Geosciences 11 00407 v2

geosciences
Article
The Suitability of the Pacific Islands for Harnessing Ocean
Thermal Energy and the Feasibility of OTEC Plants for Onshore
or Offshore Processing
Hyeon-Ju Kim 1, * , Ho-Saeng Lee 1 , Seung-Taek Lim 1 and Michael Petterson 2
1 Seawater Energy Plant Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Ships & Ocean Engineering,
Daejeon 34103, Korea; [email protected] (H.-S.L.); [email protected] (S.-T.L.)
2 School of Science, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 1010, New Zealand;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +82-33-630-5010
Abstract: Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) relies on the thermal differences between
ocean surface waters and cooler waters at c. 1000 m depth. The highest and most reliable thermal
differentials are in the low latitudes, 20◦ either side of the equator, including the Pacific Islands
region. Whilst in theory OTEC can utilize an inexhaustible amount of stored energy within the
oceans, in practice the industry remains in its technical infancy, but with an increasing relevance
to a post-fossil-fuel, environmentally conscious world. OTEC does not only produce electricity.
OTEC-seawater utilization technologies produce high demand ocean minerals, desalination, a range
of waters for aquaculture and hydroponics, and have the potential to produce large quantities of

green hydrogen. OTEC is a green energy and could revolutionize the energy and economic landscape
Citation: Kim, H.-J.; Lee, H.-S.; Lim,
of Pacific island countries, providing reliable low-C electricity and a basis for a range of industry.
S.-T.; Petterson, M. The Suitability of
This paper analyses the economics of using OTEC in combination with existing and potential future
the Pacific Islands for Harnessing
industries of importance to the Pacific (and other oceanic) regions, including tuna fisheries, seabed
Ocean Thermal Energy and the
minerals and green hydrogen. The conclusions of these analyses suggest that OTEC has the potential
Feasibility of OTEC Plants for
Onshore or Offshore Processing.
to minimize carbon emissions, increase efficiencies, and create new high-quality green-technology
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407. https:// industries and livelihoods.
doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11100407
Keywords: ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC); seawater utilization technologies; green energy;
Academic Editors: Valerie Livina and green hydrogen; green economies
Jesus Martinez-Frias
Received: 18 July 2021

Accepted: 21 August 2021 1. Introduction
Published: 27 September 2021
Fossil fuels have been the mainstay of energy requirements for most of the global
community from the earliest to the most recent industrial revolutions. However, the
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
release of carbon, and other greenhouse gases, in significant abundance, has caused
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
global environmental changes that require urgent solutions. Climate change caused by
published maps and institutional affil-
anthropogenically-induced global warming requires the establishment of efficient and
iations.
effective counter-measures. Response and adaptation to climate change is being sought
through the more efficient use of existing energy resources, the supply of new and re-
newable energy resources, and the reduction and absorption of carbon dioxide and other
Greenhouse Gas Emissions [1].
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Some of the Pacific Island Countries and Territories, particularly low-lying atolls,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
act as ‘early warning systems’ for environmental change impacts, such as sea level rise,
This article is an open access article
variable and less predictable rainfall patterns, and higher average land temperatures.
distributed under the terms and
Countries such as Kiribati and Tuvalu, which are low-lying atoll nations, have produced
conditions of the Creative Commons
an infinitesimal share of global greenhouse production, and yet may face the most adverse
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
consequences of climate change, even perhaps the loss of their countries to sea-level rise [2].
4.0/).
The aspirations of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [3] for food
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11100407 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences

Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 2 of 21
<SDG#2>, water <SDG#6>, and energy <SDG#7> is an existential goal for the survival and
development of the Pacific Islands, as well as the public prosperity of mankind [4].
Within the global tropical belts, situated between 20 degrees latitudes, north and south
of the equator, warm sea-surface water temperatures (20–30 ◦ C) are present throughout the
year, whilst the deeper ocean waters (at depths =/> 1000 m) are at a constant temperature of
c. 5 ◦ C. This thermal gradient between surface and deeper seawaters provides the physical
background for ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC). An engineering principle, termed
Rankine cycle power generation, can use the thermal gradient to generate power. Whilst at
the moment OTEC is not a large-scale commercial reality, a number of organizations are
developing small-scale OTEC plants, both land and sea-based, with the vision that, one day,
the plants will become large enough to attract commercial interest. Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion (OTEC) power generation has been evaluated as being particularly appropriate
to the equatorial Pacific Island countries, due to the excellent temperature conditions, and
the existence of small island developing states with more limited energy options compared
to large contiguous continental settings. OTEC can continuously generate electricity, day
and night, all year round [5].
