INSTITUTION FOURAH BAY COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT CIVIL ENGINEERING / MINING UNIT

MODULE TITLE PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING

MODULE CODE CENG 312

MODULE LECTURER Ing. M. BAH
Phone: +232 78 280706;
CONTACTS
Emails : [email protected]
LECTURE HOURS - LAB/PRACTICALS-CREDIT HOURS 3-0-3
Examination will account for 70% of the overall grade whilst
continuous assessment will account for 30%. Question sets at
ASSESSMENT the end of each lecture must be returned for grading one week
after receipt of lectures and will account for 10% of the
continuous assessment grade.
Measurement of Horizontal Angles and Directions:-
Included angles, deflection angles, reference directions, whole
TOPICS
circle bearing, reduction of field angles to whole circle bearings.

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 Traverse Surveys:-
Open and closed traverses, computation and adjustment of
latitudes and the departures, computation of co-ordinates.
Lengths and bearings from latitudes and departure or
coordinates. Sources of error in traversing.
i. SURVEYING Theory and Practice 7th Edition by James
Anderson and Edward Mikhail
ii. Engineering Surveying 4th Edition by W. Schofield
iii. Introductory Surveying by Roy Wirshing (Author), James
SUGGESTED READING/REFERENCE/MANUALS/WEBSITES Wirshing
iv. Fundamentals of Surveying Hardcover by Milton O.
Schmidt / Wong, Kam W. Wong
v. Surveying by A. Bannister & Raymond.

LECTURE NUMBER II
LECTURE DURATION (HOURS) 02
After completing this lesson, the student will be able to:
➢ Learn what control surveys are and why these are an
essential part of surveying
➢ Understand rectangular and polar co-ordinates and
SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES AND LEARNING OUTCOME
how to transform between the two
➢ Learn how to carry out a Traverse Survey

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2.0 TRAVERSE SURVEYING

2.1 Control Surveys

All measurements taken for engineering surveys are based on a network of horizontal and vertical reference points called control points.
These networks are used on site in the preparation of maps and plans, they are required for dimensional control (setting out) and are
essential in deformation monitoring.
Because all surveying needs control points at the start of any engineering or construction project a control survey must be carried out in
which the positions of the control points are established.
The positions of horizontal control are usually specified in rectangular (x and y) coordinates.
2.2.1 Rectangular co-ordinates
Any point P, has the coordinates known as easting Ep and northing Np quoted in the order Ep, Np.

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Calculation of rectangular co-ordinates
On a coordinate grid, the direction of a line between two points is known as its Bearing. The whole circle bearing of a line is measured in a
clockwise direction in the range 0 to 360°.

The following figure shows the plan of two points A and B on a rectangular grid. If the coordinates of A(EA , NA) are known, the coordinates
of B (EB , NB) are obtained as follows:

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Where:
ΔEAB = the eastings difference from A to B
ΔNAB = the northings difference from A to B
DAB = the horizontal distance from A to B
θAB = the whole circle bearing from A to B
Example: The coordinates of point A are 311.617mE, 447.245mN. Calculate the coordinates of point B, where DAB = 57.916M and θAB =
37°11’20’’ and point C where DAC = 85.071m and θAC = 205°33’55’’

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2.2.2 Polar co-ordinates
Another coordinate system used in surveying is the polar coordinate system. Here a point B is located with reference to point A by a polar
coordinates D and θ.

D is the horizontal distance from A to B and θ is the whole circle bearing of the line A to B. For the reverse of the previous example where
the coordinates are known for both points it is possible to compute the whole circle bearing and horizontal distance of the line between
the two points. This is known as rectangular to polar coordinate conversion.

Example: The coordinates of A and B are EA = 469.721m, NA = 338.466m and EB = 501.035m, NB = 310.617m. Calculate the horizontal
distance DAB and the whole circle bearing θAB.

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To calculate θAB a sketch of the line AB must be made in order to identify which quadrant the angle is in (as different equations apply for
each quadrant):

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2.3 Traversing
A traverse is a means of providing horizontal control in which the rectangular coordinates of a series of control points located on a site are
determined from a combination of angle and distance measurements.

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Each point on a traverse is called a traverse station and these must first be located well and marked with ground markers before surveying
commences:

2.3.1 Procedure for Traversing

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When angle ABC is measured:
At A a tripod target is set up centred and levelled, at B a theodolite or total station is set up, levelled and centred as normal. At C another
tripod target is set up as for A. This enables the horizontal angle at B to be recorded and if a total station is being used the distances BA
and BC can be measured.

When the angle BCD is measured:

At A the tripod target are moved to D, where the target is centred and levelled as before. At B the total station or theodolite is unclamped
and interchanged with the target at C (the tripods can remain in the same place and there is no need to recentre them). The horizontal
angle at C can now be measured along with the distances CB and CD. The distance CB will provide a check for error in the previous BC
measurement.

When the angle CDE is measured:

At B the tripod and target are moved to E. The theodolite or total station at C is interchanged with the target at D.

The process is repeated for the whole traverse, if 4 or more tripods are used this speeds up the process.

2.3.2 Traverse Calculations

Traverse calculations involve the calculation of:
1) whole circle bearings
2) the coordinate differences and
3) the coordinates of each control point.

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To illustrate these calculations we will use the traverse ABCEDFA below throughout:

Errors and Misclosure

The first part of a traverse calculation is to check that the observed angles sum to their required value.
Sum of internal angles = (2n - 4) x 90˚
Sum of External angles = (2n + 4) x 90˚, n is the number of angle measured.
If on summing these values a misclosure is found, it is divided equally between the station points if it is acceptable. Acceptability of

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misclosure E for traversing is given by:

E = KS√n
Where K is a multiplication factor from 1 to 3 depending on weather conditions. S is the smallest reading interval on the theodolite (e.g.

