Mekelle University

Ethiopian Institute of Technology-Mekelle

School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Regulations and Control Engineering

(MEng 4162)

Chapter -6
Frequency Response of Control System

Prepared by : Zina G.
(M.Sc. in Mechanical System Design)
 6. Frequency Response of Control System
Introduction:
• The design of feedback control systems in industry is more often
accomplished using frequency-response methods.
– provides good designs in the face of uncertainty in the plant model,
for example, for systems with poorly known or changing high-
frequency resonances, we can temper their feedback
compensation to alleviate the effects of those uncertainties.
– experimental information can be used for design purposes, for
example, raw measurements of the output amplitude and phase of
a plant undergoing a sinusoidal input excitation are sufficient to
design a suitable feedback control.
– intermediate processing of the data, such as finding poles and
zeros, is not required to arrive at a system model.
– for relatively simple systems, is still often the most cost-effective
design method.
Note: The method is most effective for systems that are stable in open-loop. 2
 Advantage of Frequency Response
i. Ready availability of sinusoidal test signals for various ranges
of frequency and amplitudes.
 Thus the experimental determination of the frequency response of
a system is easily accomplished and is the most reliable and
uncomplicated method for the experimental analysis of a system.
Hence:
 Unknown transfer function of a system can be deduced from
the experimentally determined frequency response of a
system.
 The design of a system in the frequency domain provides the
designer with control of the bandwidth of a system and some
measure of the response of the system to undesired noise and
disturbance.
ii. The transfer function describing the sinusoidal steady-state
behavior of a system can be obtained by replacing s with jω in
the system TF. 3
 6.1. Frequency Response
• Frequency response is the steady-state response of a
linear system to a sinusoidal input.
• In frequency-response methods, the frequency of the
input signal is varied over a certain range and the
resulting response is studied.
• It is the variation of the magnitude and phase of the
response with frequency of the input.

Linear
System

4
 The Concept of Frequency Response

• In the steady state, sinusoidal inputs to a linear system

generate sinusoidal responses of the same frequency.
• Even though these responses are of the same frequency as
the input, they differ in amplitude and phase angle from the
input.
• These differences are functions of frequency.
• Sinusoids can be represented as complex numbers called
phasors.
• The magnitude of the complex number is the amplitude of
the sinusoid, and the angle of the complex number is the
phase angle of the sinusoid.
• Thus G cos(t   ) can be represented as G
where the frequency, ω, is implicit.
 The Concept of Frequency Response

• A system causes both the amplitude and phase angle of the

input to be changed.
• Therefore, the system itself can be represented by a
complex number.
• Thus, the product of the input phasor and the system
function yields the phasor representation of the output.
 The Concept of Frequency Response

• Consider the mechanical system.

• If the input force, f(t), is sinusoidal, the steady-state output

response, x(t), of the system is also sinusoidal and at the same
frequency as the input.
 The Concept of Frequency Response

G( ) ( )

• Assume that the system is represented by the complex number

G( ) ( )
• The output is found by multiplying the complex number
representation of the input by the complex number representation
of the system.
• If all the poles G(s) are –ve, the natural unforced response will
die out eventually and therefore the steady-state response of
the system will be due solely to the sinusoidal term, which is
caused by the sinusoidal excitation.

• The remaining sinusoidal term will have the form:

9
• The equation shows that a stable system with transfer
function G(s) excited by a sinusoid with unit amplitude
and frequency ω will, after the response has reached
steady state, exhibit a sinusoidal output with a
magnitude G(ω) and a phase ( ) at the frequency ω.
Note:
• In frequency response, we not only understand how a
system responds to a sinusoidal input, but also evaluate
G(s) with s taking on values along the jω axis which is
very useful in determining the stability of closed loop
system.
• jω axis is the boundary between stability and instability.

