an aluminum extrusion. However, when high travel multiple carriages.
accuracy is required, ballscrew types are commonly
offered with a machined steel housing.
Ballscrew actuators also pair with track-roller linear LINEAR MOTOR ACTUATORS
guide mechanisms on high-speed axes and those to Linear-motor actuators are servo devices
deliver high thrust force. with programmable position and speed.

HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS
A broad array of motion technologies can accurately be called
linear actuators. However, in this Design Guide we focus on These produce high force and (as
hydraulic fluid is incompressible)
the linear-motion systems encircled in orange here — those
work as servo devices.
most common in industrial-automation settings.

Sponsored by:

3 I www.linearmotiontips.com
www.festo.com
 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I LINEAR ACTUATOR

(continued)
linear actuator subtypes

PNEUMATICALLY DRIVEN LINEAR ACTUATORS

Although they’re not electromechanical devices like the other
actuator types, their prevalence in automated equipment makes
pneumatic driven versions an important category of linear
actuators. Pneumatic actuators can be further divided into two
sub-categories … slider-type and rod-type.
In slider-type actuators, the motion is contained within the limits
of a housing and the load is mounted to a slider — also called a
carriage, saddle, or table.
In rod-type actuators, the motion is produced by a rod that
extends and retracts from a housing. The load may be mounted
to the end of the rod or the rod can be used to push the load.
One common application is the pressing or stamping of labels
Compact, durable, cost-effective – this precise, load-bearing
onto cartons … or pushing defective products to a diverter lane
inside slide guide is equipped with the long-lasting protection
along a conveyor. of a stainless steel cover strip. As part of the Simplified
Slider-type pneumatic actuators can be guided by recirculating or Motion Series, the ELGS-TB is easy to configure and can be
put into operation directly without software. Includes IO-Link
plain bearings, depending on the load for which they’re designed.
and digital I/O (DIO). Image courtesy of Festo.
In contrast, rod-style versions are not typically designed for radial
(downward-upward-side) loads and use simple plain bearings to
provide guidance to the rod without significantly contributing to
load-carrying capacity. LINEAR-MOTOR BASED ACTUATORS
Note: Ballscrew-driven actuators also come in slider and rod-types, Linear motor actuators are also capable of long travel lengths
making the actuator family tree even more complex. with multiple carriages. They’re primarily used for high precision
and highly dynamic motion. To complement the strengths of the
CHAIN AND RACK-AND-PINION DRIVEN ACTUATORS linear motor, these actuators use high precision profiled rails,
crossed roller guides, linear guide wheels, or even air bearings
For extremely long lengths and robustness against as their guidance system.
contamination, chain drives and rack-and-pinion drives are
often the most suitable choices. Joined profile rails are Linear motor types can be mounted in an extruded housing
sometimes used with these drives. However, in settings with a or on a machined aluminum plate ... though to meet the
lot of debris, these actuation systems are best paired with guide highest travel accuracy specifications, they typically mount on a
wheel based options. machined steel plate or granite base.

LINEAR-ACTUATOR BELT PROFILES

TRAPEZOIDAL Better load distribution and smooth meshing

transitions mean curvilinear belt teeth are
quieter than trapezoidal options. The catch is
that curvilinear designs have higher backlash
than trapezoidal belt-tooth profiles.
CURVILINEAR

CURVILINEAR BELT TEETH

CONCENTRATE STRESS AT TOOTH
MODIFIED CURVILINEAR CENTERS FOR MORE RELIABILITY.

Sponsored by:

4 I www.linearmotiontips.com

www.festo.com
 BALLSCREWS in
linear actuation
The actuator family ELGC
allows you to realize incredibly
compact dimensions and make
the most of your installation
space – for small parts
handling, desktop applications
and much more. The ball screw
linear actuators also offer
impressive guide precision and
a ball screw actuator. Image
courtesy of Festo.

A
ll ballscrews consist of a shaft (spindle) with machine-rolled or ground helical grooves upon
which a nut via intermediate balls spins while axially advancing. The balls, which reduce friction,
can be steel, ceramic, or hard plastic. They run through a recirculating circuit (including a ball
return) that’s integrated into the nut. Seals capping the nut ends keep contaminants out. The
design of a ballscrew minimizes friction and provides high efficiency.

Ballscrews are available in a wide range of sizes — from large diameters for machine tools and applications
needing high force to miniature variations with extremely fine leads for laboratory inspection equipment
and medical applications. For the latter, there’s no industry standard for what constitutes a miniature
ballscrew. That said, the designation generally indicates ballscrews having a diameter 16 millimeters or
smaller. Ballscrews six millimeters and smaller are sometimes billed subminiature or ultra miniature.

No matter their size, ballscrew nuts can be flanged, cylindrical (compact or slim), or with a threaded end
for easy mounting into a carriage or table assembly. Ball recirculation can be done inside the ball nut or
through external tubes. Lead accuracies and preload classes follow standards designations regardless of
screw diameter. Sizing parameters (including L10 life calculations, expressions of buckling load, and critical-
speed measures) are also consistent for all ballscrew subtypes. Parameters include lead accuracy, axial
play, and preload.

Lead accuracy is the degree to which the shaft’s rotational movements are translated into linear
movement. Lead accuracy and axial play are determined by the manufacturing method of the ballscrew
shaft and nut assembly … with high lead accuracy and zero axial play generally associated with higher
component cost — especially for precision ground (not rolled) ballscrews. Advances in manufacturing and
materials have made many ballscrews more power dense than ever.

Average lead deviation is the difference between the specified travel and mean travel — with the latter
plotted as a best-fit line over the ballscrew stroke.

Maximum deviation (to define lead accuracy) describes travel deviation (peak to valley) over the ballscrew
stroke. On a v300 plot of this value, two parallel lines enclose the lead deviation curve over any 300-mm
ballscrew length. On some ballscrews destined for positioning applications, manufacturers also define
maximum deviation over one revolution — also known as lead wobble.