OTEC plants are flexible systems that can provide a lot of outputs, beyond only
electricity. For example, OTEC plants can provide regional cooling and heating systems, de-
salinate seawater, extract seawater minerals, assist with aquaculture through the provision
of waters at variable temperatures, and hydroponic cultivation using discharged water, as
well as generating green-clean electricity responsible for country-base-load requirements.
The Pacific Islands region is also attractive globally to the fishing industry for tuna in
particular, and to the mining industry for the development of seabed mining industries [1].
Currently, tuna caught in the tropical belt fishing grounds are being transported directly to
the large Asian and European/North American markets, or overseas processing plants.
Whilst Pacific Island states will explore all options available for economic development,
we argue that the provision of electricity from OTEC plants, alongside seawater-utilisation
technologies, such as seawater-minerals for the cosmetics industry, and aquaculture, offer
other opportunities for the diversification of livelihoods. The realisation of OTEC technolo-
gies could significantly improve livelihoods and the economy, whilst minimizing carbon
footprints [2].
This paper introduces the Research and Development status from the principle of
OTEC, and examines the social acceptance of power generation cost based upon the current
status of local electricity supply and rates. Scenarios where OTEC can assist with industries
such as seabed deep-sea minerals, aquatic product manufacture, and the provision of
freshwater from desalination is reviewed.
2. Principles and Types of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) generates power through closed cycle
(CC-OTEC) and open cycle (OC-OTEC) processes (Figure 1 [6]). CC-OTEC, also called
Anderson OTEC, evaporates low-temperature boiling working fluids (organic refrigerants)
such as ammonia and the synthesized compound R32 (difluroromethylene), into warm
surface water within a closed circulatory system. Fluid-steam flow turns the turbine,
and generates power, with the working fluid vapor passing through the turbine being
condensed by the colder deep seawater, and circulated via a pump. OC-OTEC, also called
Claude OTEC, uses surface seawater as both a heat source, and a working fluid [7]. Surface
seawater evaporates under reduced pressure, and then rotates a low-pressure steam turbine
to generate electric power. Water vapor is liquefied to obtain fresh water. Another hybrid
system (HC-OTEC), which uses aspects of CC and OC-OTEC to simultaneously conduct
closed-circulation power generation and open-circulation desalination. For the production
of green hydrogen using marine renewable power, a seawater electrolyzer or a water
electrolyzer can be used. As the seawater electrolyzer linked with CC-OTEC cycle is in
the basic stage, the HC-OTEC cycle that can produce fresh water as well as electricity will
be more promising to apply the water electrolyzer. Research to improve the efficiency of
Geosciences 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 21
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 3 of 21
OTEC cycle is in the basic stage, the HC-OTEC cycle that can produce fresh water as well
as electricity will be more promising to apply the water electrolyzer. Research to improve
each cycle is being conducted in various countries around the world, and systems and core
the efficiency of each cycle is being conducted in various countries around the world, and
parts and devices for realizing this are being developed [7,8].
systems and core parts and devices for realizing this are being developed [7,8].
Figure 1. OTEC systems: closed cycle (a); and open cycle (b) [6] (Reprinted with permission from
Figure 1. OTEC systems: closed cycle (left); and open cycle (right) [6] (Reprinted with permission
National
from Energy
National Laboratory
Energy of Hawaii
Laboratory Authority).
of Hawaii Authority).
The degree and duration of the temperature difference is an important influencing

The degree and duration of the temperature difference is an important influencing
factor for the performance of OTEC. In low latitudes, it is possible to operate year-round
factor for the performance of OTEC. In low latitudes, it is possible to operate year-round
with higher efficiencies, whereas in mid-latitudes, it is possible to operate only in summer
with higher efficiencies, whereas in mid-latitudes, it is possible to operate only in summer
(late spring to early autumn) with variable to lower efficiencies.
(late spring to early autumn) with variable to lower efficiencies.