10
Frequency response of 1st Order System

1
G( s) 
1s
Multiply by its complex conjugate to separate real and imaginary
parts:

11
Frequency response of 2nd Order System

12
 6.2. Frequency Response from a pole-zero plot
• The magnitude and phase of G(jω) can be found from the
pole-zero plot for a system
k  s  z1  s  z2  .......  s  zm 
G( s) 
 s  p1  s  p2  ............  s  pn 
Steps
1. Plot the position of each pole and zero
2. Mark the position s = jω.
3. Draw lines from each pole and each zero to the point s = jω.
4. Measure the length and angles of each of the lines
5. The frequency response function is then:
k  product of the lengths of the lines from zeros
G( j ) 
product of the lengths of the lines from poles

G( j )  sum of angles of lines from zeros -

sum of angles of lines from poles 13
6.3. Frequency Response for series elements

G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)

G( s)  G1( s)G2 ( s)G3 ( s)

G( j )  G1( j )G2 ( j )G3 ( j )

G ( j )  G1( j ) 1. G2 ( j ) 2 . G3 ( j ) 3

 G1 ( j ) G2 ( j ) G3 ( j ) 1  2  3
Thus:
G ( j )  G1( j ) G2 ( j ) G3 ( j )
  1  2  3
14
 6.4. Bode Plot
• A Bode diagram consists of two graphs:
– One is a plot of the logarithm of the magnitude, │G(jω)│, of a
sinusoidal transfer function.
– The other is a plot of the phase angle of G(jω).
– Both are plotted against the frequency on a logarithmic scale.
• The standard procedure is to plot 20log│G(jω)│ and (ω) versus
log ω.
• The unit of 20log│G(jω)│ is decibel, dB.
• Allows a rapid and reasonably accurate plot to be made.
• Composite systems will be handled with relative ease.
• Possible to make the plots as accurate as required in a given
frequency range.
• Plotted for a unit change in frequency log(ω2/ω1)=1 or ω2=10ω1.
This range of frequency is called a decade. 15
• Consider the transfer function

G (s)  k
 s  1 
 G ( j )  k
 j  1 


k 1  j 
1
  1 
. 
 s  2   j  2  1  j / 2   2 
1 1  j / 1
G ( j )  k
2 1  j / 2
  2 1/ 2    2 1/ 2

 
G ( j ) db  20 log k 1
2
 20 log 1    
  1  
 20 log 1    
  2  
   
• So, we can add contribution due to the individual magnitude
terms.
• The phase graph when there are a number of elements is
just the sum of the separate elements. 16
• The graph covers a greater range of frequencies and it is
approximated as a straight line.

• Since Bode plots for a system can be built up from the plots for
the individual elements within the transfer function for that system
it is useful to consider the plots for element commonly found in
the transfer function.

Let:

k 1  jTa 1  jTb  ...

G ( j ) 

    
2
 j  r
1  jT1 1  jT2  ... 1  2 j   j 
n n

17
• The basic factors that very frequently occur in an arbitrary
transfer function are
20 (3s  1)
G( s) 
s( s  1)( s 2  5s  2)
1. Constant Gain K

2. Integral and Derivative Factors (jω)±1

(A pole and zero at the origin)

3. First Order Factors (jωτ +1)±1

(A real pole and zero)

4. Quadratic Factors

(A pair of complex Poles and zeros)

18
 1. Constant Gain K

G(s)=k → G(jω)=k → │G(jω)│ =k

│G(jω)│db = 20 log k; =0

• The log-magnitude curve for a constant gain K is a horizontal

straight line at the magnitude of 20 log(K) decibels.

• The phase angle of the gain K is zero.

• The effect of varying the gain K in the transfer function is that it

raises or lowers the log-magnitude curve of the transfer function
by the corresponding constant amount, but it has no effect on the
phase curve.
 If K  5 Then20 log (K)  20 log ( 5 )  14db
15
Magnitude (decibels), 20log│G(jω)│

-5

-15
0.1 1 10 100 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
Frequency (rad/sec)
 Im 0
If K  5 Then  tan-1( )  tan-1( )  0
90o
Re 5

30o
Phase (degrees), (ω)

0o

-300

-90o
0.1 1 10 100 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
Frequency (rad/sec)
2. Integral and Derivative Factors (jω)±1

a) Derivative Factor (A zero at the origin):

G(s)=s → G(jω)= jω

Magnitude G( j ) db  20 log(  )
That is a straight line of slope 20 dB/decade.
ω 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

db -20 -14 -8 -6 -3 -2 -1 0

Slope=20db/decade

1 
Phase G( j )  tan ( )  90
0 22
 Integral and Derivative Factors (jω)±1

b) Integral Factor (A pole at the origin):

A multiple pole at the origin

G(s)=1/sm → G(jω)= 1/(jω)m

│G(jω)│dB = -20 log ωm= -20m log ω;

• That is a straight line of slope -20m dB/decade.