Sponsored by:

5 I www.linearmotiontips.com
www.festo.com
 Linear motors for actuation of axes

L
inear motors are a relatively new addition to the arsenal (of 50% and 90% respectively) as well as whip and vibration. They
of motion components for designers building machinery. don’t force engineers to sacrifice speed (with higher pitches) for
They consist of two main components: a stationary lower resolution, either.
platform that manufacturers call a platen or secondary (with
electromagnetic windings) and a moving forcer or primary that Multi-axis stages that use linear motors on each axis are more
sometimes includes permanent magnets. compact than traditional setups, and so fit into smaller spaces.
Their lower component count also boosts reliability. Here, the
Linear motors are fast and precise for positioning, but can move motors connect to regular drives, and (in servo operation) a motion
slowly and steadily for material processing. Depending on the controller closes the position loop.
type, linear motor speeds range from a few inches to thousands of
inches per second. They’re capable of unlimited strokes and (with
an encoder) accuracy to ±1 μm per 100 mm. Myriad inspection, HOW LINEAR MOTORS WORK
medical, and material-handling applications use linear motors to
Linear motors use electromagnetic flux for their operation. Flux
boost throughput.
in this context is the rate of electromagnetic energy flow through
As is the case with their rotary counterparts, linear motors use the airgap, and flux density is the magnetic flux through the airgap
common drives and motion controllers. Linear-motor accessories area. In linear motors, the latter is proportional to magnetic and
also include cable carriers, feedback encoders, limit switches, and electrical loading — the vector quantity of flux lines between
stages for multi-axis movement. But unlike rotary motors (which platen and forcer. Engineers express this value in Tesla or Gauss.
need mechanical rotary-to-linear devices to get straight strokes) Typical air-gap flux densities range from fractions to a few Tesla.
linear motors are direct drive. So, they avoid the gradual wear
Linear stepper motors — An older design, this type of linear
of traditional rack-and-pinion sets. Linear motors also avoid the
motor has a toothed forcer consisting of laminated steel cores
drawbacks of a rotary motor with a belt and pulley for translation.
wound with coils. The platen also has teeth cut into a steel bar.
These downsides are limited thrust because of tensile-strength
Linear stepper-motor platens mount end-to-end for unlimited
limits; lengthy settling times; belt stretching, backlash and
travel. Thrust originates from reluctance force.
mechanical windup; and typical speed limits of 15 ft/sec or so. In
the same way, linear motors avoid lead and ballscrew efficiencies

Sponsored by:

6 I www.linearmotiontips.com
www.festo.com
 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I LINEAR ACTUATOR

(continued)
Linear motors for actuation of axes

Linear stepper motors deliver speeds to 70 in./sec, suitable for helpful in flying-shear applications and long-stroke pick-and place
relatively quick-acting pick-and-place and inspection machines. machines. Other applications exist for waterjet and laser cutting
Other applications include part-transfer stations. Some and robotics tasks.
manufacturers sell twin linear steppers with a common forcer to
form X-Y stages. These stages mount in any orientation and have Iron-core motors have slotted steel lamination stacks (insulated to
high stiffness and flatness to a few μm for every hundred mm to reduce Eddy currents) for output of 7,000 N or more. The forcer
output accurate movement. coil assemblies include steel laminations and windings in a single
or three-phase configuration. This allows for control directly from
Hybrid linear motors — Most of these have low-cost ferromagnetic a line or through an inverter or vector drive. Some such linear
platens. (Those with solid steel platens move to 3 m/sec; those with ac motors use water-cooling to boost force output — enough to
laminated platens move faster.) Much like linear stepper motors, let the motors drive large baggage handling and amusement-
they vary magnetic saturation from the platen to shape opposition ride axes. Iron-core motors are suitable for certain machine-tool
to magnetic flow; in other words, thrust originates from reluctance applications as well.
force. Feedback plus a PID loop with positioning control helps the
motor output servo-grade performance. Cylindrical linear motors — These have steel rods and a moving
coil or rods filled with stacked magnets. With the same footprint
Key to hybrid linear-motor performance is a yoke on the platen as a traditional linear actuator, these work in myriad machines that
that makes paths through which flux travels and closes flux loops need quick and accurate strokes.
between platen teeth and forcer. The moving forcer includes
laminated stacks with three-phase coils wound into them. Some
have permanent magnets on the platen for higher force output. HOW TO PICK A LINEAR MOTOR
Those that don’t rely solely on phase current in phase coils and the
forcer’s magnets. These need coil current to electromagnetically Besides the different speed capabilities listed above, a main
balance magnet loading for optimal motor performance. specification factor is how much force the application needs to
move the load. Linear stepper motors output to 50 lbƒ. Ironless-
Hybrid-motor drawbacks are limited output and cogging from core motors output to 560 lbƒ, and iron-core brushless motors to
reluctance coupling between the forcer and platen. Two solutions 3,100 lbƒ. Linear ac induction motors output to 500 lbƒ. Other
here are phase-teeth offset or driving to get partial saturation factors include:
of platen teeth and sections of forcer teeth. Here, the drive only
magnetically saturates working teeth sections. Some hybrid- Motion profile — This largely relates to how quickly the
core motors also use external cooling to get more output during application needs the motor to accelerate the load.
continuous operation.
Form factor — Pieces of conveyor machinery often use linear ac
Linear ac induction motors — Linear ac induction motors that run induction motors for their lack of platen magnets and long strokes.
to 2,000 in./sec work for people movers, rollercoasters, and large Precision medical devices and semiconductor lines make copious
aerospace applications. General-purpose types can move a few use of brushless cog-free linear motors for their accuracy.
inches to 150 ft/sec or faster to drive gates, people movers, and
other material-handling conveyors. Accuracy — No matter the version, linear-motor accuracy is a
design benefit: An axis running off a rotary stepper through a
Linear ac synchronous motors — These are either iron-core or 6 rev/in. ballscrew positions to 0.005 in. or so assuming zero
ironless-core motors. coupling or ballscrew backlash. The same setup with a servomotor
positions to 0.0001 in. A linear motor driving the same load
Ironless-core (or air-core) linear motors have an epoxy forcer positions to 0.000007 in.
plate holding copper coils. It slides inside a U-shaped magnetic
platen to output up to 3,000 N and speeds to 230 in./sec or Long life — Engineers often pick linear motors for the way they
better. Sometimes called brushless cog-free linear motors, reduce maintenance and cost of ownership. Linear motors reduce
these are lighter motors with potentially unlimited travel and maintenance, as they have fewer contacting subcomponents than
quick acceleration. However, their main benefit (particularly in other setups. The zero-backlash operation of linear motors also
semiconductor applications) is smooth output. Their speed is eliminates design-breaking shock loads.

