INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (BESCK104D/204D)

MODULE – 2

Machine Tool Operations:

Working Principle of lathe, Lathe operations: Turning, facing, knurling.
Working principles of Drilling Machine, drilling operations: drilling, boring, reaming.
Working of Milling Machine, Milling operations: plane milling and slot milling.
(No sketches of machine tools, sketches to be used only for explaining the operations).
Introduction to Advanced Manufacturing Systems: Introduction, components of CNC,
advantages and applications of CNC
3D printing

Fundamentals of Machine Tools and Operations

Introduction to basic metal cutting machine Tools
A machine tool is a power-driven machine, designed to hold and move a sharp cutting tool
against a rigidly held workpiece material or vice versa, so as to remove excess material from
the workpiece in order to produce the desired shape, size and finish.
A few commonly used machine tools include, Lathe, Drilling machines, Milling machines,
and Grinding machines.

There are a variety of machine tools designed for various applications, however in general,
most machine tools perform the following functions:
a) Hold the work material.
b) Hold the cutting tool in position.
c) Impart motion to the work material, or cutting tool, or both, in the desired direction.
d) Regulate the cutting speed and also the feeding movement between the cutting tool
and work material.

Machine Tools and Operations:

LATHE
Principal of working of a center Lathe
 Lathe is the oldest of all machine tool and perhaps the most basic tool used in
industries. The lathe is a machine tool which holds the work piece between two
rigid and strong supports called centers or in a chuck.
 The cutting tool is rigidly held and supported in a tool post which is fed against
the revolving work.
 The normal cutting operations are performed with the cutting tool fed either parallel
or at right angles to the axis of the work.
 The cutting tool may also be fed at an angle relative to the axis of work for machining
tapers and angles.

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Construction of Centre Lathe:

The main parts of the lathe are the bed, headstock, quick changing gear box, carriage and
tailstock.

Fig. Parts of Lathe

 Bed: Usually made of cast iron. Provides a heavy rigid frame on which all the main
components are mounted. It is the foundation part of a lathe and supports the remaining
parts. The top of the bed is formed by precision-machined guide ways.
 Guide Ways: Inner and outer guide rails that are precision machined parallel to assure
accuracy of movement.
 Headstock: mounted in a fixed position on the inner ways, usually at the left end. Using
a chuck, it rotates the work. The housing comprising of the feed gearbox and the
cone pulley called headstock of the lathe. The main spindle projects out from the
headstock. The motor drives the cone pulley drives the main spindle through belting. Spindle
speeds can be further varied using beck gear mechanism
 Gearbox: inside the headstock, providing multiple speeds with a geometric ratio by
moving levers.
 Spindle: Hole through the headstock to which bar stock can be fed, which allows shafts
that are up to 2 times the length between lathe centers to be worked on one end at a
time.
 Chuck: allows the mounting of difficult work pieces that are not round, square or
triangular. 3-jaw (self centering) or 4-jaw (independent) to clamp part being machined.
 Tailstock: Fits on the inner ways of the bed and can slide towards a headstock to
fit the length of the work piece. Tail stock is the movable part of the lathe that carries
the dead centre in it. The main function of the tailstock is to support the free end of the
long work pieces. It is mounted loosely on the bed ways and can be moved in desired

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direction an optional taper turning attachment would be mounted to it.

 Carriage Assembly: Moves on the outer ways. Used for mounting and moving most
the cutting tools. The carriage assembly consists of.
 Saddle: is a H-shaped casting slides over the outer set of guide ways and
serves as the base for the cross slide.
 Cross slide: is mounted on the saddle and enables the movement of the cutting
tool laterally across the lathe bed by means of cross-feed hand wheel.
 Compound Rest: is mounted on the top of the cross slide and is swiveled to
any angle in the horizontal plane to facilitate taper turning and thread cutting
operations.
 Apron: is mounted in front of the saddle beneath it and houses the carriage
and cross slide mechanisms.
 Tool Post: is mounted in the T-Slot of the compound rest and properly clamps
the cutting tool.
 Feed Rod: Has a keyway, with two reversing pinion gears, either of which
can be meshed with the mating bevel gear to forward or reverse the carriage
using a clutch. is a stationary rod mounted in front of lathe bed and facilitates
longitudinal movement of the carriage
 Lead Screw: is the screw rod that runs longitudinally in front of the lathe bed.
The gyration of the lead screw moves the carriage to and fro longitudinally
during thread cutting operations.