• For m = 1 1
Magnitude G( j )   20 log(  )
j

1 
Phase G( j )   tan ( )  90
0
23
Integral and Derivative Factors (jω)±1

40
a zero at the origin
20

0.1 1 10 100 ω [rad/sec]

-20
a pole at the origin
-40

90 a zero at the origin

-90 a pole at the origin

24
 3. First Order Factors (jωτ +1)±1
a) A Real zero (jωτ +1)+1:
G(s)=(1+τs) → G(jω)=(1+ jωτ)

│G(jω)│db=20log =10log (1+ (ωτ)2)

1  ( ) 2

tan  = ωτ
For Low frequencies, ω τ <<1,
│G(jω)│dB=10log (1)=0
This tells us that at low frequency there is a straight line.

For high frequencies, ω τ >>1,

│G(jω)│dB=10log (ωτ)2=20log (ωτ)
i.e a straight line of slope 20 db/decade. 25
 First Order Factors (jωτ +1)±1

b) A Real Pole (jωτ +1)-1:

1 1
G(s)   G ( j ) 
1s 1   ( j )
 1 
G ( j ) dB  20 log    10 log 
 1     2


 1     
2

tan        tan    1

for   1/  ;     0
2

 G ( j ) db  10 log1  0db

This tells us that at low frequency there is a straight line.
26
 First Order Factors (jωτ +1)±1
For high frequencies, ω>>1/τ:

│G(jω)│dB=-20 log ωτ

We get a straight line of slope -20db/decade

• when ωτ=1 .

│G(jω)│dB ≈ 0

ω = 1/τ is called break point or corner frequency

27
 First Order Factors (jωτ +1)±1
• The error for 0<ω<1/τ is:
-10 log (1+ω2τ2)+10log 1;
– At ω=1/ →-10 log (1+1)+10log 1= -3dB
– At ω=1/(2 τ) is:
-10 log (1+1/4) + 10 log 1 = - 1dB
• The error for 1/ ≤ ω <  is:
-10 log (1+ ω22) + 20 log ω ;
– At ω = 1/  →-10 log (1+1) + 20 log 1 = - 3dB
– At ω=2/
-10 log (1+4) + 20 log2 = - 1 dB
• The two straight lines are called asymptotic
approximations 28
 First Order Factors (jωτ +1)±1

40 Break Point
a real zero
20

ω [rad/sec]
20 Actual
a real pole
40

a real zero
+90o
ω [rad/sec]
0.1/τ 1/τ 10/τ 100/τ
-90o
a real pole

29
 Single Pole & Zero Bode Plots

Gain ωp Gain ωz

0 dB +20 dB

–20 dB 0 dB
ω ω
Phase One Decade Phase One Decade

0° +90°

–45° +45°

–90° 0°
ω ω
Pole at Zero at
ωp=1/ Assume K=1 ωz=1/
20 log10(K) = 0 dB
30
 4. Quadratic Factors
a) A pair of complex Poles
n2 1
G( s)  2  G ( j ) 
s  2n s  n
2    2 
 1       j (2 / n )
  n  
2
      (2 /  ) 2
2
 G ( j )  20 log  1     n and
dB
  n  
    
 2   
   tan 1   n  
   
2

 1    
  n  

For (ω/ ωn)<<1, │G(jω)│db = -20log 1=0 dB

For (ω/ ωn)>>1, │G(jω)│db = -20log (ω/ ωn)2
= -40log (ω/ ωn) 31
 Quadratic Factors

• The above two results shows as that at low frequencies the

magnitude plot is a straight line at 0 dB, while at high
frequencies it is a straight line of slope -40 dB/decade.

• Break point is at ω = ωn.

• True value depends on the value of ζ.