Sponsored by:

7 I www.linearmotiontips.com

www.festo.com
profiled rail in
linear actuation

L
SLIDING-ELEMENT LINEAR BEARINGS inear bearings are included in linear actuators and the axes
of other motion systems to guide and support machine
assemblies and payloads over the linear stroke. All linear
DOVETAIL
PLAIN BEARING bearings fall into four categories:
1. BOXWAY
PLAIN BEARING
BUSHING
PLAIN BEARING
1. A carriage or comparable table rides on a linear rail or track via
plain (sliding) elements
ROLLING-ELEMENT LINEAR BEARINGS 2. A carriage rides on linear rail via wheel-type track rollers
3. A carriage rides on a profiled linear rail via carriage-contained
2. TRACK ROLLER
LINEAR BEARING
arrays of ball bearings or cylindrical rollers
4. A bushing studded on its inner diameter with rolling elements
rides on a round shaft
V-SHAPED TRACK-ROLLER
WHEEL AND TRACK
The interrelated functions of these linear-motion components to
both support (bear) loads and guide loads is the core reason why
they’re called both linear bearings and linear guides — depending
on which function is being emphasized by the source. Both terms
are so generic that they can refer to any products from the four
categories listed above — including such disparate designs
GOTHIC-ARCH
TRACK-ROLLER as plain linear bearings, ball bushings, and recirculating-roller
WHEEL AND
ROUND TRACK linear bearings. Confusing matters is the fact that industry makes
inconsistent use of even more specific linear-motion terms. For
example, the term slide is often used to refer to the carriages of
linear bearings based on rolling (not sliding) bearing elements.
PROFILED-RAIL 3. The term rolling-contact guide is often used to refer to profiled-rail
LINEAR BEARINGS
RECIRCULATING
linear bearings even though track-roller linear guides also include
ROLLING ELEMENTS
rolling contact (at their track wheels).

NON-RECIRCULATING
That said, linear guide often indicates a standalone guide rod, ball
ROLLING ELEMENTS
slide, or mechanism solely for guiding loads. The term profiled
rail nearly always indicates some linear bearing with roller or ball
elements. Many manufacturers use the terms linear slide (whether
CARRIAGE based on rolling or sliding action) and linear rail (whether plain,
track-roller, or profile) to indicate a linear-motion guide element
that’s incorporated into a build complete with some mechanical
drive. Though the terminology surrounding plain linear bearings
GUIDEWAY
RECIRCULATING
SET OF RETAINED BALLS is probably the most consistent, various manufacturers use plane
4.
RAIL
bearing (as in one dimension in 3D space) instead plain bearing.
ROUND RAIL While the two terms are often used interchangeably, the American
LINEAR BEARINGS Bearing Manufacturers Association encourages use of the term
LINEAR BUSHING BALL SPLINE
plain bearing.

The term linear stage generally implies a design has guided

Sponsored by:

8 I www.linearmotiontips.com
www.festo.com
 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I LINEAR ACTUATOR

(continued)
profiled rail in linear actuation

elements as well as some mode of mechanical linear actuation and making an O around the rail. This design gives a longer moment
reinforced body — often sans inclusion of the motor. arm and allows the bearing to withstand high moment loads.

As covered elsewhere in this Design Guide, motorized rails (more Profiled-rail linear-bearing suppliers generally sell linear bearings of
commonly called linear actuators) abound — though the distinction a given raceway arrangement in a few geometries to satisfy various
here is that there are countless linear actuators sold without any design requirements for friction minimization and load capacity.
linear-guide element. That’s useful for OEMs aiming to employ Circular-arc geometry produces two-point contact between the ball
some specialized linear guide or omit guides altogether. and the raceway. This gives the assembly a lower friction coefficient
and smoother running characteristics. Gothic arch geometry
provides four-point contact between the ball and raceways,
PROFILED-RAIL OPTIONS IN CONTEXT resulting in higher moment load capacities … but also higher
friction. More specifically, the Gothic arch design provides two
Profiled-rail linear bearings introduce very little friciton into linear contact points on the ball and two contact points on the raceway.
systems ... usually significantly less than that introduced by linear
bearings based on sliding friction. Friction-force variations due to
speed are minimal, so these components can position loads with
small and precise steps. Their low friction also allows high speeds
without generating too much heat ... which in turn minimizes wear
to help machinery maintain long-life accuracy.

Rolling elements are either cylindrical rollers or balls. Carriage

assemblies that recirculate the rolling elements have stroke lengths
only limited by the linear rail upon which they ride. In contrast,
carriage assemblies that hold the rolling elements in a non-
recirculating arrangement limit stroke length. Flat guideways are
dominant here; many of these sport a grooved race compatible with
what’s known as the crossed-roller arrangement.

Profiled-rail linear bearings employing balls are also subdivided

into recirculating and non-recirculating types. Flat guideways here
typically accommodate double-row recirculating ball arrays. The
load capacity of profiled-rail linear bearings employing balls depends
on how many rows of balls the carriage carries … and more rail rows
mean more load capacity and rigidity. That said, more rows also make
these profiled-rail linear bearings more complex and costlier.

While the organization of balls in rolling-ball-element linear

bearings isn’t an officially defined specification standard, it’s
typically detailed in manufacturer catalogs. That’s because ball
positioning — called the raceway arrangement — has a huge
impact on performance. This defines both where and how the
load-bearing balls sit on the profiled linear rail.

The face-to-face raceway arrangement is often called the X

arrangement because the contact lines between the balls and
the raceways point inward ... making an X inside the profiled
rail. This arrangement gives the assembly equal load capacity
in all directions but reduces its ability to handle moment loads.
The back-to-back raceway arrangement is also called the
O arrangement because the contact lines point outward —

Sponsored by:

9 I www.linearmotiontips.com

www.festo.com
All about 12-volt
linear actuators
L
inear actuators are typically characterized by their Design: As the name implies, a 12-volt linear actuator includes
drive mechanism — belt drive, ball or leadscrew drive, a 12-volt dc motor integrated into or tightly coupled with the
pneumatic drive, and so forth. But it’s not unusual for actuator body. 12-volt actuators are driven almost exclusively
rod-style electric actuators to be classified by the input by one of two mechanisms — a ballscrew or a leadscrew. Most
voltage — commonly 12 or 24 volts — of their integrated designs incorporate gearing or use a gear motor to optimize the
motors. These actuators provide thrust force, much like a thrust and speed characteristics of the actuator.
pneumatic or hydraulic cylinder. In fact, rod style electric The most basic design includes a limit switch at each end of
actuators are widely used to replace pneumatic or hydraulic the stroke, meaning that the actuator fully extends and retracts,
cylinders, due to their simplicity and the potential cost savings with no intermediate positioning. However, most manufacturers
that can be realized by switching from fluid power to electrically offer programmable limit switches as an option, for intermediate
driven motion. positioning capabilities.

SCREW

12-V linear actuator is a term common in industry

referring to a self-contained mechatronic unit
containing motion components and a motor that
runs off 12-V input to deliver linear output.