3. Distribution and Capacity of Ocean Thermal Energy
3. Distribution and Capacity of Ocean Thermal Energy
The minimum differential temperature between the surface and deeper ocean waters
The operate
that can minimum an differential
OTEC planttemperature
is 17–18 ◦ C. between
OTEC plants the surface
operate and deeper ocean
to maximum waters
efficiency
that
when can operate
located in an OTECthat
regions plant
can is sustain
17–18 °C. OTEC plants
a 17–18 ◦ C minimumoperatetemperature
to maximum efficiency
differential
when
for alllocated
or mostinofregions
the year.thatThe
canaverage
sustain atemperature
17–18 °C minimum temperature
of the upper part of differential
the ocean that for
all or most of the year. The average temperature ◦ of the upper
can be used as a seawater heat source is 12.6 C. The middle ocean depths are maintained part of the ocean that can be
used as a seawater heat source ◦
at a temperature of around 3.8 C, and the deepest ocean temperatures are around 1 Ca
is 12.6 °C. The middle ocean depths are maintained at◦
temperature
or less. Whilst of around
there is3.8 °C, and little
relatively the deepest
changeoceanin watertemperatures
temperatures are around 1 °C or less.
in the middle and
Whilst thereof
deep layers is relatively
the ocean little change the
throughout in water
year, temperatures
the upper layers in the
aremiddle
strongly and deep layers
influenced by
of the currents,
ocean ocean throughout the year,
solar insolation, andthe upper
energy layers
flows. are strongly
Average influenced
sea surface by ocean
temperatures cur-
can be
rents,
highersolar 28 ◦ C at theand
than insolation, energy
equator, and flows.
as low as 0 ◦ C sea
Average surface
in the polartemperatures
regions. In thecan be higher
mid-latitude
than
waters 28around
°C at the equator,
Korea, and as low at
sea-temperatures asdepths
0 °C in of the
200 polar
m or moreregions. In the mid-latitude
are constant throughout
waters around Korea, sea-temperatures at depths of 200 m
the year, but the upper layer fluctuates between 8 and 26 C due to seasonal changes◦ or more are constant through-[9].
out the year,
Therefore, but case
in the the upper layer fluctuates
of the Korean sea area, between 8 andthat
it is estimated 26 °Cthedue to seasonal
utilization changes
rate of OTEC
(theTherefore,
[9]. percentageinof thetime
casethroughout
of the Korean the sea
yeararea,
whereby OTEC is that
it is estimated technically possible)
the utilization will
rate of
reach about
OTEC 38%, basedofontime
(the percentage a temperature
throughoutdifference of 18 ◦ C or
the year whereby OTECmore. However, inpossible)
is technically tropical
and reach
will subtropical
about seas
38%,(between
based on 20 degrees south
a temperature latitude of
difference and 1820°Cdegrees
or more. north latitude,
However, in
Figure 2)and
tropical the subtropical
annual operation rate is judged
seas (between to be close
20 degrees southto latitude
100%. and 20 degrees north
The Figure
latitude, annual2)available
the annual capacity
operation of OTEC
rate isisjudged
estimatedto betoclose
be 80,000
to 100%.TWh [10], or more
than The
threeannual
times available
the current capacity of OTEC is estimated to be 80,000 TWh resources
global electricity demand (24,000 TWh). OTEC are
[10], or more
fully three
than renewable,
times and, in theory,
the current inexhaustible.
global electricityThey demandcan continuously
(24,000 TWh). produce
OTEC electricity
ocean re-
and do not
sources are require electricityand,
fully renewable, storage devices.
in theory, inexhaustible. They can continuously produce
As the
electricity andchange
do not ofrequire
convection due tostorage
electricity globaldevices.
warming has mutual influence with the
change of output of OTEC plant as long as the background of thermohaline circulation
(THC) is strong enough (e.g., 15.6 Sv at its present-day value), large OTEC flows will not
significantly disturb it [11]. In addition, conditions that can increase the output of OTEC
plant occur depending on various variables such as the temperature and change period of
global warming, and the intensity of the Atlantic THC [12].
Traditional OTEC technologies use the temperature difference between deep ocean
water and surface seawater (17–24 ◦ C) [13], and, if it is possible, can additionally utilize
other locally available heat resources (e.g., solar energy, geothermal energy, hot water
resources, incineration heat, etc.) where deep ocean water is available. OTEC technology
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 4 of 21
efficiencies can be significantly increased by the thermal addition of additional energies

Geosciences 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
(solar,geothermal etc.) as this increases the thermal gradient of the power plant 4 of 21
Geosciences 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of(to
21
◦ ◦
30–80 C, rather than the c. 18–25 C from ocean temperature differentials alone) [14].