– For (ω/ ωn)<<1, i.e. (ω/ ωn)=0.1 or less, then

 ≈ -tan-10 = 0o
– For (ω/ ωn)>>1, i.e. (ω/ ωn)=10 or greater, then

 ≈ -tan-1∞ = -180o 32
 ω/ ωn

-20

-40 1 10

ω/ωn=0.2

ω/ ωn

-90

-180

ω/ωn=5 33
 Quadratic Factors
b) A pair of complex zeros

G( s) 
s 2
 2n s  n2
 G ( j ) 
 n2   2   j 2n
n2 n2
 2 2
 
 G ( j ) db  20log  1      (2 /  ) 2
and
 n  
n

    
 2    
  tan 1   n 
   
2

 1    
  n 

• The plot of the above case is exactly the mirror image of

the previous case.
34
 Quadratic Factors

• The above two results shows as that at low frequencies the

magnitude plot is a straight line at 0 dB, while at high
frequencies it is a straight line of slope 40 dB/decade.

• Break point is at ω = ωn.

• True value depends on the value of ζ.

– For (ω/ ωn)<<1, i.e. (ω/ ωn)=0.1 or less, then

 ≈ tan-10 = 0o
– For (ω/ ωn)>>1, i.e. (ω/ ωn)=10 or greater, then

 ≈ tan-1∞ = 180o 35
 Bode Plot Summary
Magnitude Behavior Phase Behavior
Factor
Low Break Asymptotic Low Break Freq Asymptotic
Freq Freq Freq

Constant Gain 20 log10(K) for all frequencies 0 for all frequencies

zeros or Poles at ±20N dB/decade for all ±90(N) for all frequencies
origin frequencies with a crossover of 0
dB at ω=1
First order (simple) 0 dB ±3N dB ±20N 0 ±45(N) with ±90(N)
a real poles or at ω=1/ dB/decade slope ±45(N)
zeros per decade
Quadratic (complex 0 dB see ζ at ±40N 0 ±90(N) ±180(N)
conjugate) poles or ω=1/ dB/decade
zeros

where N is the number of roots @1/

36
 Example#1
• Draw the Bode Plot of following Transfer function.
20s
G( s ) 
( s  10)
Solution:
Always get the poles and zeros in a form such that the constants are associated
with the s terms.
In the above example we do this by factoring out the 10 in the denominator.
2s
G( s) 
(0.1s  1)
• The transfer function contains
1. Gain Factor (K=2)
2. Derivative Factor (s)
3. 1st Order Factor in denominator (0.1s+1)-1
 Example#1
2s
G( s ) 
( 0.1s  1)
1. Gain Factor (K=2)
K db
 20 log( 2)  6 db
2. Derivative Factor (s)
s db  20 log( )  20 db/decade
3. 1st Order Factor in denominator (0.1s+1)
1
whe n   10,  20 log(1)  0
0.1 j  1 db

1
whe n   10,  20 log( 0.1 )  20db/de
0.1 j  1 db
 20s
G( s ) 
( s  10)
30

20 db/decade
Magnitude (decibels)

10

K=2
0

-10

-20 db/decade
-20

-30
0.1 1 10 100 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
Frequency (rad/sec)
 20s
G( s ) 
( s  10)
30

-20 db/decade+20db/decade
Magnitude (decibels)

10

20 db/decade
0

-10

-20

-30
0.1 1 10 100 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
Frequency (rad/sec)
 Example#1
Generally, the phase for a Bode plot is not as easy to draw or approximate as the
magnitude. In this course we will use an analytical method for determining the
phase if we want to make a sketch of the phase.
2 j
G( j ) 
( 0.1 j  1)
We express the angle as follows:
G( j )  2  j  ( 0.1 j  1)
0 1 
G( j )  tan ( )  tan ( )  tan1 ( 0.1 )
1
2 0
G( j )  90  tan1( 0.1 )
ω 0.1 1 5 10 20 40 70 100 1000 ∞

Φ(ω) 89.4 84.2 63.4 45 26.5 14 8 5.7 0.5 0

Usually, about 10 to 15 calculations are sufficient to determine a good idea of

what is happening to the phase.
 ω 0.1 1 5 10 20 40 70 100 1000 ∞
Φ(ω) 89.4 84.2 63.4 45 26.5 14 8 5.7 0.5 0
90o

30o
Phase (degrees)

0o

-300

-45o

-90o
0.1 1 10 100 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
Frequency (rad/sec)
 Bode Diagram
30

20
Magnitude (dB)

10

-10

-20
90
Phase (deg)

45

0
-1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
 Example #2:
• Draw the Bode Plot of following Transfer function.
5000( j  10)
G ( j ) 
( j  1)( j  500)
Solution:

First: Always get the poles and zeros in a form such that the constants are
associated with the jw terms.
In the above example we do this by factoring out the 10 in the numerator
and the 500 in the denominator.