MOTION
GEAR-BASED SPEED CONTROL
REDUCTION ELECTRONICS

SEALED
HOUSING

MOTOR

CLUTCH

Sponsored by:

10 I www.linearmotiontips.com
www.festo.com
 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I LINEAR ACTUATOR

(continued)
12-Volt linear actuators

Because these electric rod-style actuators are often used to rod, there are no linear guides to support and carry the load. In
replace hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders, some of their basic most applications, support and guiding for the load is provided
design features follow the precedents set by the by tracks or rails independent of the actuator. This operating
other technologies. principle explains why these actuators have several different
monikers, including electric cylinders, thrust type actuators, and
rod style actuators.
Sizing and selection of a 12-volt linear actuator is fairly
12-volt actuators are driven almost exclusively straightforward, because the motor is pre-engineered and
integrated into the actuator.
by one of two mechanisms — a ballscrew or a • The first parameter to be considered is typically thrust, as it
will often dictate the overall body size of the actuator.
leadscrew. Most designs incorporate gearing • Next is stroke length ... because a small actuator may meet
or use a gear motor to optimize the thrust and the thrust requirements, but may not be able to achieve the
necessary stroke length.
speed characteristics of the actuator. Like slider type linear actuators, rod-style actuators driven by
a ballscrew or leadscrew can back drive. When the application
requires vertical operation, remember to check that the vertical
Mounting is a good example. A 12-volt linear actuator is load doesn’t exceed the back driving torque of the screw.
typically mounted in the same manner as a pneumatic or
hydraulic cylinder, with most having both clevis and trunnion With an initial actuator selection based on thrust force and
mounting options. In some 12-volt linear actuator product lines, stroke, the speed and duty cycle requirements can then
you’ll find body sizes and mounting options that meet ISO, be checked. The allowable force and speed combinations
NFPA, and other standards, which makes the conversion from a are typically provided by the manufacturer, in the form of a
pneumatic or hydraulic actuator to an electrical actuator much performance curve or chart.
simpler in existing applications. Once it’s confirmed that all other parameters are within the
actuator’s capabilities, it’s important to check the required duty
cycle or on time because motor heating can be a factor that
limits the actuator’s performance.

rod-style Linear options such as 12-volt Suitable applications: Virtually any time a load needs to
be pushed or pulled, without being guided or carried, a rod
actuators are widely used to replace pneumatic style actuator is a good choice. This includes opening and
or hydraulic cylinders due to their simplicity closing sliding doors in applications such as rail cars and
machining centers.
and the potential cost savings that can be In the medical industry, 12-volt actuators are often used for
realized by switching from fluid power to ergonomic positioning of worktables or patient beds.
In conveying operations, these actuators are commonly used to
electrically driven motion.
stop or divert product along the conveyor, depending on the
process requirements.

Performance and selection: One of the most crucial Because they’re fully enclosed and available in IP-rated or
differences between rod style and slider type actuators is that hygienic designs, rod style actuators are well-suited for the
rod style actuators provide only thrust force. Their primary use pharmaceutical and food and beverage markets as well, where
is for pushing or pulling a load, via a tube or rod that extends purely thrust operations such as inserting, labeling, or stamping
and retracts from the actuator. While a plain bushing guides the are typical.

Sponsored by:

11 I www.linearmotiontips.com

www.festo.com
High-speed linear actuators
Ballscrews and leadscrews
are limited in speed by
their tendency to whip.

L
ike many terms used in the linear motion industry — maximum speeds than ballscrews of a similar size. So of the
including heavy duty, miniature, and corrosion-resistant screw technologies, actuators based on ballscrew drives are
— there is no industry standard that specifies what more likely to be deemed high speed than those based on
constitutes a high-speed linear actuator. Nevertheless, leadscrew drives.
there are some general guidelines that manufacturers follow Actuators based on belt drives or rack and pinion assemblies
when classifying and marketing their actuators as high speed. are typically able to reach higher speeds than ballscrews,
These guidelines are typically based on the drive mechanism, provided they are properly tensioned (for belt drive versions)
actuator type, and even primary use or industry. Understanding or preloaded (for rack and pinion versions). Actuators with steel
these distinctions can help you make an informed decision reinforced belts can deliver speeds of 10 m/sec or higher while
when your application calls for a high-speed linear actuator. rack and pinion driven actuators can commonly reach speeds to
5 m/sec.
SPEED IS PRIMARILY DEPENDENT ON
THE LINEAR DRIVE MECHANISM CONSTRUCTION INFLUENCES MAXIMUM SPEED
The limiting factor of a linear actuator’s speed capability is
Geometric construction is another factor that influences an axis’
typically the drive mechanism. More specifically, ballscrews and
top speed. The high speed designation is most often applied to
leadscrews are limited in speed by their tendency to whip like a
thrust-rod type actuators (also called electric cylinders) because
jump rope — which is a function of the screw diameter, length,
their primary applications involve pushing-pulling and inserting
and end bearing arrangement.
operations, which typically require very short extension and
Because leadscrew designs are based on sliding contact and retraction times. These actuators can be either ballscrew or
generate high heat due to friction, they often have lower leadscrew driven ... with speeds ranging from 0.1 m/sec to more

END SUPPORTS AFFECT CRITICAL SPEED

E
F RE
2,000
Ballscrew and leadscrew
critical speed depends
RPM AT 80% CRITICAL SPEED

on screw diameter,
INCREASING SUPPORT

E
PL 1,000
SIM 800 length, and end bearing
600
arrangement.
400
ID
SCREW Ø 0.25 to 1 in.

E
RIG PL
SIM
200

E ID 100
PL
SIM RIG 80
60
40
ID
RIG
RIGID+FREE 10 in. ............................................................... 100 in.
SIMPLE+SIMPLE 20 in. ............................................................... 200 in.
RIGID+SIMPLE 25 in. ............................................................... 250 in.
ID RIGID+RIGID 30 in. ............................................................... 300 in.
RIG
ALLOWABLE SPANS BETWEEN BEARINGS
ADJUSTED FOR END-SUPPORT TYPE
Sponsored by:

12 I www.linearmotiontips.com
www.festo.com
 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I LINEAR ACTUATORS

(continued)
High-speed linear actuators

The EPCC, with its compact

dimensions, precise and
quiet ball screw drive, and
fast positioning time, is ideal
in assembly systems, testing
and inspection systems,
desktop applications,
small parts handling, and
the electronics industry –
anywhere where optimum
use of the available space
is an essential requirement.
Image courtesy of Festo.

