Module 3

Digital Modulation Techniques

In digital communications, the modulation process corresponds to switching or keying the amplitude,
frequency, or phase of a sinusoidal carrier wave according to incoming digital data

Three basic digital modulation techniques

1. Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
2. Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
3. Phase-shift keying (PSK)

Digital Hybrid modulation techniques

1. Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
2. Minimum Shift keying (MSK)
Binary Phase-Shift Keying (BPSK)

In a binary PSK system, the pair of signals s1(t) and s2(t) used to represent binary symbols 1 and 0,
respectively is defined by

2
𝑆1 (𝑡) = √T cos(2πfc t) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
b
,

2 2
𝑆2 (𝑡) = √T cos(2πfc t + π) = − √T cos(2πfc t) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
b b
,

where Tb is the bit duration and Eb is the transmitted signal energy per bit. The carrier frequency fc is
chosen equal to ncTb for some fixed integer nc. A pair of sinusoidal waves that differ by phase-shift of
180°, is known as antipodal signal.

Signal Space Representation for BPSK

From this pair of equations binary PSK, has only one basis function of unit energy:

2
∅1 (𝑡) = √T cos(2πfc t) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
b
,

Then, the transmitted signals s1(t) and s2(t) in terms of 1(t) as

s1 (t) = √Eb ∅1 (t) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏 s2 (t) = √Eb ∅1 (t) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏

A binary PSK system is, characterized by having a signal space of one-dimensional (i.e., N = 1), with a
signal constellation consisting of two message points (i.e., M = 2). The coordinates of the two message
points are
𝑇𝑏
𝑆11 = ∫ 𝑆1 (𝑡)∅1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = +√𝐸𝑏
0

𝑇
𝑆21 = ∫ 𝑆2 (𝑡)∅1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = −√𝐸𝑏
0

The signal-space diagram for binary PSK and waveforms of antipodal signals representing s1(t) and s2(t)
Are shown below:
Assume that the two signals are equally likely, i.e. P(S1) = P(S2) = 0.5

The decision boundary is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining these two message points. The
distance between the two message points 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √2𝐸𝑏 .

The signal space is partition into two regions:

• the set of points closest to message point 1 at +√𝐸𝑏 ; and

• the set of points closest to message point 2 at −√𝐸𝑏 .

This is accomplished by constructing the midpoint of the line joining these two message points and then
marking off the appropriate decision regions. These two decision regions are marked Z1 and Z2,
according to the message point around which they are constructed. The decision rule is now simply to
decide that signal s1(t) (i.e., binary symbol 1) was transmitted if the received signal point falls in region Z1
and to decide that signal s2(t) (i.e., binary symbol 0) was transmitted if the received signal point falls in
region Z2

Generation of BPSK

1. Polar NRZ-level encoder, which represents symbols 1 and 0 of the incoming binary sequence by
amplitude levels +√𝐸𝑏 and −√𝐸𝑏 , respectively.
2. Product modulator, which multiplies the output of the polar NRZ encoder by the basis function 1(t);
in effect, the sinusoidal 1(t) acts as the “carrier” of the binary PSK signal.

BPSK Receiver:

The receiver generats the replica of the basis function 1(t), locally. The receiver is synchronized with
the transmitter, There are two basic components in the binary PSK receiver:

1. Demodulator(Correlator) and
2. Detector(Decision device).

1.Correlator, which correlates the received signal x(t) with the basis function 1(t) on a bit-by-bit basis.

2. Decision device, which compares the correlator output against a zero-threshold, assuming that binary
symbols 1 and 0 are equiprobable. If the threshold is exceeded, a decision is made in favor of symbol 1;
if not, the decision is made in favor of symbol 0. Equality of the correlator with the zero-threshold is
decided in a random manner.

Error Probability of Binary PSK Using Coherent Detection

Two kinds of erroneous decisions may, be made:

1. Error of the first kind. Signal s2(t) is transmitted but the noise is such that the received signal point
falls inside region Z1; so the receiver decides in favor of signal s1(t).

2. Error of the second kind. Signal s1(t) is transmitted but the noise is such that the received signal point
falls inside region Z2; so the receiver decides in favor of signal s2(t).

The decision region associated with symbol 1 or signal s1(t) is described by

𝑍1 : 0 < 𝑥1 < ∞

where the observable element x1 is related to the received signal x(t) by

 𝑇𝑏
𝑥1 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)∅1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0

The conditional probability density function of random variable X1, given that symbol 0 (i.e., signal s2(t))
was transmitted, is defined by

1 1
𝑓𝑋1 (𝑥1 |0) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− (𝑥 − 𝑠21 )2 ]
√𝜋𝑁0 𝑁0 1

1 1 2
𝑓𝑋1 (𝑥1 |0) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− (𝑥1 + √𝐸𝑏 ) ]
√𝜋𝑁0 𝑁0

The conditional probability of the receiver deciding in favor of symbol 1, given that symbol 0 was
transmitted, is therefore
𝑇𝑏
1 1 2
𝑃10 = ∫ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ⌊− (𝑥1 + √𝐸𝑏 ) ⌋ 𝑑𝑥1
√𝜋𝑁0 0 𝑁0

Putting

2
𝑍=√ (𝑥1 + √𝐸𝑏 )
𝑁0

and changing the variable of integration from x1 to z, in terms of the Q-function

0
1 𝑍2
𝑃10 = ∫ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− ) 𝑑𝑍
√2𝜋 2𝐸
√ 𝑁𝑏 2
0

2𝐸𝑏
𝑃10 = 𝑄 (√ )
𝑁0

Consider next an error of the second kind. We note that the signal space is symmetric with respect to
the origin. It follows, therefore, that p01, the conditional probability of the receiver deciding in favor of
symbol 0, given that symbol 1 was transmitted, also has the same value.