1.14.2 Specification of Center Lathe:

Fig. Specification of Center Lathe

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INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (BESCK104D/204D)
 Distance between Centers: The maximum length of the job that can be held between
the live center and dead center.
 Swing diameter: It is the maximum diameter of the workpiece that can revolve without
touching the guide ways.
Some manufactures specify Height of centers instead of swing diameter.
 Height of centers: It is the height measured from the bed to the lathe center axis.
 Length of bed: Indicates the approximate floor space occupied by the lathe
 Range of spindle speeds

Lathe operations or Machining process on LATHE

The operations that can be performed on a lathe are
a) By holding the job between centers or between chuck and dead center
1. Turning – plain, step, taper, etc.
2. Facing
3. Chamfering
4. Knurling
5. Thread cutting
6. Drilling on Lathe:

1) Plain Turning or Cylindrical Turning

 The process of metal removal from the cylindrical jobs is called straight or plain
turning. It is a machining process for producing a cylindrical surface on the
workpiece as shown figure below.
 The work-piece is supported in-between the two centres which permit the rotation of
the work-piece. A single point cutting tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of the
work-piece to a known predetermined depth of cut, and is then moved parallel to the
axis of the work-piece.
 Cross-slide and the carriage are used to perform turning operations and make the
operation faster and economical. Plain turning operations are generally performed in
two steps-rough and finish turning.
 Rough turning is usually done for rolled, cast, or forged parts to remove the uneven
or sandy, or rough surface on the jobs. A roughing tool does roughing and used for
excess stock removal. For finishing a tool with a slightly round cutting edge is used.
The depth of cut rate is at the range of 0.2 to 1 mm and the feed rate between 0.1
to 0.3 mm

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INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (BESCK104D/204D)

Fig. Cylindrical Turning

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2) FACING
 Facing is a machining process for producing a flat surface at the end face of the
workpiece as shown in figure below.
 Is the operation of machining the ends of a piece of the work to produce a flat
surface square with the axis.
 This is used to cut the work to the required length. The operation involves feeding
the tool perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
 A regular cutting tool may be used for facing a large workpiece. The cutting edge
should be set at the same height as the center of the workpiece. A properly ground-
facing tool is mounted in a tool holder in the tool post to accomplish facing
operation.

Fig. Facing
3) TAPER TURNING
 Taper turning is a machining process for producing conical surface on a cylinder
workpiece as shown figure below.
 The work piece is held rigidly between the two supports of the machine and the cutting
tool is fed against the revolving workpiece at an angle to the lathe axis, operation on a
lathe to produce conical surface on the work pieces.

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METHODS OF TAPER TURNING.

a. Swivelling the compound rest.
b. Offsetting the Tailstock

a) Taper turning by Swivelling the compound rest.

 In this method compound rest is swiveled to the required taper angle and then
locked in the angular position. Figure Shown below.
 The carriage is also locked in that position
 For taper turning the compound rest is moved linearly at an angle so that the
cutting tool produces the tapered surface on the workpiece.
 This method is suitable for limited lengths due to the limited movement of
compound rest

Fig. Taper turning by Swivelling the compound rest

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b) TAPER TURNING BY OFFSETTING THE TAILSTOCK

 This method is also known as setover tailstock method. Figure shown below
 In this method the tailstock center is set out of alignment, the workpiece gets taper
because its axis will be inclined at an angle with the longitudinal movement of the
tool which will be parallel to the lathe bed. As shown in figure below.
 The cutting tool is fed parallel to the lathe axis and the desired taper is produced.