Figure 2.
2. Distribution of
of annual average
average temperature difference
difference between 1000
1000 m deep
deep water and
and
Figure
Figure 2. Distribution
Distribution of annual
annual average temperature
temperature difference between
between 1000 m
m deep water
water and
surface water (Reprinted with permission from ref. [10].
surface water (Reprinted with permission from ref. [10]. Copyright Gerard Nihous, University of
[10]. Copyright
Copyright Gerard Nihous,
Nihous, University
University of
of
Hawaiʻi at Mānoa).
Hawai i at Mānoa).
Hawaiʻi Mānoa).
As the change
4. Technology of convection
Development due to global
and Industrial Trend warming
of OTEC has mutual influence with the
As the change of convection due to global warming has mutual influence with the
change
OTEC of output
is one of of OTEC
of OTEC
the marine plant as longtechnologies
as the background ofnot
thermohaline circulation
change of output plantenergyas long as the background that hasof been commercialized
thermohaline circulation
(THC)
in spite isofstrong
the enough
fact that it(e.g.,
has 15.6 aSv
had at its
long present-day
history (Figure value),
3). Juleslarge OTECmarine
Verne’s flows will not
science
(THC) is strong enough (e.g., 15.6 Sv at its present-day value), large OTEC flows will not
significantly
novel ‘20,000disturbdisturb
Leagues it [11]. In addition, conditions that can increase the output of OTEC
significantly it Under
[11]. Inthe Sea’ published
addition, conditions in that
1870,can brought
increase thetheexistence
output of of OTEC
ocean
plant occur
thermal depending
gradients to the onworld.
various In variables
1881, the such as the basis
theoretical temperature
for OTEC andwas change period
developed
plant occur depending on various variables such as the temperature and change period
of global
by warming,
D’Arsonval, with and the
thethe intensity
first electricity of the Atlantic THC [12].
generated
of global warming, and intensity of the Atlantic through
THC [12]. OTEC technologies, in 1930,
Traditional
by George Claude. OTEC technologiesparticularly
Hydrocarbons, use the temperature
cheap and difference
abundant between
oil supplies,deep ocean
Traditional OTEC technologies use the temperature difference between deep inhib-
ocean
water and surface seawater (17–24 °C) [13], and, if itpetroleum
is possible,oil can additionally utilize
water and surface seawater (17–24 °C) [13], and, if it is possible, can additionally which
ited further development of OTEC until the global crisis of 1973, utilize
other locallyfurther
encouraged available heat resources
research (e.g., solar in
and development energy, geothermal
the United energy,
Statesenergy,
and Japan. hot water
In 1978,re-
other locally available heat resources (e.g., solar energy, geothermal hot water re-
sources,
the incineration
U.S. succeeded heat,
in the etc.) where
operational deep ocean
realisation waterthrough
of OTEC is available. OTEC technology
its ‘Mini-OTEC’ project
sources, incineration heat, etc.) where deep ocean water is available. OTEC technology
efficiencies
(Figure 4a): can
a 50bekW significantly increased by
offshore closed-cycle OTECthe thermal
power addition
plant, based of additional
in Hawaii, energies
using
efficiencies can be significantly increased by the thermal addition of additional energies
(solar, geothermal
ammonia as a workingetc.) fluid
as this increases the thermal gradient of the power plant (to 30–80
[14].
(solar, geothermal etc.) as this increases the thermal gradient of the power plant (to 30–80
An additional
°C, rather than the c. 210 kW onshore
18–25 °C from open-cycle
ocean temperatureOTEC power generation
differentials alone) plant
[14].(Figure 4b)
°C, rather than the c. 18–25 °C from ocean temperature differentials alone) [14].