Thus, averaging the conditional error probabilities P10 and P01, The average probability of symbol error or
the BER for binary PSK using coherent detection and assuming equiprobable symbols is given by

𝑃10 + 𝑃01 2𝐸𝑏

𝑃𝑒 = = 𝑄 (√ )
2 𝑁0

The transmitted signal energy per bit Eb for noise spectral density N02, the message points
corresponding to symbols 1 and 0 move further apart and the average probability of error Pe is reduced.
Power Spectra of Binary PSK Signals

Let g(t) denote the pulse-shaping function defined by

2𝐸𝑏
𝑔(𝑡) = {√ 𝑇𝑏 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

Depending on whether the transmitter input is binary symbol 1 or 0, the corresponding transmitter
output is +g(t) or –g(t), respectively. It is assumed that the incoming binary sequence is random, with
symbols 1 and 0 being equally likely and the symbols transmitted during the different time slots being
statistically independent.

The power spectral density of a random binary wave so described is equal to the energy spectral density
of the symbol shaping function divided by the symbol duration. The energy spectral density of a
Fouriertransformable signal g(t) is defined as the squared magnitude of the signal’s Fourier transform.
For the binary PSK signal at hand, the baseband power spectral density is, therefore, defined by

2𝐸𝑏 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 (𝜋𝑇𝑏 𝑓)

𝑆𝐵 (𝑓) =
(𝜋𝑇𝑏 𝑓)2

= 2𝐸𝑏 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐 2 (𝑇𝑏 𝑓)

1. The power spectral density SB(f) is symmetric about the vertical axis, as expected.
2. SB(f) goes through zero at multiples of the bit rate; that is, f = 1Tb, 2 Tb,  With sin2(Tbf)
limited to a maximum value of unity, SB(f) falls off as the inverse square of the frequency, f.

The first zero crossing is at fb = Rb where Rb is the bit rate

expressed as bits/sec. Therefore the null bandwidth of BPSK is
2Rb. i.e.,BPSK requires a bandwidth twice the bit rate.
Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK)

Quadriphase-shift keying (QPSK), using coherent detection is a bandwidth-conserving modulation

scheme. The QPSK modulsted signal is denoted as

2𝐸 𝜋 0≤𝑡≤𝑇
𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) = {√ 𝑇 cos (2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡 + (2𝑖 − 1) 4 ) {
𝑖 = 1,2,3,4
0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

the phase of the carrier takes on one of four equally spaced values  4, 34, 54, and 74. where E is
the transmitted signal energy per symbol and T is the symbol duration. The carrier frequency f c equals
nc / T for some fixed integer nc. Each dibit (i.e., pair of bits) has a unique value of the phase. The Gray-
encoded set of dibits, 10, 00, 01, and 11, where only a single bit is changed from one dibit to the next
are represented by QPSK.

Signal-Space Diagram of QPSK Signals

The transmitted signal is redefine by

2𝐸 𝜋 2𝐸 𝜋
𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) = √ cos [(2𝑖 − 1) ] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡) − √ sin [(2𝑖 − 1) ] sin(2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡)
𝑇 4 𝑇 4

Where I =1,2,3,4. There are two orthonormal basis functions, defined by a pair of quadrature carriers:

2
∅1 (𝑡) = √ cos(2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇
𝑇

2
∅2 (𝑡) = √ sin((2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡)) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇
𝑇

There are four message points, defined by the two-dimensional signal vector

𝜋
√𝐸 cos [(2𝑖 − 1) ]
𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) = [ 4 ] 𝑖 = 1,2,3,4
𝜋
−√𝐸 sin [(2𝑖 − 1) ]
4
A QPSK signal has a two dimensional signal constellation (i.e., N = 2) and four message points (i.e., M =
4) whose phase angles increase in a counterclockwise direction.

QPSK Waveforms

• The input binary sequence 01101000 is divided into two sequences, consisting odd and even
numbered bits.

• The waveforms representing odd and even sequence si1Ø1(t) and si2Ø2(t) are also shown.

• To get QPSK waveform add them

To define the decision rule for the coherent detection of the transmitted data sequence, the signal
space is partitioned into four regions, The individual regions are defined by the set of symbols closest to
the message point represented by message vectors s1, s2, s3, and s4. This is done by constructing the
perpendicular bisectors of the square formed by joining the four message points and then marking off
the appropriate regions. Thus the decision regions are quadrants whose vertices coincide with the
origin. These regions are marked Z1, Z2, Z3, and Z4, according to the message point around which they are
constructed.

Generation and Coherent Detection of QPSK Signals:

A distinguishing feature of the QPSK transmitter is the block labeled demultiplexer. The function of the
demultiplexer is to divide the binary wave produced by the polar NRZ-level encoder into two separate
binary waves, one of which represents the odd-numbered dibits in the incoming binary sequence and
the other represents the even-numbered dibits. The QPSK transmitter is two binary PSK generators
working in parallel, each at a bit rate equal to one-half the bit rate of the original binary sequence at the
QPSK transmitter input.
QPSK receiver is structured in the form of an in-phase path and a quadrature path, working in parallel.
1. Pair of correlators, which have a common input x(t). The two correlators are supplied with a pair of
locally generated orthonormal basis functions 1(t) and 2(t), which means that the receiver is
synchronized with the transmitter. The correlator outputs, produced in response to the received signal
x(t), are denoted by x1 and x2, respectively.