Fig. Taper Turning By Offsetting The Tailstock

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4) KNURLING:

 Knurling is an operation performed on the lathe to generate serrated surface on the

work piece. This is used to produce a rough surface for griping like the barrel of the
micrometer or screw gauge. This is done by a special tool called knurling tool which
has a set of hardened roller with the desired serrations. As shown in figure (a) and
figure (b)
 During knurling operation, the hardened rollers of the tool are pressed against the
slowly rotating work pieces such that the impression of tool serrations are formed on
the work pieces surface.
 Usually, there are three different pattern of knurling produced as per requirements and
is as shown.

Fig. (c) different pattern of knurling produced

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INTRODUCTION TO MILLING

• Milling is a process of shaping work materials by feeding the work material against a
multipoint rotating cutter. As shown in figure 1(a).
• The machine used for the purpose is called milling machine. Milling can be used for
producing flat, angular or curved surfaces, for cutting threads, toothed gears,
keyways, slots, and a wide variety of other operations.
• The milling cutter is a multipoint cutting tool. The work piece is mounted on a
movable worktable which will be fed against the revolving milling cutter to perform
the cutting operation.
• A milling machine is a power operated machine tool in which the work piece mounted
on moving table is machined to various shapes when moved under a slow revolving
multipoint cutter.
• The difference between drilling and milling is that, in drilling a rotating drill is fed
against a stationary work piece, while in milling the work piece is fed against a
milling cutter which only revolves.
• Similarly, it also differs from the lathe operation because the lathe tool is fed against
rotating work piece.

Fig. 1(a)

THE PRINCIPLE OF MILLING

• In milling, the cutter is held in the spindle of the machine and made to rotate at
suitable speeds.
• The workpiece is also held rigidly by a suitable device and is fed slowly against the
rotating cutter.
• The workpiece can be fed in two different directions with respect to cutter rotation as
shown in figure. below the process thus gives a means of classification of milling into
two types known as up milling and down milling.
• In up milling process as shown in figure 2(a), the workpiece is fed in the direction
opposite to that of the rotating cutter, while in down milling process as shown in
figure 2(b), the workpiece is fed in the same direction as that of the rotating cutter.

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The various aspects related to the two types are tabulated in a comparison form
in table 1.

Fig. 2(a), 2(b)

Comparison between Up Milling and Down Milling
Sl. Up milling Down milling
No. (Conventional milling) (Climb milling)
1. In up milling, the workpiece is fed in the In down milling, the workpiece is fed in the same
direction opposite to that of the rotating direction as that of the rotating cutter.
cutter.
2. The thickness of chip is minimum at the The thickness of chip is maximum at the beginning
beginning of cut and reaches to a of cut and reaches to the minimum when the cut
maximum when the cut ends. ends.
3. In up milling, the cutting force is directed The cutting force is directed downwards, and this
upwards. This tends to lift the workpiece tends to keep the workpiece firmly on the
from the worktable. Hence, greater worktable thereby permitting lesser clamping
clamping force for the workpiece becomes forces.
necessary.
4. During up milling, the chip gets In down milling, the chips do not interfere with the
accumulated at the cutting zone (tool-work revolving cutter, since they are disposed easily by
interface). These chips interfere with the the cutter. Hence, there is no damage to the surface
rotating cutter thereby impairing the finish of the workpiece.
surface finish on the work-surface.
5. In up milling, it is difficult for efficient In down milling, the coolant can easily reach the
circulation of coolant. The cutter rotating cutting zone. Hence, efficient cooling of the tool
in the upward direction carries away the and the workpiece can be achieved.
coolant from the cutting zone.
6. Up milling is preferred for rough cuts, Down milling produces better surface finish
especially for castings and forgings, because there is no dig-in of the cutter. It is
because this method enables the cutter to particularly used for finishing operations and small
dig-in and start the cut below the hard work like cutting slots, grooves etc.
upper surface.

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TYPES OF MILLING MACHINES

Milling machine is one of the most versatile machine tool in existence. There are variety of machines:
each having their own features and designed for a particular application. The different types of milling
machines are classified as follows:
1) Column and Knee milling machines
a) Plain column and knee milling machines
Horizontal spindle type
Vertical spindle type
b) Universal column and knee type milling machine
c) Ram type milling machine
2) Bed type milling machine
3) Planer type milling machine
4) Special purpose milling machines

Horizontal Spindle Column & Knee Milling Machine

It is one of the most popular type of milling machine, and is commonly called horizontal
milling machine, because of the horizontal position of the spindle. This type of machine is
used to cut grooves, slots, keyways, gear teeth etc. figure (a) shows one of the
principal views of a horizontal milling machine.