5000 10( j / 10  1) 100( j / 10  1)

G( j )   G( j ) 
500( j  1)( j / 500  1) ( j  1)( j / 500  1)

Second: When you have neither poles nor zeros at 0, start the Bode at
20log10K = 20log10100 = 40 dB in this case.
Third: Observe the order in which the poles and zeros occur.
This is the secret of being able to quickly sketch the Bode.
 Example #2: (continued)

In this example we first have a pole occurring at 1 which causes the

Bode to break at 1 and slope – 20 dB/dec. Next, we see a zero
occurs at 10 and this causes a slope of +20 dB/dec which cancels out
the – 20 dB/dec, resulting in a flat line ( 0 db/dec). Finally, we have a
pole that occurs at w = 500 which causes the Bode to slope down at
– 20 dB/dec.

We are now ready to draw the Bode.

Before we draw the Bode we should observe the range over which
the transfer function has active poles and zeros. This determines the
scale we pick for the w (rad/sec) at the bottom of the Bode.

The dB scale depends on the magnitude of the plot and experience is

the best teacher here.
Bode Plot Magnitude for
100( j / 10  1)
 G( j ) 
( j  1)( j / 500  1)
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
60

40
-20db/dec

20
-20 db/dec
dB Mag Phase (deg)
dB Mag 0

-20

-60

-60
0.1 1 10 100
(rad/sec) 1000 10000
 (rad/sec)
 Using Matlab For Frequency Response
Instruction:

We can use Matlab to run the frequency response for the

previous example. We place the transfer function in the form:

5000( s 10) [ 5000s  50000 ]


( s 1)( s  500) [ s  501s  500]
2

The Matlab Program

num = [5000 50000];

den = [1 501 500];
Bode (num,den)
the resulting magnitude and phase plots (exact) are shown in light color
(blue). The approximate plot for the magnitude (Bode) is shown in heavy
lines (red). We see the 3 dB errors at the corner frequencies.
Bode Diagrams

From: U(1)
40

30

20
Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

10

-10
1 10 100 500
0

-20
To: Y(1)

-40

-60
100(1  j / 10)
Bode for: G( j ) 
-80 (1  j )(1  j / 500)
-100
-1 0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10

Frequency (rad/sec)
 Phase for Bode Plots
Comment:
Generally, the phase for a Bode plot is not as easy to draw or approximate
as the magnitude. In this course we will use an analytical method for
determining the phase if we want to make a sketch of the phase.

Consider the transfer function: 5000( j  10)

G ( j ) 
( j  1)( j  500)

We express the angle as follows:

G( j )  tan 1 ( / 10)  tan 1 ( / 1)  tan 1 ( / 500)

We are essentially taking the angle of each pole and zero.

Each of these are expressed as the tan-1(j part/real part)

Usually, about 10 to 15 calculations are sufficient to determine

a good idea of what is happening to the phase.
Example #3:
Given the transfer function. Plot the Bode magnitude.
100(1  s / 10)
G( s) 
s (1  s / 100) 2

100
Consider first only the two terms of j

Which, when expressed in dB, are; 20log100 – 20 log . This is plotted

below.
|G( =0.1)|dB = 20log100 – 20 log  = 40 + 20 = 60 dB

The is
40
-20db/dec a tentative line we use
dB 20 until we encounter the
first pole(s) or zero(s)
0
not at the origin.
-20

1  (rad/sec)
Example #3: (continued)
100(1  s / 10)
The completed plot is shown below. G ( s) 
s (1  s / 100)
2

1 1 1 1 1 1
60

-20db/dec
40

20

dB Mag 0 -40 db/dec

-20

-40

-60
0.1 1 10 100 1000

 (rad/sec)
Example #4:
Given the transfer function. Plot the Bode magnitude.
80(1  jw)3 20log80 = 38 dB
G( s) 
( jw)3 (1  jw / 20) 2 |G( =0.1)|dB = 20log80 – 20 log 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
= 38 + 60 = 98 dB

-60 dB/dec

60

dB Mag 40

-40 dB/dec
20

-20 .