2. Pair of decision devices, which act on the correlator outputs x1 and x2 by comparing each one with a
zero-threshold; here, it is assumed that the symbols 1 and 0 in the original binary stream at the
transmitter input are equally likely. If x1 > 0, a decision is made in favor of symbol 1 for the in-phase
channel output; on the other hand, if x1 0, then a decision is made in favor of symbol 0. Similar binary
decisions are made for the quadrature channel.

3. Multiplexer, the function of which is to combine the two binary sequences produced by the pair of
decision devices. The resulting binary sequence provides an estimate of the original binary stream at the
transmitter input.

Error Probability of QPSK

In a QPSK system operating on an AWGN channel, the received signal x(t) is defined by

0≤𝑡≤𝑇
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) + 𝑤(𝑡) {
𝑖 = 1,2,3,4

where w(t) is the sample function of a white Gaussian noise process of zero mean and power spectral
density N02. The two correlator outputs, x1 and x2, are defined as follows:
𝑇
𝑥1 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)∅1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0

𝜋
= √𝐸 cos [(2𝑖 − 1) ] + 𝑤1
4

𝐸
= ±√ + 𝑤1
2

𝑇
𝑥2 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)∅2 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0

𝜋
= √𝐸 sin [(2𝑖 − 1) ] +𝑤2
4

𝐸
= ∓√ + 𝑤2
2

Thus, the observable elements x1 and x2 are sample values of independent Gaussian random variables
with mean values equal to and , respectively, and with 2.a common variance equal to N0Thus, the
observable elements x1 and x2 are sample values of independent Gaussian random variables with mean
values equal to ±√𝐸/2 and ∓√𝐸/2 , respectively, and with a common variance equal to N02.

To calculate the average probability of symbol error: QPSK receiver is equivalent to two binary PSK
receivers working in parallel and using two carriers that are in phase quadrature. The in-phase channel
x1 and the quadrature channel output x2(i.e., the two elements of the observation vector x) is the
individual outputs of two binary PSK receiversare characterized as follows:

• signal energy per bit equal to E 2. and

• noise spectral density equal to N02

Hence, the average probability of bit error of a coherent binary PSK receiver, is expressed as the
average probability of bit error in the in-phase and quadrature paths of the coherent QPSK receiver as

𝐸
𝑃′ = 𝑄 (√ )
𝑁0

where E is written in place of 2Eb. Another important point to note is that the bit errors in the in-phase
and quadrature paths of the QPSK receiver are statistically independent. The decision device in the in-
phase path accounts for one of the two bits constituting a symbol (dibit) of the QPSK signal, and the
decision device in the quadrature path takes care of the other dibit. Accordingly, the average probability
of a correct detection resulting from the combined action of the two channels (paths) working together
2
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
is 𝑃𝑐 = (1 − 𝑃′ )2 = [1 − 𝑄 (√ )] = 1 − 2𝑄 (√ ) + 𝑄 2 (√ )
𝑁 0 𝑁 0 𝑁 0

The average probability of symbol error for QPSK is therefore

𝑃𝑒 = 1 − 𝑃𝑐

𝐸 𝐸
= 2𝑄 (√ ) − 𝑄 2 (√ )
𝑁0 𝑁0

In the region where (E0/N0) >> 1, by ignoring the quadratic term on the right-hand side, the average
probability of symbol error for the QPSK receiver is approximated as

𝐸
𝑃𝑒 = 2𝑄 (√ )
𝑁0

for message point m1 (corresponding to dibit 10) chosen as the transmitted message point, the message
points m2 and m4 (corresponding to dibits 00 and 11) are the closest. m1 is equidistant from m2 and m4 in
a Euclidean sense, as shown by
 𝑑12 = 𝑑14 = √2𝐸

In a QPSK system, we note that since there are two bits per symbol, the transmitted signal energy per
symbol is twice the signal energy per bit, as shown by

𝐸 = 2𝐸𝑏

Thus, expressing the average probability of symbol error in terms of the ratio EbN0

2𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 ≈ 2𝑄 (√ )
𝑁0

With Gray encoding used for the incoming symbols, the BER of QPSK is

2𝐸𝑏
𝐵𝐸𝑅 = 𝑄 (√ )
𝑁0

For the same Eb/N0 and, therefore, the same average probability of bit error, a QPSK system transmits
information at twice the bit rate of a binary PSK system for the same channel bandwidth.

Power Spectra of QPSK Signals

The power spectral density of the QPSK signal equals the sum of the individual power spectral densities
of the in-phase and quadrature components.

1.Depending on the dibit sent during the signaling interval −𝑇𝑏 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏 the in-phase component
equals +g(t) or –g(t) for the quadrature component. The g(t) denotes the symbol-shaping function
defined by

𝐸
𝑔(𝑡) = {√𝑇 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏

0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

Hence, the in-phase and quadrature components have a common power spectral density Esinc2(Tf).

2.The in-phase and quadrature components are statistically independent. The baseband power spectral
density of the QPSK signal equals the sum of the individual power spectral densities of the in-phase and
quadrature components,

𝑆𝐵 (𝑓) = 2𝐸𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐 2 (𝑇𝑓)

= 4𝐸𝑏 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐 2 (2𝑇𝑏 𝑓)

QPSK system achieves the same average probability of bit error as a binary PSK system for the same bit
rate and the same Eb/N0, but uses only half the channel bandwidth.
Offset QPSK

• The carrier phase changes by ±180° whenever both the in-phase and quadrature components of
the QPSK signal change sign. An example of this situation is illustrated when the input binary
sequence switches from dibit 01 to dibit 10.