Fig. Horizontal-spindle column and knee milling machine

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The machine consists of the following parts:

a) Base is usually a strong and a hollow part which forms the foundation of the
machine and upon which all the other parts are mounted. The base also serves as
a sump for the cutting fluid. A pump and filtration system can be installed in the base.
The hole provided in the center of the base, houses the support for the elevating
screw that raises and lowers the knee.
b) Column is a vertical hollow casting and is usually combined with the base to form a
single casting. The column houses the spindle and bearings as well as the drive units
(gears, clutches, shafts, and shifting mechanisms) for transmitting power from the
electric motor to the spindle at desired speeds. The front face of the vertical column is
provided With a square or dovetail type guideways on which the knee slides up and
down.
c) Spindle is a hollow shaft supported by the column with suitable bearings that absorb
both radial and thrust loads. The spindle is made hollow and tapered inside to
accept standard arbors. The spindle obtains power from the motor and transmits it to
the arbor. The arbor carrying the cutter rotates about a horizontal axis.
d) Overarm mounted on the vertical column supports the yoke, which in tum supports
the free end of the arbor.
e) Knee is a casting that slides up and down on the vertical guideways provided on the
column by means of an elevating screw. The knee supports the saddle.
f) Saddle mounted on the knee is provided with two slides (guideways) on its top and
bottom surfaces. The slides are machined at right angles to each other. The lower
slide fits the slide provided on top of the knee and facilitates horizontal movement of
the saddle. The upper slide provided on the saddle accepts the slide provided on the
bottom surface of the worktable.
g) Worktable is larger in size and rests on the saddle. The bottom surface of the table
has a dovetail slide that fits in the slide on the top surface of the saddle. This
arrangement facilitates the worktable to be moved longitudinally or at right angles to
the movement of the saddle. The worktable is provided with T-slots all along its
length for mounting vice or other work holding devices. This enables the workpiece
to be clamped rigidly on the table. The worktable may be manually controlled or
power fed. A dial graduated in thousandths of an inch (not shown in figure) is
provided to allow for accurate table movement and placement.

Vertical Spindle Column and Knee Milling Machine

 Vertical spindle milling machines are similar in construction to the horizontal

milling machines, except that the spindle is held in a vertical position.
 This type of machine is generally used to perform end milling and face milling
operations. Figure shows the principal parts of a vertical milling machine.

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Fig. Vertical spindle column and knee type milling machine (swiveling type)

The machine consists of the following parts:

a) Base is usually a strong and a hollow part which forms the foundation of the
machine and upon which all the other parts are mounted. The base also serves as
a sump for the cutting fluid. A pump and filtration system can be installed in the base.
The hole provided in the center of the base, houses the support for the elevating
screw that raises and lowers the knee.
b) Column is a vertical hollow casting and is usually combined with the base to form a
single casting. The column houses the spindle and bearings as well as the drive units
(gears, clutches, shafts, and shifting mechanisms) for transmitting power from the
electric motor to the spindle at desired speeds. The front face of the vertical column is
provided With a square or dovetail type guideways on which the knee slides up and
down.
c) Spindle is located vertically, parallel to the face of the column, and perpendicular to
the top of the worktable. The spindle is mounted in the spindle head and .carries the
cutter at its end. The spindle head houses the motor & feed controls & can be either
fixed type or swiveling type.
In fixed type, the spindle head is fixed, and hence the spindle remains vertical. The
spindle can be adjusted up and down to perform operations like grooving, slotting,
facing, drilling and boring. While, in swiveling type, the spindle head can be swiveled
to any angle to the surface of the worktable. This permit working on angular surfaces
of workpieces.
d) Overarm mounted on the vertical column supports the yoke, which in tum supports
the free end of the arbor,
e) Knee is a casting that slides up and down on the vertical guideways provided on the
column by means of an elevating screw. The knee supports the saddle.
f) Saddle mounted on the knee is provided with two slides (guideways) on its top and