0.1 1 10 100
 (rad/sec)
Example #5:
Given the transfer function. Plot the Bode magnitude.
10(1  jw / 2)
G( jw) 
(1  j 0.025w)(1  jw / 500) 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
60

40
+ 20 dB/dec
-40 dB/dec

20

dB Mag 0

-20

-40

-60
2
0.1 1 10 100 1000

 (rad/sec)
 Example #6:
Given the transfer function. Plot the Bode magnitude.
(1  j / 30) 2 (1  j / 100) 2
G( j ) 
(1  j / 2) 2 (1  j / 1700) 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
60

40

20

dB Mag 0

-40 dB/dec
-20

+ 40 dB/dec
-40

-60
0.1 1 10 100 1000

 (rad/sec)
Example #7:
Given the transfer function. Plot the Bode magnitude.
640( j  1)(0.01 j  1) 64( j  1)(0.01 j  1)
H ( j )  
( j ) 2 ( j  10) ( j ) 2 (0.1 j  1)
|G( =0.1)|dB = 20log 64 – 20 log 2 = 36.12 + 40 = 76.12 dB
.
-40dB/dec

40 .
-20db/dec

20 .
-40dB/dec
dB mag 0

-20 .
-20dB/dec

-40 .

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

6.5. Experimental Determination of Transfer Function

• When the transfer functions of a system are unknown, Bode

Plots are used.

• Frequency response data is first obtained experimentally in

the frequency range of interest.

• The transfer function within a certain degree of accuracy

can then be obtained by fitting an asymptotic log-magnitude
plot to the experimental data.
• The phase plots are used as a check of the result.
56
• Asymptotes are drawn to the experimental data.
1. If the slope of the initial asymptote is -20dB/decade then there is a pole at the
origin. If it is +20dB/decade then there is a zero at the origin.

2. If the slope, in going from one asymptote to the next changes by + 20dB/decade,
then there is a real zero or pole and the TF is (1+τs) or 1/(1+τs), where the
frequency at which the slope changes is 1/τ.

3. If the slope, in going from one asymptote to the next changes by + 40dB/decade,
there is a pair of complex zeros or poles and the transfer function has a term:
s 2  2n s  n2 n2
or 2
n
2
s  2n s  n2
where ωn is the frequency at which slope changes
Tables are used to give an estimate of ζ.
• All the constituent elements are combined to give a TF.

• Then the phase graph is plotted and checked with the experimental data.
 Example #8:
Design Problem: Design a G(s) that has the following Bode plot.

Procedure:

40 break frequencies
30 dB
(corner frequencies)
20
+40 dB/dec
-40dB/dec 1 =1/τ1 = ?
2 =1/τ2 = 30
dB mag
0
3 =1/τ3 = 900
? ?
4 =1/τ4 = ?

Transfer function
(1  s / 1 ) 2 (1  s / 4 ) 2
G( s) 
30 900
(1  s / 2 ) 2 (1  s / 3 ) 2
0.1 1 10 100 1000
 rad/sec
Procedure: The two break frequencies need to be found.

Recall:
#dec = log10[w2/w1]
Then we have:
(#dec)( 40dB/dec) = 30 dB

log10[30/w1] = 0.75 w1 = 5.33 rad/sec

Also:
log10[w4/900] (-40dB/dec) = - 30dB

This gives w4 = 5060 rad/sec

 Procedure: Transfer function
(1  s / 1 ) 2 (1  s / 4 ) 2 break frequencies
G( s)  (corner frequencies)
(1  s / 2 ) 2 (1  s / 3 ) 2
1 =1/τ1 = 5.3
(1  s / 5.3)2 (1  s / 5060) 2 2 =1/τ2 = 30
G( s) 
(1  s / 30)2 (1  s / 900) 2 3 =1/τ3 = 900
4 =1/τ4 = 5060
( s  5.3)2 ( s  5060)2
G( s) 
( s  30)2 ( s  900)2
The final G(s) is given by;