• The carrier phase changes by ±90° whenever the in-phase or quadrature component changes
sign. An example of this second situation is illustrated when the input binary sequence switches
from dibit 10 to dibit 00, during which the in-phase component changes sign, where as the
quadrature component is unchanged

• The carrier phase is unchanged when neither the in-phase component nor the quadrature
component changes sign. This last situation is illustrated when dibit 10 is transmitted in two
successive symbol Intervals.

• When the QPSK signal is filtered during the course of transmission, prior to detection. the 180°
and 90° shifts in carrier phase can result in changes in the carrier amplitude (i.e., envelope of the
QPSK signal) during the course of transmission over the channel, thereby causing additional
symbol errors on detection at the receiver.

• To overcome this, there is need to reduce the amplitude fluctuations. In offset QPSK, the bit
stream responsible for generating the quadrature component is delayed (i.e., offset) by half a
symbol interval with respect to the bit stream responsible for generating the in-phase
component.

Signal space representation of QPSK and Offset QPSK

• The two basis functions of offset QPSK are defined by

 2
∅1 (𝑡) = √ cos(2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇
𝑇

2 𝑇 3𝑇
∅2 (𝑡) = √ sin((2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡)) ≤𝑡≤
𝑇 2 2

• Accordingly, unlike QPSK, the phase transitions likely to occur in offset QPSK are confined to ±90

• The offset QPSK has the same probability of symbol error in an AWGN channel as QPSK.

• The use of coherent detection at the receiver causes equivalence in noise performance between
QPSK and OQPSK. The equivalence is because the in-phase and quadrature components applies
to both QPSK and offset QPSK are statistical independence.
M-ary PSK

The generic form of PSK referred to as M-ary PSK, where the phase of the carrier takes on one of M
possible values: θi = 2(i – 1)π/M, where i = 1, 2, …., M. During each signaling interval of duration T, one
of the M possible signals

2𝐸 𝜋
𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) = √ cos (2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡 + 2(𝑖 − 1) ) 𝑖 = 1,2, … . 𝑀
𝑇 𝑀

Is sent, where E is the signal energy per symbol. The carrier frequency fc = ncT for some fixed integer nc.
Each si(t) can be expanded in terms of the same two basis functions 1(t) and 2(t);

2𝐸 𝜋 2𝐸 𝜋
𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) = √ cos [2(𝑖 − 1) ] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡) − √ sin [2(𝑖 − 1) ] sin(2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡)
𝑇 𝑀 𝑇 𝑀

2
∅1 (𝑡) = √ cos(2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇
𝑇

2
∅2 (𝑡) = √ sin((2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡)) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇
𝑇

The signal constellation of M-ary PSK is, therefore, two-dimensional. The M message points are equally
spaced on a circle of radius and center at the origin,

The Euclidean distance for each of these two points from m1 is (for M = 8)
𝜋
𝑑12 = 𝑑18 = 2√𝐸 sin ( )
𝑀
The average probability of symbol error for coherent M-ary PSK as

2𝐸 𝜋
𝑃𝑒 = 2𝑄 [√ sin ( )]
𝑁0 𝑀

Power Spectra of M-ary PSK Signals

The symbol duration of M-ary PSK is defined by 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑏 log 2 (𝑀)

The energy per symbol 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑏 log 2 𝑀

The baseband power spectral density of an M-ary PSK signal is given by

𝑆𝐵 (𝑓) = 2𝐸𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐 2 (𝑇𝑓)

= 2𝐸𝑏 (log 2 𝑀)[𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐 2 (𝑇𝑏 𝑓 log 2 𝑀)]

The channel bandwidth required to pass M-ary PSK signals through an analog channel as B = 2T
where T is the symbol duration. But the symbol duration T is related to the bit duration Tb as log2M. The
bit rate Rb = 1/Tb. Hence the channel bandwidth in terms of the bit rate as

B = 2Rb/log2M

The bandwidth efficiency of M-ary PSK signals is given by

ρ = Rb/B = log2M/2

As the number of states in M-ary PSK is increased, the bandwidth efficiency is improved at the expense
of error performance. However, note that if we are to ensure that there is no degradation in error
performance, we have to increase Eb/N0 to compensate for the increase in M.
M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

In an M-ary PSK system the envelope remains constant. This is represented in the circular constellation
for the message points. If this constraint is removed, a new modulation scheme called M-ary QAM can
be obtained. The QAM is a hybrid form of modulation, in that the carrier experiences amplitude as well
as phase-modulation.

The transmitted M-ary QAM signal for symbol k can be defined in terms of E0 as

2𝐸0 2𝐸0 0≤𝑡≤𝑇

𝑠𝑘 (𝑡) = √ ak cos(2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡) − √ bk sin(2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡) {
𝑇 𝑇 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2 … . .

The signal sk(t) involves two phase-quadrature carriers, each one of which is modulated by a set of
discrete amplitudes; hence the terminology “quadrature amplitude modulation.” In M-ary QAM, the
constellation of message points depends on the number of possible symbols, M.

In M-ary PAM, the signal-space diagram is one-dimensional. M-ary QAM is a twodimensional

generalization of M-ary PAM, in that its formulation involves two orthogonal passband basis functions:

2 2
∅1 (𝑡) = √ cos(2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇 ∅2 (𝑡) = √ sin((2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡)) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇
𝑇 𝑇

Let dmin denote the minimum distance between any two message points in the QAM constellation.
Then, the projections of the ith message point on the Ø1 and Ø2 axes defined by ai dmin/2 and bi
dmin/2, where i = 1, 2, …, M. With the separation between two message points in the signal-space
diagram being proportional to the square root of energy.