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bottom surfaces. The slides are machined atright angles to each other. The lower
slide fits the slide provided on top of the knee and facilitates horizontal movement of
the saddle. The upper slide provided on the saddle accepts the slide provided on the
bottom surface of the worktable.
g) Worktable is larger in size and rests on the saddle. The bottom surface of the table
has a dovetail slide that fits in the slide on the top surface of the saddle. This
arrangement facilitates the worktable to be moved longitudinally or at right angles to
the movement of the saddle. The worktable is provided with T-slots all along its
length for mounting vice or other work holding devices. This enables the workpiece
to be clamped rigidly on the table. The worktable may be manually controlled or
power fed. A dial graduated in thousandths of an inch (not shown in figure) is
provided to allow for accurate table movement and placement.

Comparison between Horizontal and Vertical Milling Machine:

Sl. No. Horizontal Milling Machine Vertical Milling Machine
1 The spindle is horizontal The spindle is vertical
2 The operations are performed in The milling cutter plane is operated at
horizontal plane direction perpendicular to the worktable
3 The milling cutter works/rotates on its The milling cutter can be moved upward
own axis and downward
4 The cutter is supported by over arm The cutter is mounted directly to spindle
5 The spindle cannot be tilted The spindle can be tilted
6 The operations performed are, Gear The operations that can be performed are,
teeth cutting, Plain milling, Straddle Slot milling, Angular milling, Keyway
milling, Gang milling, etc. milling, End milling, etc.

APPLICATIONS MILLING MACHINES

 The milling machine is used for making various types of gears.
 It is generally used to produce slot or groove in work pieces.
 It can able to machine flat surface and irregular surfaces too.
 It is used in industries to produce complex shapes.
 It is used in Institutions or colleges to conduct lab tests on milling machine.
 Milling can be used for machining flat surfaces, irregular surfaces, contoured
surfaces, slotting, gear cutting, and many more.

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MILLING OPERATIONS
1. Plain milling
2. End milling
3. Slot milling

1. Plain Milling
Plain milling is used to machine flat and horizontal surfaces. Here plain milling cutter is used, which is
held in the arbor and rotated. The table is moved upwards to give the required depth of cut.

Fig. Plain Milling

2. End Milling
It is an operation of producing narrow slots, grooves and keyways using an end mill cutter. The mill tool
may be attached to the vertical spindle for milling the slot. Depth of cut is given by raising the machine
table.

Fig. End Milling

3. T-slot milling
In this milling operation, first a plain slot is cut on the work piece by a side and face milling cutter. Then
the T-slot cutter is fed from the end of the work piece.

Fig. Slot Milling

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DRILLING
 Drilling is a machining operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a solid workpiece
by means of a revolving tool called drill bit.
 The tool is also called twist drill since it has sharp twisted edges formed around a
cylindrical body. Figure shows the drilling operation.
 In operation, the drill bit is held rigidly in the chuck of the machine and rotated by the
spindle at high speeds.

Fig. drilling operation

 With the help of a hand wheel or by automatic means, the drill bit is forced to move
against the rigidly clamped workpiece.
 A hole is generated by the sharp cutting edges of the rotating drill bit and meanwhile,
the excess material removed (chips) gets curled and escapes through the helical
grooves provided in the drill bit.
 Although drilling seems to be a simple process, it is actually a complex one. The tool
apart from performing the cutting action also extrudes the cut material (chips) from
the workpiece.
 Since the cutting action takes place inside the workpiece, a lot of heat generated is
minimized by circulating a suitable coolant.

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CLASSIFICATION OF DRILLING MACHINES

 Drilling machines are classified according to their general construction and type of work
they are required different to do. The types of drilling machines include:
1) Portable drilling machine
2) Bench or Sensitive drilling machine
3) Radial drilling machine
4) Upright Drilling Machine
5) Multiple spindle drilling Machine
6) Gang Drilling Machine
7) Automatic Drilling Machine
8) Deep hole Drilling Machine
9) Computer Numerical control (CNC) drilling Machine

BENCH (SENSITIVE) DRILLING MACHINE

 Bench drilling machines are used for drilling small holes at high speeds in small sized work
pieces. The diameter of the hole usually ranges from 1.5 mm to 15 mm.