( s  10130.6s  2.571e s  2.716e s  7.194e )

4 3 8 2 8 8

G( s) 
( s  1860s  9.189e s  5.022e s  7.29e )
4 3 2 2 7 8

Testing:

Then the phase graph is plotted and checked with the experimental data.
6.6 Performance Specifications in the frequency domain
Qns.
– How does the frequency response of a system relate to the
expected transient response of the system?
– Given a set of time-domain (transient performance)
specifications, how do we specify the frequency response?
• Taking a simple second-order system as an example, the above
questions could be answered by considering the time–domain
performance in terms of overshoot, settling time and other.

• From the block diagram, the closed-loop TF is:

n2
T ( s)  2
s  2n s  n2 61
• The frequency response of this system was given as:

Bandwidth

As shown, the damping ratio of the system is related to the

maximum magnitude or value of the frequency response, Mpω,
which occurs at the resonance (critical) frequency, ωr .
Cutoff frequency is the frequency, ωB , at which the frequency
response has declined -3dB from its low-frequency value.
Bandwidth is the frequency range 0<ω<ωB in which the
magnitude of the closed loop doesn’t drop -3dB. 62
• The overshoot to a step input can be related to Mpω through the
damping ratio ς.
• The following relate the resonance magnitude and frequency to
the damping ratio of the 2nd-order system.

Resonance frequency:
r  n 1  2 2 ,   0.707
Maximum magnitude:

 
1
M p  G (r )  2 1   2
,   0.707

Fig: The maximum of the frequency response

Mpω and the resonance frequency ωr versus
ς for a pair of complex conjugate poles.
Chapter 6
63
• Step response overshoot could be read from the following graph or
could be utilized using the equation shown below as function of
damping ratio.

 / 1 2
or M p %  100e

• The above shows that as the resonance peak Mpω increases in

magnitude, the overshoot to a step input increases. 64
• Also, the bandwidth of a system ωB can be approximately
related to the natural frequency of the system.

Fig: Normalized bandwidth ωB /ωn versus ς for a second order system

65
• The resonance frequency, ωr ,and the -3dB cutoff frequency, ωB ,
can be related to the speed of the transient response.

– As the cutoff frequency or bandwidth increases, the rise time

of the step response of the system will decrease.

• The greater the magnitude of ωB when ς is constant, the more

rapidly the response approaches the desired steady-state value.

• Thus the desirable frequency-domain specifications are:

1. Relatively small resonant magnitudes : Mpω < 1.5

2. Relatively large bandwidths so that the system time

constant τ=1/ ς ωn is sufficiently small.
66
 Relative Stability
 Phase crossover frequency (ωp) is the frequency at which
the phase angle of the open-loop transfer function equals –
180°.
 The gain crossover frequency (ωg) is the frequency at which
the magnitude of the open loop transfer function, is unity.
 The gain margin (Kg) is the reciprocal of the magnitude of
G(jω) at the phase cross over frequency.

 The phase margin (γ) is that amount of additional phase lag

at the gain crossover frequency required to bring the system
to the verge of instability.
 Relative stability

Open loop transfer function : G( s) H ( s)

Closed-loop transfer function : 1  G( s ) H ( s )

Open loop Stability  poles ofG( s) H ( s) in LHP

Im
Closed-loop Stability 
poles of G( s) H ( sin
) left side of (-1,0)
RHP

Re
(1,0) (0,0)

68
 Relative Stability
The gain margin is the distance on the bode magnitude plot from the amplitude at
the phase crossover frequency up to the 0 dB point. GM=-(dB of GH measured at
the phase crossover frequency)
The phase margin is the distance from -180 up to the phase at the gain crossover
frequency. PM=180+phase of GH measured at the gain cross-over frequency
 Gain cross-over point

Phase cross-over point

ωg ωp
12/22/2017 70
 Unstable

Stable Gain Margin

Stable
Phase Margin

Unstable

12/22/2017
ω g ωp 71
 Example#9
• Obtain the phase and gain margins of the system shown in following
figure for the two cases where K=10 and K=100.