QAM Square Constellations

With an even number of bits per symbol, 𝐿 = √𝑀 where L is a positive integer.An M-ary QAM square
constellation can be viewed as the Cartesian product of a one-dimensional L-ary PAM constellation with
itself. By definition, the Cartesian product of two sets of coordinates (representing a pair of one-
dimensional constellations) is made up of the set of all possible ordered pairs of coordinates with the
first coordinate in each such pair being taken from the first set involved in the product and the second
coordinate taken from the second set in the product. Thus, the ordered pairs of coordinates form a
square matrix, as shown.

(−𝐿 + 1, 𝐿 − 1) (−𝐿 + 3, 𝐿 − 1)
… … … (𝐿 − 1, 𝐿 − 1)
(−𝐿 + 1, 𝐿 − 3) (−𝐿 + 3, 𝐿 − 3)
… … … . (𝐿 − 1, 𝐿 − 3)
{𝑎𝑖 , 𝑏𝑖 } = .. .. ..
. . .
⌊(−𝐿 + 1, −𝐿 + 1) (−𝐿 + 3, −𝐿 + 1) … … … (𝐿 − 1, −𝐿 + 1)⌋

M-ary QAM for M = 16

For the 4-ary PAM, one vertically oriented along the Ø1-axis and the other horizontally oriented along
the Ø2-axis.These two parts are spatially orthogonal to each other, accounting for the two-dimensional
structure of the M-ary QAM.The same binary sequence is used for both 4-ary PAM constellations. The
Gray encoding rule is applied, which means that as we move from one codeword to an adjacent one,
only a single bit is changed. In constructing the 4-ary QAM constellation, move from one quadrant to the
next in a counterclockwise direction.With four quadrants constituting the 4-ary QAM, proceed in four
stages as follows:

Stage 1: First-quadrant constellation. the codewords, along the positive parts of the 2
and 1-axes respectively, to write

11 1110 1111
[ ] [10 11] = [ ]
10 1010 1011

Stage 2: Second-quadrant constellation. Following the same procedure as in Stage 1, to

write

11 1101 1100
[ ] [01 00] = [ ]
10 1001 1000

Stage 3: Third-quadrant constellation. Again, following the same procedure as before, to

write

00 0001 0000
[ ] [01 00] = [ ]
01 0101 0100

Stage 4: Fourth-quadrant constellation. Finally, write

00 0010 0011
[ ] [10 11] = [ ]
01 0110 0111

The final step is to piece together these four constituent 4-ary PAM constellations to
construct the 4-ary QAM constellations. The point to note is that all the codewords, obey
the Gray encoding rule, not only within each quadrant but also move from one quadrant to the next.
Probability of symbol error for this M-ary QAM,

The probability of correct detection for M-ary QAM is written as

2
𝑃𝐶 = (1 − 𝑃| 𝑒 )

where 𝑃| 𝑒 is the probability of symbol error for the L-ary PAM.

With , 𝐿 = √𝑀the probability of symbol error 𝑃| 𝑒 iis itself defined by

1 2𝐸0
𝑃| 𝑒 = 2 (1 − ) 𝑄 (√ )
√𝑀 𝑁0

The probability of symbol error for M-ary QAM is given by

𝑃𝑒 = 1 − 𝑃𝐶
2
= 1 − (1 − 𝑃| 𝑒 )

≈ 2𝑃| 𝑒

The probability of symbol error for M-ary QAM is given by

1 2𝐸0
𝑃𝑒 ≈ 4 (1 − ) 𝑄 (√ )
√𝑀 𝑁0
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying

In binary FSK, symbols 1 and 0 are distinguished from each other by transmitting one of two sinusoidal
waves that differ in frequency by a fixed amount

2Eb
√
𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) = { Tb cos(2πfi t) 0 ≤ t ≤≤ Tb

0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 ,

where I = 1, 2 and Eb is the transmitted signal energy per bit; the transmitted frequency is set a
𝑛𝐶 +1
𝑓𝑖 = f or some fixed integer nc and i =1, 2
𝑇𝑏

Symbol 1 is represented by s1(t) and symbol 0 by s2(t). The FSK signal is known as Sunde’s FSK. Phase
continuity is maintained, including the inter-bit switching times.

The signals s1(t) and s2(t) are orthogonal, but not normalized to have unit energy. The most useful form
for the set of orthonormal basis functions is described by

2
√
∅𝑖 (𝑡) = { Tb cos(2πfi t) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 ,

Where I = 1, 2 and the coefficient sij for where i = 1, 2 and j = 1, 2 is defined by

𝑇𝑏
𝑆𝑖𝑗 = ∫ 𝑆𝑖 (𝑡)∅𝑗 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0

𝑇𝑏
2Eb 2
=∫ √ cos(2πfi t) √ cos(2πfj t) 𝑑𝑡
0 Tb Tb

={ √𝐸𝑏 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 𝑗
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

Unlike binary PSK, binary FSK is characterized by having a signal-space diagram that is two-dimensional
(i.e., N = 2) with two message points (i.e., M = 2. The two message points are defined by the vectors

0
𝑆1 = [√𝐸𝑏 ] 𝑆2 = [ ]
0 √𝐸𝑏

The Euclidean distance‖𝑆1 − 𝑆2 ‖ is equal to √2𝐸𝑏 .