than 1 m/sec. A few manufacturers even offer belt-driven rod- The most common guide systems used with linear motors and
style actuators that can reach speeds to 2.5 m/sec. belt drives are recirculating-element profiled-rail linear bearings
for which maximum speeds typically reach up to 5 m/sec —
That said, actuators with slide or carriage-type actuation (in some
limiting the overall speed of the actuator to 5 m/sec or less.
contexts called rodless actuators) can in many cases achieve
higher speeds than rod-type actuators. The only reason they’re Track-roller-based linear guide mechanisms for still higher
not marketed as high speed is because carriage-based linear speeds: Faster stokes are possible when belt drives (and in some
actuation is primary for positioning and transport ... typically with cases linear-motor drives) paired with track-roller linear guides
high loads as well. As covered at the beginning of this Design instead of recirculating profiled-rail bearings. High-speed linear
Guide, rodless slider-type actuators have a wide range of drive actuators with a preloaded linear-guide wheel assembly and a
options ... including leadscrew, ballscrew, rack and pinion, belt, properly tensioned steel-reinforced belt drive win the race with
and linear motor. travel speeds to 10 m/sec.
Side note on miniature designs: For micro and nanopositioning
GUIDE TYPE LIMITS TOP SPEED applications, the actuators of choice are often based on voice coil
or piezo technologies. Ultrasonic piezo actuators can reach speeds
Linear motors provide the highest speed capabilities because of
of 0.5 m/sec or greater, but they typically have maximum strokes of
how they have no mechanical parts to vibrate or create friction
100 mm or less. Voice-coil actuators operate at maximum speeds
and heat. But even linear-actuation systems built around linear
of 0.25 to 0.30 m/sec with strokes of 150 mm or less.
motors have speed limits ... mostly because of the linear-guide
mechanism. In the same way, linear actuation based on steel- While these specifications may not fit the general definition of
reinforced belt drives can reach speeds to 12 m/sec and beyond. high-speed linear actuators, considering the rapid acceleration
However, these belt drives like linear motors are limited by the that is required to reach these speeds in very short stroke
maximum speed of the linear guide. lengths, piezo and voice coil designs can easily be classified as
high acceleration actuators.

Sponsored by:

13 I www.linearmotiontips.com

www.festo.com
Linear actuator types to
deliver thrust force
W
hen an application requires pure thrust forces, the
best type of linear actuator is often a rod-style
actuator. Also called thrust actuators or (when
a motor is integrated) simply electric actuators,
these electromechanical devices excel at providing axial or thrust
forces for pushing, pulling, or holding loads.
Although their function is straightforward, thrust actuators
come in an extensive range of designs, sizes, and Electromechanical
configurations. rod-style actuators
The typical drive mechanisms for thrust actuators are ball, are more likely than
lead, or roller screws, and tubular linear motors. Drive their traditional slider-
mechanisms that aren’t common in these designs are belt and type counterparts
pulley or rack-and-pinion systems. That’s because these other to be provided with an
technologies don’t have sufficient thrust force and rigidity (in integrated motor and control
the case of belts) or a suitable form factor (in the case of rack- hardware. In addition to reducing
and-pinion sets) to make sense in thrust actuators. complexity for OEMs and end users,
providing a full electromechanical
Thrust actuators can also be driven by pneumatic or hydraulic
solution in one package makes the
cylinders, but electromechanical designs are more common
switch from pneumatic or hydraulic
than air or fluid technologies in motion control applications.
technology to electromechanical
Thrust force is transmitted to the load by a rod that extends technology less cumbersome. Integration
and retracts, guided by a plain bushing, from the actuator options for thrust actuators range from low-
body. Typical thrust actuators don’t include linear guides, voltage dc motors with limit switches for simple end-
since their design is not inherent to carrying loads — only to-end positioning, to plug-and-play servo designs with
pushing, pulling, or holding them. If support or guiding of the integrated motor, drive, and controller.
load is required then rails, shafts, or tracks independent of the
actuator are used.
While most rod-style actuators include a housing to remain
stationary and the thrust tube to extend and retract, some Thrust force is transmitted to the load by a rod
designs allow the tube to be fixed and the housing to move.
This is more common in linear-motor designs, but some screw- that extends and retracts, guided by a plain
driven designs allow this configuration as well.
bushing, from the actuator body.
Because they often replace pneumatic or hydraulic versions,
it’s common for electromechanical thrust actuators to be
designed with outer dimensions and mounting options that The housing of a thrust actuator is typically a fully-enclosed
follow standards, such as ISO and NFPA to which pneumatic design that encapsulates the mechanical and electrical
and hydraulic cylinders commonly adhere. Ball and leadscrew components. With a seal added to the thrust rod, it’s often
versions are good replacements for pneumatic technologies possible for these actuators to achieve high IP ratings,
because they eliminate the need for compressors, filters, valves, making them suitable for applications where the actuator
and other air-handling equipment. is exposed to fine particles, liquids, or washdown conditions.
Most manufacturers also offer plating and coating options
When driven by large-diameter ballscrews or by roller screws,
for the housing for corrosion resistance to myriad chemicals
electromechanical thrust actuators have extremely high power
and environments.
density and provide a less complex solution than hydraulic
actuators.

Sponsored by:

14 I www.linearmotiontips.com
www.festo.com
Servo pneumatics —
not an oxymoron
The compact cylinder series ADN-S is optimized in terms of
installation space. Its strong point is its design, which is ideal
for simple pressing and holding functions in relatively clean
environments. In particular, the small diameters of 6 and 10
mm are perfect for the electronics industry and small parts
assembly, where they simulate micro movements for testing
control buttons, keyboards or similar. Image courtesy of Festo.

P
neumatic cylinders and actuators are commonly known as bang-bang
devices, making quick moves from one end of their stroke to the
other, with limited regulation of the force or the move profile.

On the other hand, electromechanical actuators with servo controls offer

high levels of refinement in positioning, force-torque, and accuracy.
Generally speaking, pneumatics are a cost-effective solution for rather
crude point-to-point moves, while electromechanical actuators provide high
precision at a higher cost.

There’s a spot between these two solutions where a relatively high

level of control is needed, but without the complexity and cost of
electromechanical servo driven systems. Bridging this gap are pneumatics
that operate in a closed-loop system — in other words, servo pneumatics.
An extremely flat linear actuator, which can also be
supplied/connected below the table. The DLGF can
be combined with suitable cylinders and linear slides SERVO PNEUMATICS VERSUS TRADITIONAL PNEUMATICS
without adapter plates or else two DLGFs can be
coupled together. Image courtesy of Festo. A servo system is one that uses a feedback device and a controller to
monitor and correct the system’s error (in position, speed, or torque-force).
Hence, integrating a pneumatic cylinder or actuator with a feedback
system and a controller that can issue commands based on that feedback,
gives us a servo pneumatic device. Another key component of a servo
pneumatic system is a proportional valve, which precisely regulates air
delivery to ensure that the commanded position or force is achieved.