20’’, 5’’ or 1’’) and n is the number of angle measured.

Taking our traverse ABCDEFA, the misclosure is calculated and redistributed as follows:

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2.4 Calculation of Whole Circle Bearings
To calculate the coordinates of a control point the WCB must be known as we saw earlier. This is done according to the following formulae:

Forward bearing YZ = Back bearing YX + (for the above example)

In general,
Forward bearing = back bearing + left hand angle (or Internal angle)
A forward bearing is a bearing in the direction of the traverse e.g. XY and YZ, a back bearing is a bearing in the opposite direction to the

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traverse e.g. YX and ZY.
Forward and back bearing differ by ±180°.
The left hand angle is the angle between the bearing lines at a control station that lies to the left of the station relative to the direction of
the traverse, i.e. the internal angle for anticlockwise traverses and the external angle for clockwise traverses.

Example: WCB at station A of the ABCDEFA traverse

The calculation of WCBs must start with a known bearing or an assumed arbitrary bearing. Here the first bearing AF is known to be 70°00’

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00’’. Because the internal angles have been measured the traverse is calculated in an anticlockwise direction and AF is a back bearing.

Forward bearing AB = back bearing AF + adjusted left hand angle at A = 70°00’ 00’’ + 115°11’ 10’’ = 185°11’ 10’’ (WCB at A)

Example : WCB at station B of the ABCDEFA traverse

Forward bearing BC = back bearing BA + adjusted left hand angle at B

To convert the forward bearing AB into a back bearing BA we add or subtract 180°.
Back bearing BA = 185°11’ 10’’ ±180° = 05°11’ 10’’
Forward bearing BX = 05°11’ 10’’ + 95° 00’ 00’’ = 100°11’ 10’’ (WCB at B)
The WCBs of all other stations are carried out in a similar manner. To finalise this section of the calculations the final forward FA bearing

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must equal the first back bearing AF (250°is equivalent to 70°in this case as shown in the table 1 below).
See Table 1

2.5 Calculation of Coordinate Differences

The next stage of the traverse calculation is to determine the coordinate differences of the traverse lines ΔE, ΔN.

Example: Traverse ABCDEFA, line AB + BC

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Error Check!
In order to assess the accuracy of the traverse ∑ 𝛥E (should) = 0 and ∑ 𝛥N (should) = 0, since the traverse starts and finishes in the same

place. The errors in this summation eE and eN are:

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2.5.1 Coordinate Differences : Bowditch Adjustment Method
Following calculation of ΔE, ΔN and the misclosure errors eE and eN an adjustment of those errors δE, δN must be made. This method is
most suitable for traverses carried out using steel tapes.
Adjustment to ΔE (or ΔN) for a traverse line = δE (or δN) = - eE (or -eN) x length of traverse line / total length of traverse

2.5.2 Coordinate Differences : Equal Adjustment Method

This adjustment method is most suited for traverses carried out with total stations

2.6 Calculation of Coordinates

Recalling from earlier that the coordinates of a point are calculated as follows for points B and C:
EA, NA were given as 350.000mE, 500.000mN
EB = EA ± ΔEAB = 350 – 7.768 = 342.232mE
NB = NA ± ΔNAB = 500 – 85.517 = 414.483mN

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This process is repeated until point A is rechecked as shown on the next slide:
See Table 2
Further Examples
Below the angles and distances for traverse A1234A are shown. The coordinates of A are 642.515mE , 483.980mN. the traverse is oriented
to existing control point B (548.005mE, 594.279mN). Calculate the coordinates of stations 1-4.

See Table 3

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Table 1

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Table 2

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Table 3

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. a) With the aid of a sketch, explain the basic procedure for traverse surveying.
b) The measured internal angle of a looped traverse ABCDEA are:-
A = 51˚37’40’’
B = 192˚08’55’’
C = 101˚51’55’’
D = 87˚29’35’’
E = 106˚53’35’’
The lengths of the sides are measured in meters as:-
AB = 88.355m, BC = 65.205m, CD = 76.405m, DE = 112.960m and EA = 125.400m
Using an equal shift angular adjustment and the Bowditch Adjustment Method, calculate the coordinates of the points B, C, D and E
if the coordinates of A are: 50.235m, 75.170m and the bearing of the line AB is 56˚56’40’’.
2. In the looped traverse ABCDEA station D could not be occupied, but was observed from C and E. the internal angles were:
➢ at A: 95º18’
➢ at B: 105º45’
➢ at C: 86º09’
➢ and at E: 120º54’.

The lengths (m) were AB = 86.61, BC = 79.48, and EA = 52.19. If the coordinates of A are 127.50mE, 146.25mN and the
bearing AB is 39’54’ calculate the coordinates of D.
3. a) A traverse is carried out between two points A and B. If the coordinates of A (E A, NA) are known, determine with the
aid of sketches how the coordinates of B will be obtained using both the Rectangular Coordinates System and the Polar
Coordinates System.

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b) Below, the angles and distances for traverse are shown. The coordinates of A are 600mE, 750mN. All angles are
mean observed angles. Bearing of AF is 70˚00’00’’.

Determine:-
a) The whole circle bearings (WCB) of each line
b) The coordinate differences using the Bowditch Adjustment Method and
c) The coordinates of each control point.

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