Error Probability of Binary FSK

The observation vector x has two elements x1 and x2 that are defined by, respectively
𝑇 𝑇
𝑥1 = ∫0 𝑥(𝑡)∅1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑥2 = ∫0 𝑥(𝑡)∅2 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

where x(t) is the received signal, whose form depends on which symbol was transmitted. Given that
symbol 1 was transmitted, x(t) equals s1(t) + w(t), where w(t) is the sample function of a white Gaussian
noise process of zero mean and power spectral density N02.If, on the other hand, symbol 0 was
transmitted, x(t) equals s2(t) + w(t).

Applying the decision rule assuming the use of coherent detection at the receiver, we find that the
observation space is partitioned into two decision regions, labeled Z1 and Z2. The decision boundary,
separating region Z1 from region Z2, is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the two message
points. The receiver decides in favor of symbol 1 if the received signal point represented by the
observation x2. If, on the other hand, we havevector x falls inside region Z1. This occurs when x1 x2,
the received signal point falls inside region Z2 and the receiver decides in favor ofx1 symbol 0. On the
decision boundary, we have x1 = x2, in which case the receiver makes a random guess in favor of symbol
1 or 0.

Define a new Gaussian random variable Y whose sample value y is equal to the difference between x1
and x2; that is, y = x 1 – x2

The mean value of the random variable Y depends on which binary symbol was transmitted. Given that
symbol 1 was sent, the Gaussian random variables X1 and X2, whose sample values are denoted by x1
and x2, have mean values equal to and zero, respectively. Correspondingly, the conditional mean of the
random variable Y given that symbol 1 was sent is

𝐸[𝑋|1] = 𝐸[𝑋1 |1] − 𝐸[𝑋2 |1]

= +√𝐸𝑏
On the other hand, given that symbol 0 was sent, the random variables X1 and X2 have mean values
equal to zero and , respectively. Correspondingly, the conditional mean of the random variable Y given
that symbol 0 was sent is

𝐸[𝑋|0] = 𝐸[𝑋1 |0] − 𝐸[𝑋2 |0]

= −√𝐸𝑏

The variance of the random variable Y is independent of which binary symbol was sent. Since the
random variables X1 and X2 are statistically independent, each with a variance equal to N0 2, it follows
that 𝑉𝑎𝑟[𝑌] = 𝑉𝑎𝑟[𝑋1 ] + 𝑉𝑎𝑟[𝑋2 ]

= 𝑁0

Suppose we know that symbol 0 was sent. The conditional probability density function of the random
variable Y is then given by

1 1 2
𝑓𝑦 (𝑦|0) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− (𝑦 + √𝐸𝑏 ) ]
√2𝜋𝑁0 2𝑁0

0 corresponds to the receiver making a x2 or, equivalently, y nce the condition x1 decision in favor of
symbol 1, we deduce that the conditional probability of error given that symbol 0 was sent is

𝑃10 = 𝑃(𝑦 > 0|𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 0 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡)

∞
= ∫ 𝑓𝑌 (𝑦|0) 𝑑𝑦
0

∞
1 1 2
= ∫ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− (𝑦 + √𝐸𝑏 ) ] 𝑑𝑦
√2𝜋𝑁0 0 2𝑁0

To put the integral in (7.165) in a standard form involving the Q-function, we set

𝑦 + √𝐸𝑏
=𝑧
√𝑁0

Then, changing the variable of integration from y to z, we may rewrite (7.165) as

∞
1 𝑧2
𝑃10 = ∫ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− ) 𝑑𝑧
√2𝜋 √𝐸𝑏 /𝑁0 2

𝐸𝑏
= 𝑄 (√ )
𝑁0

Similarly, we may show the p01, the conditional probability of error given that symbol 1 was sent, has
the same value as in (7.167). Accordingly, averaging p10 and p01 and assuming equiprobable symbols,
we find that the average probability of bit error or, equivalently, the BER for binary FSK using coherent
detection is

𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑄 (√ )
𝑁0

For a binary FSK receiver to maintain the same BER as in a binary PSK receiver, the bit energy-to-noise
density ratio, EbN0, has to be doubled. In a binary PSK system the Euclidean distance between the two
message points is equal to 2√𝐸𝑏 , whereas in a binary FSK system the corresponding distance is√2𝐸𝑏 .
For a prescribed Eb, the minimum distance dmin in binary PSK is, therefore,√2 times that in binary FSK.

Power Spectra of Binary FSK Signals

Consider the case of Sunde’s FSK, for which the two transmitted frequencies f1 and f2 differ by an
amount equal to the bit rate 1 Tb, and their arithmetic mean equals the nominal carrier frequency fc;
phase continuity is maintained, including inter-bit switching times. This special binary FSK signal as a
frequency-modulated signal, is defined by

2Eb πt
𝑠(𝑡) = √ cos (2πfC t ± ) 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb
Tb Tb

2Eb πt 2Eb πt
𝑠(𝑡) = √ cos (± ) cos(2πfC t) − √ sin (± ) sin(2πfC t)
Tb Tb Tb Tb

2Eb πt 2Eb πt
=√ cos ( ) cos(2πfC t) ∓ √ sin ( ) sin(2πfC t)
Tb Tb Tb Tb

The plus sign corresponds to transmitting symbol 0 and the minus sign corresponds to transmitting
symbol 1.

1. The in-phase component is completely independent of the input binary wave. It equals
√2𝐸𝑏 /𝑇𝑏 cos(𝜋𝑡/𝑇𝑏 ) for all time t. The power spectral density of this component, therefore, consists of
two delta functions at t = 12Tb, and and weighted by the factor Eb 2Tb.occurring at f = 12Tb.