 The machine is usually supported on a work-bench and hence the name bench drilling
machine. Figure 2.14 shows the details of a bench drilling machine.

Fig. Bench or sensitive drilling machine

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The machine consists of the following parts;

a) Base
 The base of the machine is made from cast iron material and supports the vertical
column.
 The base is provided with holes to secure it firmly to the table or bench with the help
of bolts and nuts.
b) Vertical column
 The column is a hollow steel pipe mounted rigidly on the base. It supports the drill
head & worktable.

c) Worktable
 The worktable supports the work piece to be drilled.
 The table can be raised or lowered and can be clamped to the vertical column at any
desired position.
 This helps to accommodate different sizes of workpiece on the table. The table can
also be swiveled around the vertical column to any desired position, if need.

d) Drill head
 A fixed drill head located at the top end of the vertical column carries an electric
motor and a mechanism through which the spindle can be made to rotate, as well as
slide up and down.
 The top end of the spindle is connected to a stepped cone pulley which obtains power
(rotary motion) from the motor shaft through a v-belt arrangement.
 The speed of the spindle can be varied by changing the belt position on the cone
pulley. The lower end of the spindle carries a socket/drill chuck to hold the drill bit
rigidly during operation. The vertical movement of the spindle and hence the drill bit,
is controlled by the hand feed lever.

RADIAL DRILLING MACHINE
 Radial drilling machines are used for drilling medium or large diameter holes of up to
50 mm in heavy work pieces. Figure shows the principal parts of a radial drilling

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machine.

Fig. Radial drilling machine

The machine consists of the following parts:

a) Base
 The base of the machine is a large cast iron material on which is mounted a cylindrical
vertical column.
 The base is provided with T-slots, which help the workpiece to be clamped rigidly to the
base of the machine.
b) Vertical column
 The column is a long, cylindrical shaped part fastened rigidly to the base.
 The column carries a radial arm that can be raised or lowered by means of an electric
motor and can be clamped to any desired position. The radial arm can also be rotated
(swiveled) in a complete circle around the column.
 (A drill chuck holds the cutting tool of any size, whereas a socket is used to hold
a tool of a particular shank size.)
c) Drill head
 The drill head is mounted on the radial arm and carries a driving motor and a
mechanism for revolving and feeding (power feed) the drill bit into the work piece.
 The drill head can be moved horizontally on the guideways provided in the radial
arm, and can be clamped to any desired position.
 With the combination of the movements of radial arm and the drill head, it is possible
to move the drill bit and hence generate a hole at any desired position without moving
the work piece.

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APPLICATIONS OF DRILLING MACHINES


The basic function of drill machine is to construct hole of different size in solid
materials.
 Different drills are used for industry particular applications.
 Drill rigs are used to drill water wells and oil wells.
 Hand drills are used for screwing and fastening.
 Electrical pistol grip drill is used in general masonry workings by builders,
electricians and plumbers.
 Hammer drill is particularly used by carpenters to drill and fix the wooden parts.
 These machines are used in industries like manufacturing, metalworking,
woodworking, masonry and construction as well.
 Apart from drilling holes, drill machine is featured of performing a variety of tasks
like tapping, spot facing, reaming, counter sinking and counter boring etc.

DRILLING OPERATIONS
1. Drilling
2. Reaming
3. Boring
4. Tapping
5. Counter boring
6. Counter sinking

1. Drilling
Drilling is a process of making hole in a solid object using a tool called twist drill.

Fig. Drilling operation

2. Reaming
Reaming is the operation of finishing an existing hole very smoothly and accurately in size. A drill will not
produce a hole having sufficiently good quality of finish and accuracy for many purposes. Therefore when a
very accurate smooth hole is required, the hole is first drilled a little under size, and then it is reamed to the
correct size.
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Fig. Reaming Operation

3. Boring
It is an operation of enlarging an existing hole. When a suitable size drill is not available, initially a hole is
drilled to the nearest size and using a single point cutting tool, the size of the hole is increased

Fig. Boring Operation

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COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL (CNC)

Introduction
Definition: Computer Numerical Control or CNC is an advanced form of the NC system
where the machine control unit is a dedicated microcomputer instead of a hard-wired
controller, as in conventional NC.