Traditional pneumatics enable rapid, high-force, point-to-point motion.

Servo pneumatics provide the same speed and force capabilities, with
the advantage of higher accuracy positioning, not only at the ends of
the stroke, but also at intermediate points along the travel. In addition
to obtaining feedback on position, servo pneumatics also monitor and
regulate air pressure, which enables precise control of the force that’s
produced.

One drawback (real or perceived) to traditional pneumatics is air

Repairable, pneumatic cylinder conforming to consumption. Air preparation and delivery costs money, and pneumatics
NFPA interchange dimensions. The cost-optimized can use a significant amount of air even when they’re not working. Servo
design makes this an ideal choice for OEM pneumatics, on the other hand, control air flow based on the required
machinery manufacturers. Sturdy construction with position and force. This leads to less air consumption than standard
stainless steel tie-rods makes this cylinder highly pneumatics, by as much as 30 percent. It’s important to note that servo
suitable for industries like construction, agriculture, pneumatics require higher quality air than standard pneumatics. In addition
packaging and the automotive industry.Image to industry-standard filtration, a 5 micron filter is typically recommended
courtesy of Festo.
for servo pneumatic systems.

Sponsored by:

15 I www.linearmotiontips.com
www.festo.com
 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I LINEAR ACTUATOR

(continued)
Servo pneumatics — not an oxymoron

WHY SERVO PNEUMATICS INSTEAD OF

ELECTROMECHANICAL ACTUATORS?

Of course, electromechanical actuators can provide accurate

position and force control, but servo pneumatics have a much
higher power density—that is, force capability for a given
size. A servo pneumatic cylinder or actuator typically provides
many times the force capability of an electromechanical
actuator of a similar body size, which is a significant advantage
in pressing, inserting, and tightening applications. Servo
pneumatics also operate with 24 Vdc power supplies, which
allows them to be used in low-power applications. Lower
power also reduces heat generation and thermal buildup, so Robust construction due to high quality,
they perform well in continuous-duty applications and high- solid aluminum construction. The smooth,
temperature environments. cylindrical body with protective clear
anodized coating enables superior
While electromechanical servo systems have been in use corrosion resistance. Self-lubricating piston
for decades, the adoption of servo pneumatics in industrial rod bearing and internally lubricated seals
applications hinged on advancements in controls and enables superior service life and reliability.
Offers an extensive range of variants and
software. Air is compressible, and this variable is much more
mounting accessories for most applications.
difficult to define and model than the compliance or backlash
Image courtesy of Festo.
in an electromechanical system.

Before servo pneumatics could be commercialized, pneumatic

control algorithms capable of taking into account this non-
linearity had to be created. But the past ten years or so have
seen the development and integration of high-response valves
and digital signal processors (DSPs) that can preform high-
speed computations, making servo pneumatic systems a reality,
capable of providing accurate, highly responsive positioning
and force control.

The DPRA is Festo’s direct interchange

inch round-body pneumatic cylinder.
Superior performance due to 303 stainless
steel piston rod and 304 stainless housing
providing corrosion resistance, low friction
and long life. Oil-impregnated piston
rod bushing and low friction U-cup seals
create a pneumatic cylinder with efficient
performance, superior service life and
The standard cylinder DSBC with the reliability. Image courtesy of Festo.
self-adjusting pneumatic end-position
cushioning adapts optimally to changes
in loads and speed. Its many variants,
adaptation to ambient conditions and
individual design allow it to be used
flexibly. Image courtesy of Festo.

Sponsored by:

16 I www.linearmotiontips.com

www.festo.com
Selecting a
linear
actuator
Very lightweight but rigid at the same time. Whether
for palletizing in industrial packaging or for a wide
variety of positioning tasks with long strokes: the
dynamic cantilever actuators ELCC for loads of up to
100 kg are highly impressive with less oscillation and
up to 30% shorter cycle time. Image courtesy of Festo.

Y
ou’re working on an application that requires actuators are commonly found at lengths of 1,000 mm or less
linear motion — maybe it’s a pick-and-place although larger-diameter ballscrews can be used at lengths to
assembly system, a packaging line, or a gantry 3,000 mm. This limit is governed by the screw’s critical speed.
for material transfer. It’s quite likely that designing As a screw’s length increases, its critical speed (the speed
your own actuator from scratch (and sourcing at which the screw begins to encounter bending vibrations)
the various parts, mounting and aligning the components, decreases. Simply put, as a screw gets longer and turns faster it
and implementing a maintenance system) is not an effective begins to “whip” like a jump rope.
use of your time. So you begin looking at predesigned and For actuators with toothed belt drive, the ability to tension
preassembled linear actuators. Trouble is there are so many the belt limits the maximum length. By using belts with larger
actuator types, sizes, and geometries that it’s hard to know width (more contact area) and higher tooth pitch, belt-driven
where to start in your selection. actuators are commonly found in applications requiring a stroke
The first step in narrowing down the field is to choose length of 10 to 12 meters.
which drive mechanism is best for the application. Most
manufacturers offer at least two drive options, with toothed
2. SPEED REQUIRED BY THE LINEAR AXIS
belt and ballscrew being the most common ... and pneumatic
and linear motor drives serving niche applications. Below are The second critical factor in choosing an actuator is speed.
five factors that will help guide your choice between the two The maximum speed for most belt drive actuators is 5 m/
most common types of actuator - toothed belt and ballscrew. sec. This limit is influenced by the guide system, which most
commonly employs recirculating bearings. For applications that
require higher speeds (to 10 m/sec) a belt drive can be used
1. LINEAR ACTUATOR STROKE LENGTH
in conjunction with preloaded wheel-based guide mechanisms
The distance the actuator needs to move in one direction, rather than recirculating bearings.
known as the stroke length, is the first requirement to consider
in choosing between ballscrew or belt drive. Ballscrew

While there are very few lexicon “standards” in the linear-actuator industry, manufacturers have done a good job of adhering to
the distinction between actuators and stages. When the mounting surface is a machined steel or granite base, the term stage is
used. The performance difference between stages and actuators has primarily to do with travel accuracy. Stages hold higher travel
accuracies than actuators and use linear motors or very high precision ballscrews for extremely smooth and precise positioning.