2. The quadrature component is directly related to the input binary sequence. During the signaling
interval 0 t  Tb, it equals –g(t) for symbol 1 and +g(t) for symbol 0, with g(t) denoting a symbol-
shaping function defined by

2Eb
𝑔(𝑡) = {√ Tb sin(2πfC t) 0≤t≤T

0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
The energy spectral density of g(t) is defined by

8𝐸𝑏 𝑇𝑏 cos 2(𝜋𝑇𝑏 𝑓)

𝜑𝑔 (𝑓) = 2
𝜋 (4𝑇 2 𝑏 𝑓 2 − 1)2

The power spectral density of the quadrature component equals 𝜑𝑔 (𝑓)/𝑇𝑏 . The in-phase and
quadrature components of the binary FSK signal are independent of each other. Accordingly, the
baseband power spectral density of Sunde’s FSK signal equals the sum of the power spectral densities of
these two components, as shown by

𝐸𝑏 1 1 8𝐸𝑏 𝑇𝑏 cos 2(𝜋𝑇𝑏 𝑓)

𝑆𝐵 (𝑓) = [𝛿 (𝑓 − ) + 𝛿 (𝑓 + )] + 2
2𝑇𝑏 2𝑇𝑏 2𝑇𝑏 𝜋 (4𝑇 2 𝑏 𝑓 2 − 1)2

baseband modulated power spectra

1
𝑆𝑆 (𝑓) = [𝑆𝐵 (𝑓 − 𝑓𝐶 ) + 𝑆𝐵 (𝑓 + 𝑓𝐶 )]
4

where fc is the carrier frequency. The power spectrum of the binary FSK signal contains two discrete
frequency components, one located at (fc + 1/2Tb) = f1 and the other located at (fc – 12Tb) = f2, with
their average powers adding up to one-half the total power of the binary FSK signal. The presence of
these two discrete frequency components provides a practical basis for synchronizing the receiver with
the transmitter.

The baseband power spectral density of a binary FSK signal with continuous phase falls off as the inverse
fourth power of frequency.

In both cases, SB(f) is shown normalized with respect to 2Eb, and the frequency is normalized with
respect to the Tb. The difference in the falloff rates of these spectra can be explained onbit rate Rb =
1/Tb the basis of the pulse shape g(t). The smoother the pulse, the faster the drop of spectral tails to
zero. Thus, since binary FSK with continuous phase has a smoother pulse shape, it has lower sidelobes
than binary PSK does.
Noncoherent Orthogonal Modulation Techniques

Consider a binary signaling scheme that involves the use of two orthogonal signals s1(t) and s2(t),, which
have equal energy. During the signaling interval 0 t  T where T may be different from the bit duration
Tb, one of these two signals is sent over an imperfect channel that shifts the carrier phase by an
unknown amount. Let g1(t) and g2(t) denote the phase-shifted versions of s1(t) and s2(t) that result
from this transmission, respectively. It is assumed that the signals g1(t) and g2(t) remain orthogonal and
have the same energy E, regardless of the unknown carrier phase. We refer to such a signaling scheme
as noncoherent orthogonal modulation, hence the title of the section.

In addition to carrier-phase uncertainty, the channel also introduces AWGN w(t) of zero mean and
power spectral density N02, resulting in the received signal

𝑔 (𝑡) + 𝑤(𝑡) 𝑠1 (𝑡) 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇

𝑥(𝑡) = { 1
𝑔2 (𝑡) + 𝑤(𝑡) 𝑠2 (𝑡)𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇

The receiver consists of a pair of filters matched to the transmitted signals s1(t) and s2(t). Because the
carrier phase is unknown, the receiver relies on amplitude as the only possible discriminant. The
matched-filter outputs are envelope-detected, sampled, and then compared with each other. If the
upper path has an output amplitude I1 greater than the output amplitude l2 of the lower path, the
receiver decides in favor of s1(t); If I1 is less than I2 the receiver decided in favor of s2(t). A decision error
occurs when the matched filter that rejects the signal component of the received signal x(t) has a larger
output amplitude (due to noise alone) than the matched filter that passes it.

The quadrature receiver has two channels. In the upper path, called the in-phase path, the received
signal x(t) is correlated with the function 𝜑𝑖 (𝑡) , which represents a scaled version of the transmitted
signal s1(t) or s2(t) with zero carrier phase. In the lower path, called the quadrature path, x(t) is
correlated with another function 𝜑 ̂𝑖 (𝑡) , which represents shifted version of the carrier phase by –90°.
The signals are orthogonal to each other. 𝜑̂𝑖 (𝑡) is the Hilbert transform of 𝜑𝑖 (𝑡).

𝜑𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑚(𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑖 𝑡) than 𝜑

̂𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑚(𝑡) sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑖 𝑡).
The average probability of error for the noncoherent receiver
1 𝐸
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− )
2 2𝑁0
where E is the signal energy per symbol and N0/2 is the noise spectral density.