Computer Numerical Control has evolved during the rapid improvements of the computer
technology. The advent of Microprocessors from the 1970s have helped in quick
advancements in the Computer Technology and is in turn adapted in modern CNC
Technology.

Today's CNC Controller has latest features like high speeds of operation, large memories, bus
architectures, improved servos, etc.

CNC Technology has powered the Machine Tool industry today. It is used in majority of
machine tools like machining centers, turning centers, grinders, lathes, drilling machines, etc.

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 A CNC machine is a manoeuvrable motorised tool and often a manoeuvrable motorised platform,
both controlled by a computer, according to specific input instructions.

 Instructions are delivered to a CNC machine in a sequential program of machine control instructions
such as G-code and M-code and then executed.

 The program can be written by a person or, far more often, generated by graphical computer-aided
design (CAD) or computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software.

 In the case of 3D printers, the printed part is sliced before the instructions (or the program) are
generated. 3D printers also use G-Code.

 In modern CNC systems, the design of a mechanical part and its manufacturing program are highly
automated.

 The part's mechanical dimensions are defined using CAD software and then translated into
manufacturing directives by computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software.

 After the advent of computer numerical control (CNC) in the 1960s, milling machines evolved into
machining centres: machines augmented by automatic tool changers, tool magazines or carousels,
CNC capability, coolant systems, and enclosures.

 Milling centres are generally classified as vertical machining centres (VMCs) or horizontal
machining centres (HMCs).
Basic Components of CNC Machine:

CNC Machine basically consists of three components,

1. Part Program and Program Input Device

2. Controller unit or Machine Control Unit (MCU)

3. Machine Tool

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Part Program and Program Input Device: In a CNC machine, the part program is done either manually
on punched tapes and then fed into the memory of the computer or with the aid of various computer
software that automatically generates the program required to produce the desired part. Present days, the
manual method of programming is obsolete.
Machine Control Unit (MCU): In modern CNC technology, the machine control unit consists of a
microcomputer and related control hardware that stores the program of instructions and executes it by
converting each command into mechanical actions of machine tool, one command at a time. The MCU
includes system software, calculation algorithm and transition software to convert the part program into a
usable format for the MCU. It also acts as a feedback controller for precise positioning of machine table or
spindle.
Machine Tool: The machine tool performs the actual machining operation and can be of any type like
lathe, drilling machine, milling machine, etc. The machine tool mainly consists of work table and tool
spindles whose motion can be controlled accurately by the driving system that receives commands from
the MCU. A part with the desired features is produced by the machine tool.

Advantages of CNC
1. The accuracy and repeatability obtained is high.
2. Complex shaped contours can be machined.
3. Can be easily programmed to handle variety of product styles.
4. High volume of production compared to conventional machines
5. Even lesser skilled or trained people can operate CNC Machines unlike the
Conventional ones where highly skilled people are required.
6. CNC Machines can be used uninterruptedly without turning them off provided
regular maintenance is done.
7. Prototypes can be produced faster and thus results in reduced lead times.
8. Avoids errors that were otherwise committed by humans operating
conventional machines.
9. Since CNC machines can be programmed, one person may well take care of a
number of CNC Machines. This reduces the employees and hence costs are reduced.
10. Using CNC Machines results in a safer work environment since the operator is
not exposed to the machine area during machining.
11. CNC Machines can be upgraded to newer technologies by replacing the existing
CNC Control with an advanced one.
12. Many CNC Machines can be linked together to a main 'computer. Programs from
the main computer can be downloaded to any connected CNC Machine. This leads us
to another type of NC concept called as the Direct Numerical Control (DNC).