Sponsored by:

17 I www.linearmotiontips.com
www.festo.com
 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I LINEAR ACTUATOR

(continued)
SELECTING A LINEAR ACTUATOR

As mentioned, in a ballscrew drive actuator, as the length safer than belt drives for carrying vertical loads. This is because
increases, the critical speed decreases. In general, ballscrew ballscrews, depending on the load, screw lead, and friction in
actuators can reach speeds to 1.5 m/sec at stroke lengths less the system, are reluctant to back drive or “free fall” if there’s
than 1 meter. Ballscrew supports can provide additional rigidity a failure of the brake or catastrophic damage to the system.
by reducing the unsupported length of the screw ... letting When a belt drive actuator is required in a vertical application,
the actuator reach higher speeds and longer lengths. When an external brake or counterweight should be seriously
considering ballscrew supports, consult the manufacturer for considered.
assistance in executing necessary speed and length calculations.
5. MAINTENANCE (OR LACK THEREOF) FOR A LINEAR
3. ACCURACY ACTUATOR
Accuracy is broadly used to mean either travel accuracy The primary cause of failure for linear actuators is lack of
(where the carriage or saddle is located in space during the lubrication. Both ballscrew and belt drive actuators require that
movement), positioning accuracy (how closely the actuator the guide system be lubricated periodically, but ballscrews
reaches the target position), or repeatability (how closely the introduce another component that must be monitored for
actuator achieves the same position with each stroke). While proper lubrication. Some manufacturers have addressed this
travel accuracy is heavily influenced by the actuator’s structure, by providing systems that are lubricated for life (with life being
base, and mounting, positioning accuracy and repeatability are defined as a set travel distance or number of revolutions, with a
primarily functions of the drive mechanism. given load, speed, and environment) but many applications fall
Ballscrews, particularly if they are preloaded, have better outside these specified parameters and will require lubrication
positioning accuracy than belt drives due to their rigidity. at some point during their intended lifetime.
However, the inaccuracy in positioning can be measured and Although belt-driven actuators have the benefit of fewer
compensated for in the actuator’s control system. For this components to maintain, environments containing dust or chips
reason, repeatability (the ability to reach the same position with may necessitate an actuator design that minimizes the potential
each stroke) often becomes the most important factor in high- for contamination to enter the pulley housings. Protection
precision applications. against such ingress will lengthen the pulley bearings’ design life
For high repeatability, the rigidity of the drive mechanism is and reduce wear on the belt itself.
critical, making a preloaded ballscrew and nut assembly the Both belt drives and ballscrew drives have performance
better choice. benefits. When making an initial selection, remember that
belt drives are typically the better choice for long stokes and
4. LINEAR-ACTUATOR MOUNTING OPTIONS high speeds, while ballscrew drives are better for applications
that require high repeatability or vertical mounting. In some
In some cases, the direction in which the actuator is mounted applications, either drive mechanism will meet the criteria
will dictate which drive mechanism is best. Both belt and outlined above. In these cases, the manufacturer can guide
ballscrew drives are suitable for horizontal and inclined design engineers in choosing the right actuator based on more
mounting orientations, but applications that require vertical advanced factors — such as acceleration, settling time, or
mounting need more careful evaluation. environmental conditions.
While every system that is moving a load vertically needs
built-in safety mechanisms, ballscrew drives are often seen as

With so many options, choosing the best linear actuator is a complex task ... and there’s no one right way to make a selection.
However, the best place to start is usually with a manufacturer’s sizing software or selection program. Results often include
several choices that can be narrowed down with non-quantitative criteria such as ease of maintenance, integration with existing
components or systems, and space constraints.

Sponsored by:

18 I www.linearmotiontips.com

www.festo.com
Linear actuators
with the rigidity and accuracy of
linear stages
A
lthough there are no industry standards that define provide rigidity and travel accuracy specifications that rival
linear actuators and linear stages, generally accepted some linear stages.
terminology indicates that: The use of a steel (rather than aluminum) profile makes the
• A linear actuator is typically constructed with an aluminum U-shaped design extremely rigid and allows manufacturers
extrusion or base to offer a linear actuator with the high travel and positioning
• A linear stage is typically built on a flat machined steel or accuracies typically found in more precise (and more
granite base. expensive) linear stages.
This distinction implies that linear actuators can provide The steel base can also be machined to provide a reference
longer strokes and use a variety of drive mechanisms (belt, edge for precise alignment with other machine components ...
screw, rack and pinion) while stages generally have higher or with other actuators in a multi-axis system.
rigidity and use high-precision linear guides and drive
mechanisms (typically a ballscrew or linear motor) for excellent With their very high rigidity, U-shaped linear actuators can
travel and positioning accuracies. be better suited than other designs to applications where the
actuator is supported only on one end.
But one actuator design — the U-shaped linear actuator —
defies these specifications ... using an extruded steel base to These include two and three-axis Cartesian systems, for example.

This actuator design has

various names depending on
the manufacturer.

Some in industry call it a

U-shaped linear actuator
in reference to its defining
feature — a U-shaped
extruded-steel profile.

Sponsored by:

19 I www.linearmotiontips.com
www.festo.com
 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I LINEAR ACTUATOR

(continued)
LINEAR STAGES AND LINEAR ACTUATORS
In the U-shaped actuator design, the linear guide system is dimensionally interchangeable with steel versions where an
integrated — and there is no guide rail. Instead, the raceways application might benefit from a lower-cost option.
that would normally be found on the guide rail are ground
into the inside of the base. The carriage or table is analogous
to a linear bearing block turned inside-out, with the balls
riding on the outside. The use of a steel (rather than aluminum)
This leaves the center portion of the carriage available to profile makes the U-shaped design extremely
accommodate the ballscrew nut. This construction principle
makes the entire actuator extremely compact, with a width- rigid and allows manufacturers to offer
to-height ratio of approximately 2:1.
a linear actuator with the high travel and
For example, a U-shaped actuator with a width of 60 mm is
only 33 mm high. The most common cross-sections (width x positioning accuracies typically found in more
height) are 40 x 20 mm, 50 x 26 mm, 60 x 33 mm, and 86 x 46
precise (and more expensive) linear stages.
mm … although other sizes are offered as well.