Binary Frequency-Shift Keying Using Noncoherent Detection

In binary FSK, the transmitted signal is defined

2Eb
𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) √
= { Tb cos(2πfi t) 0 ≤ t ≤≤ Tb

0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 ,

where Tb is the bit duration and the carrier frequency fi equals one of two possible values f1 and f2; to
ensure that the signals representing these two frequencies are orthogonal, we choose fi = ni /Tb, where
ni is an integer. The transmission of frequency f1 represents symbol 1 and the transmission of frequency
f2 represents symbol 0. For the noncoherent detection of this frequency-modulated signal, the receiver

consists of a pair of matched filters followed by envelope detectors. The filter in the upper path of the
receiver is matched to cos(2f1t) and the filter in the lower path is matched to cos(2 f2t) for the
signaling interval 0 t  Tb. The resulting envelope detector outputs are sampled at t = Tb and their
values are compared. The envelope samples of the upper and lower paths are l1 and l2. The receiver
decides in favor of symbol 1 if l1 > l2 and in favor of symbol 0 if l1  l2. If l1 = l2, the receiver simply
guesses randomly in favor of symbol 1 or 0. The noncoherent binary FSK with T = Tb and E = Eb, where
Eb is the signal energy per bit, the BER is given by

1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− )
2 2𝑁0

Differential Phase-Shift Keying

DPSK is the “noncoherent” version of binary PSK. The distinguishing feature of DPSK is that it eliminates
the need for synchronizing the receiver to the transmitter by combining two basic operations at the
transmitter:
• differential encoding of the input binary sequence and
• PSK of the encoded sequence
Differential encoding starts with an arbitrary first bit, serving as the reference bit; to this end, symbol 1
is used as the reference bit. Generation of the differentially encoded sequence then proceeds in
accordance with a two-part encoding rule as follows:
1. If the new bit at the transmitter input is 1, leave the differentially encoded symbol unchanged with
respect to the current bit.
2. If, on the other hand, the input bit is 0, change the differentially encoded symbol with respect to the
current bit.
The differentially encoded sequence, denoted by {dk}, is used to shift the sinusoidal carrier phase by
zero and 180o, representing symbols 1 and 0, respectively. Thus, in terms of phase-shifts, the resulting
DPSK signal follows the two-part rule:
1. To send symbol 1, the phase of the DPSK signal remains unchanged.
2. To send symbol 0, the phase of the DPSK signal is shifted by 180°
Illustration of DPSK
Error Probability of DPSK

The DPSK is an example of noncoherent orthogonal modulation when its behavior is considered over
successive two-bit intervals; that is 0 ≤ t ≤ 2Tb. Let the transmitted DPSK signal be√2𝐸𝑏 /𝑇𝑏 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
for the first bit interval 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb, which corresponds to symbol 1. Suppose, then, the input symbol for
the second-bit interval Tb ≤ t ≤ 2Tb is also symbol 1. According to part 1 of the DPSK encoding rule, the
carrier phase remains unchanged, thereby yielding the DPSK signal

2Eb
√ cos(2πfc t) 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb
Tb
𝑆1 (𝑡) =
2Eb
√ cos(2πfc t) Tb ≤ t ≤ 2Tb ,
{ Tb

Suppose, next, the signaling over the two-bit interval changes such that the symbol at the transmitter
input for the second-bit interval Tb ≤ t ≤ 2Tb is 0. Then, according to part 2 of the DPSK encoding rule,
the carrier phase is shifted by π radians (i.e., 180°), thereby yielding the new DPSK signal

2Eb
√ cos(2πfc t) 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb
Tb
𝑆2 (𝑡) =
2Eb
√ cos(2πfc t + π) Tb ≤ t ≤ 2Tb ,
{ Tb

s1(t) and s2(t) are orthogonal over the two-bit interval 0 t 2Tb. The BER for DPSK is given by
1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− )
2 𝑁0
DPSK provides a gain of 3 dB over binary FSK using noncoherent detection for the same Eb/N0.
Generation of DPSK Signal

The transmitter consists of two functional blocks:

• Logic network and one-bit delay (storage) element, which are interconnected so as to convert
the raw input binary sequence {bk} into the differentially encoded sequence {dk}.
• Binary PSK modulator, the output of which is the desired DPSK signal.
Optimum Receiver for the Detection of DPSK
In the use of DPSK, the carrier phase  is unknown, which complicates the received signal x(t). To deal
with the unknown phase  in the differentially coherent detection of the DPSK signal in x(t), the receiver
is equipped with an in-phase and a quadrature path. Thus a signal-space diagram where the received
signal points over the two-bit interval 0 t 2Tb are defined by (Acos  , –Asin) and (–Acos, Asin ),
where A denotes the carrier amplitude.

For the two-bit interval 0 t 2Tb, the receiver measures

the coordinates 𝑥𝐼0 , 𝑥𝑄0 first, at time t = Tb and then
measures 𝑥𝐼1 , 𝑥𝑄1 at time t = 2Tb. The issue to be
resolved is whether these two points map to the same
signal point or different ones.

𝑠𝑎𝑦 1
>
𝑥𝐼0 𝑥𝐼1 + 𝑥𝑄0 𝑥𝑄1 < 0
𝑠𝑎𝑦 0

where the threshold is zero for equiprobable symbols.

The detection of DPSK is restated as follows:

Given the current signal point (𝑥𝐼0 , 𝑥𝑄0 )received in the time interval 0 < t < 2Tb, is this point closer to
the signal point (𝑥𝐼1 , 𝑥𝑄1 ) or its image(−𝑥𝐼1 , −𝑥𝑄1 ) received in the next time interval Tb < t < 2Tb?

DPSK receiver is based on the above hypothesis.

The receiver has an in-phase and a quadrature path, hence non coherent orthogonal detection. XI1 and
XI0 the output of the delay in the in-phase path are multiplied and given to summing circuit. Similarly
XQ1 and XQ0 the output of the delay in quadrature channel are multiplied and fed to the summing
circuit. Both the products are added and fed to the decision device to be compared with the threshold
zero. The decision is based on the hypothesis.