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Disadvantages of CNC
• Expensive
• Requires programming skills
• Requires skills for setting up the machines
• Leads to unemployment
• Software compatibility issues can cause some programs to run in one machine, which can/cannot run in
another
Applications of CNC
• Embroidery machines
• Woodcutters
• Wire-bending machines
• Foam cutters
• Laser cutters
• Cylindrical grinders
• 3D printers
• Glass cutters
3D Printing
Definition
• 3D printing or additive manufacturing is the construction of a three-dimensional object from a CAD model
or a digital 3D model. It can be done in a variety of processes in which material is deposited, joined, or
solidified under computer control, with material being added together (such as plastics, liquids or powder
grains being fused), typically layer by layer.
• In the 1980s, 3D printing techniques were considered suitable only to produce functional or aesthetic
prototypes, and a more appropriate term for it at the time was rapid prototyping.
• As of 2019, the precision, repeatability, and material range of 3D printing have increased to the point that
some 3D printing processes are considered viable as an industrial-production technology, whereby the term
additive manufacturing can be used synonymously with 3D printing. One of the key advantages of 3D
printing is the ability to produce very complex shapes or geometries that would be otherwise infeasible to
construct by hand, including hollow parts or parts with internal truss structures to reduce weight.
• Fused deposition modelling (FDM), which uses a continuous filament of a thermoplastic material, is the
most common 3D printing process in use as of 2023.
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3D printing Process

Basic 3D Printer Layout

• Print Bed: The print bed is the surface that your objects are printed on to. Typically, it will consist of a
sheet of glass, a heating element, and some kind of surface on top to help the plastic stick.
• Filament: This is the plastic that's consumed by the printer. It comes on a spool. Printers use two different
sizes of filament, 1.75 mm, and 3 mm. There are a variety of different materials.
• Extruder: The extruder is the core of the printer. It is where the plastic gets drawn in, melted, and pushed
out. It is essentially a fancy hot glue gun. It is small, but it is where most of the printer’s technology is
located. The extruder consists of two parts: the hot end and the cold end. The cold end has a motor that
draws the filament in and pushes it through. The hot end is where the filament gets melted and squirted out.
• Heater Cartridge: The heater cartridge is self-explanatory. It heats the plastic. It is simply a high-power
resistor. Almost all modern printers use cartridge heaters, but many older printers used coils of nichrome
wire (like the kind in a toaster). If you are replacing your heater cartridge, of even your entire hot end, make
sure you know if the system is running 12v or 24v.
• Thermistor/Thermocouple/RTD: These are all various types of sensors for determining the temperature
of the hot end. They are essentially electronic thermometers. Thermistors are the most common type of
sensor, but some printers will use thermocouples for extremely high temperature printing.
• Nozzle: The nozzle is simply a piece with a small hole for the melted filament to come out of. Nozzles are
interchangeable and come in various sizes; 0.4 mm is normal, while you might use a smaller nozzle for finer
detail or a larger nozzle to print faster. Nozzles can also sometimes get clogged. This is one of the most
common issues with 3D printers.
• Stepper Motors: Unlike regular DC motors, which rotate continuously when given power, stepper motors
rotate in increments. This gives them precise control over their position.
• Power Supply: This takes the 120V AC electricity from the wall and converts it to low voltage DC power
for your printer to use.

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• Motherboard/Controller Board: The motherboard is the brain of the printer. It takes the commands given
to it by your computer (in the form of G-Code) and orchestrates their execution. The motherboard contains a
microcontroller (essentially a tiny, self-contained computer) and all the circuitry needed for running the
motors, reading the sensors, and talking to your computer.

Figure: 3D Printer
Materials used in 3D Printing Process
• Metallic Materials – Plain Carbon Steel, Tool Steel, Stainless steel, Aluminium, Copper, Titanium, Bronze.
• Polymers and Polymeric Composites – ABS, Nylon (Polyamide), Polycarbonate, PP, Epoxies, Glass filled
polyamide, Polystyrene, Polyester
• Others – Sand, Ceramics, Elastomers, Tungsten, Wax, Starch, Plaster
• Bio Compatible Materials – Poly Capro Lactone (PCL), Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA)

Challenges of 3D Printing
• Speed
• Cost
• Accuracy
• Surface finish
• Strength
• Material options
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