While steel versions of U-shaped linear actuators use

ballscrew drives almost exclusively, aluminum designs are
more likely to be offered with both ballscrew and leadscrew
Despite their compact dimensions, U-shaped drive options.

linear actuators have excellent load and Originally developed for high-precision applications such
as semiconductor wafer handling and medical diagnostic
moment capacities. This is because the raceways dispensing — for which space constraints don’t allow a
typical linear stage — U-shaped linear actuators are now
are spaced relatively far apart ... so the used in a wide variety of industries and applications. These
geometry of the carriage is similar to that of a include plasma welding, automated assembly, and optical
inspection.
bearing block much larger than the actuator One of the driving factors behind the widespread adoption
could accommodate in its standard form. of U-shaped actuators is that they are the only linear
actuator design with dimensional interchangeability between
manufacturers.
Some manufacturers offer U-shaped linear actuators made However, it’s important to note that due to differing
from extruded aluminum profiles, with steel inserts for the guideway and ballscrew designs, technical specifications
linear guide raceways. (such as load capacity, speed, or rigidity) can vary between
Aluminum versions lack the rigidity of steel designs, but manufacturers and product lines — even for products with
they offer a very compact profile. In addition, they are often the same cross-sectional size and mounting dimensions.

Sponsored by:

20 I www.linearmotiontips.com

www.festo.com
Back to basics:
Does my linear system need
accuracy or repeatability — or both?

S
uppose we’re designing a new linear motion system. Repeatability: This defines how closely a system returns to
Should we design it for high accuracy or repeatability? the same position over multiple attempts. Repeatability can be
Before we answer this question, let’s define accuracy and specified as either unidirectional (which means the specification
repeatability for linear systems. is valid when the position is approached from one direction) or
bidirectional — which means the specification is valid when the
Accuracy: In linear motion, there are two generally categories of
position is approached from either direction.
accuracy — positioning accuracy and travel accuracy. Positioning
accuracy specifies the difference between the system’s target
position and the actual position that it reached. Travel accuracy
COMPONENT SELECTION AND MACHINE DESIGN
specifies errors that occur during movement — in other words,
does the system travel in a straight line, or does it move up-and- AFFECT SYSTEM ACCURACY AND REPEATABILITY
down or side-to-side as it travels? As mentioned earlier, linear systems are made up of four basic
components:
Accuracy is given in relation to a true or accepted value or
reference. For positioning accuracy, the reference value is the • The base or mounting structure
target position. For travel accuracy, the reference value is a • The linear guide (or guides)
defined plane of motion in both the vertical direction (also • The rotary-to-linear drive mechanism
known as the flatness of travel) and in the horizontal direction • The motor
— also known as the straightness of travel. Note that accuracy Each of these plays some role in the system’s accuracy or
relates to how closely the target position is reached when repeatability ... and secondary components such as couplings,
approaching from either direction.

EIGHT ERROR TYPES IN MULTI-AXIS LINEAR ACTUATION

Travel accuracy
Z defines (among
LINEAR ERRORS OCCUR other things)
ON X, Y, AND Z. deviations in the
horizontal plane
PLANAR ERRORS AFFECT ADJACENT AXES ...
YAW (PAN) as straightness
and in the vertical
plane as flatness.

PITCH (TILT)

STRAIGHTNESS Y
ROLL

X
FLATNESS

ABBE ERRORS INCLUDE

YAW, PITCH, AND ROLL.

Sponsored by:

21 I www.linearmotiontips.com
www.festo.com
 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I LINEAR ACTUATOR

(continued)
accuracy or repeatability — or both

connectors, mounting plates, sensors, and feedback devices through the feedback and control system. In systems with
also influence the system’s performance. In fact, even closed-loop, servo control, it can be more cost-effective to
parameters that aren’t easily controlled (such as temperature choose lower accuracy mechanical systems and use the
fluctuations and vibrations originiating elsewhere in a machine, servo system to improve accuracy through error mapping
for example) affect overall linear-system accuracy and in the control.
repeatability specifications. The repeatability of a linear system is determined primarily by
When working to maximize positioning accuracy, the drive the drive mechanism — that is, the lead accuracy of a screw,
mechanism should typically be the area of focus. Ballscrews are the tooth pitch deviation and maximum stretch of a belt, or
generally recognized as the best choice for high positioning the backlash in a rack and pinion system. The best way to
accuracy. The latter is specified by the screw lead error or improve repeatability is to remove play, or clearance, in the
tolerance-grade classifications. But leadscrews with preloaded drive mechanism. Ballscrews are often specified with preload to
nuts and high-precision rack-and-pinion systems are also eliminate backlash, and many leadscrew designs also offer zero
capable of providing high positioning accuracies. backlash. Rack and pinion systems inherently have backlash
between the gear rack and the pinion teeth, but dual pinion
Flexing and vibrating of the system can degrade positioning
and split pinion designs remove this backlash.
accuracy, so the stiffness of the mounting structure, linear
guide, and the connections between components is also If the system experiences significant temperature fluctuations,
important for systems that require high positioning accuracy. the expansion and contraction of components due to thermal
effects can also reduce a system’s repeatability. Unlike
In contrast, a system’s travel accuracy is almost entirely
positioning or travel accuracy, the repeatability of a system
dependent on the mounting structure and linear guide system.
cannot be improved through feedback and control. The only
Most recirculating linear guides are specified by accuracy
way to improve the repeatability of a linear system is to use a
class, which defines the maximum deviations in height,
drive that has higher repeatability.
parallelism, and straightness during travel. But a linear guide
is only as “accurate” as the surface to which it’s mounted, Whether a designer or engineer should be more concerned
so the mounting structure is an important factor. Mounting a with accuracy or repeatability depends on the type of
“precision” accuracy linear guide to an unmachined base or application. In positioning applications such as those in
an aluminum extrusion negates the guide’s travel accuracy pick and place or assembly operations, positional accuracy
performance. and repeatability are often the most critical factors. But in
applications such as dispensing, cutting, or welding, where
Predictable, measurable factors that influence a system’s
uniformity and accuracy of the process during travel is critical,
positioning and travel accuracy, such as screw lead deviation
travel accuracy should be the primary focus.
or profiled rail height, can be compensated to some extent
For more information on all the topics in this Design
Guide, visit linearmotiontips.com. Also be sure to
download other Design Guides in this series at
designworldonline.com/design-guide-library.
ACCURACY

Positioning accuracy is the difference

REPEATABILITY between the system’s target position
and actual position it reaches.
Repeatability is how closely a system
returns to the same position over
multiple attempts.

Sponsored by:

22 I www.linearmotiontips.com

www.festo.com
Looking for cost effective and
energy efficient positioning?

Easy Integration

The simplicity of pneumatics combined with the advantages of electric automation

The Simplified Motion Series axes are ideal for simple positioning and pressing/
clamping movements.

• Quick and easy commissioning using the integrated buttons on the motor or via
IO-Link
• Connection via IO-Link for enhanced functionality including diagnostics
• Simple control with 2 digital inputs for basic functions or enhanced control with
IO-Link for additional functions, multi position download with speed and torque data

festo.us