was developed in 1983, and tested for long-term operation. Japan conducted a number
4. Technology
of demonstration Development
experimentsand by the Industrial Trend of
Tokyo Electric OTEC(100 kW plant (Figure 4c), in
Power
4. Technology Development and Industrial Trend of OTEC
Nauru), and Kyushu Electric Power Companies
OTEC is one of the marine energy technologies that has not (50 kW plant), andbeen
Saga commercialized
University (75 kW in
OTEC
plant). India isinstalled
one of the a marine
1 MW energy
class technologies
offshore that has
closed-cycle OTEC not power
been commercialized
plant (Figure in
4d)
spite of the fact that it has had a long history (Figure 3). Jules Verne’s marine science novel
spite
using of the fact that it has hadOcean,
a long history (Figure 3). Jules Verne’sdue marine science novel
‘20,000ammonia,
Leagues in the
Under Indian
the Sea’ but the
published inplant
1870,ceased
brought operation
the existence toofthe breakage
ocean thermal of
‘20,000
agradientsLeagues
key connection Under the
part between Sea’ published
the plant in 1870,
barge and brought
riser the existence of ocean thermal
to the world. In 1881, the theoretical basis for(intake
OTECpipe) [15].
was developed by D’Ar-
gradients to the the
world. In 1881, theJapan,
theoretical basis for OTEC was developed by devel-
D’Ar-
sonval, with the first electricity generated through OTEC technologies,research
Since 2008, United States, and France have resumed in 1930,and by George
sonval,
opment with the first electricity generated through OTEC technologies, in 1930, by George
Claude. for seawater temperature
Hydrocarbons, particularly thermal
cheap gradient
and abundant OTEC oil generation,
supplies, and additionally,
inhibited further
Claude.
in 2011, Hydrocarbons,
Korea, developed particularly
a 100 W cheap
class and abundant
land-based oil supplies,
proto-type OTEC inhibited
plant further
(Figure 5a),
development of OTEC until the global petroleum oil crisis of 1973, which encouraged fur-
development
followed by aof20OTEC kW class untilpilot
the global
OTECpetroleum
plant (Figure oil crisis
5b) inof2012–2013
1973, which encouraged
[13], by the Korea fur-
ther research and development in the United States and Japan. In 1978, the U.S. succeeded
ther research
Research and development
Institute of Ships and Ocean in the United States(KRISO)
Engineering and Japan. with Inaffiliated
1978, theclean U.S. succeeded
ships and
in the operational realisation of OTEC through its ‘Mini-OTEC’ project (Figure 4a): a 50
in the operational
offshore realisation
plants developed from of 2011.
OTECThe through
hybridits ‘Mini-OTEC’
OTEC system toproject
produce (Figure
about4a):200 akW 50
kW offshore closed-circulation thermoelectric power plant, based in Hawaii, using am-
kW offshore closed-circulation thermoelectric power plant,
(Figure 5c) was fabricated and demonstrated in 2014, that used deep ocean water as a heat based in Hawaii, using am-
monia ◦as a working fluid [14].
monia
sink (5 as C)a and
working
wastefluid from a wood gasification generator as a heat source (75 ◦ C) [16].
heat[14].
An additional 210 kW onshore open-circulation thermoelectric power generation
BasedAn onadditional
this, in 2019, 210 kW kW
a 1000 onshore
class OTECopen-circulation
demonstration thermoelectric
plant (Figurepower 6) wasgeneration
produced,
plant (Figure 4b) was developed in 1983, and tested for long-term operation. Japan con-
plant
and a (Figure
performance 4b) was developed
evaluation field in test
1983,wasandsuccessfully
tested for long-term
conductedoperation.
in the south Japan con-
eastern
ducted a number of demonstration experiments by the Tokyo Electric Power (100 kW
ducted
sea, of thea number
East Seaof ofdemonstration
Korea, demonstrating experiments by the Tokyo
the production of 338 Electric
kW of Power (100with
electricity, kW
plant (Figure 4c), in Nauru), and Kyushu Electric Power Companies (50 kW plant), and
plant (Figure 4c), in Nauru), and Kyushu Electric Power Companies (50 kW plant), and
Saga University (75 kW plant). India installed a 1 MW class offshore closed-cycle OTEC
Saga University (75 kW plant). India installed a 1 MW class offshore closed-cycle OTEC
power plant (Figure 4d) using ammonia, in the Indian Ocean, but the plant ceased opera-
power plant (Figure 4d) using ammonia, in the Indian Ocean, but the plant ceased opera-
tion due to the breakage of a key connection part between the plant barge and riser (intake
tion due to the breakage of a key connection part between the plant barge and riser (intake
pipe) [15].
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 5 of 21
a relatively small temperature difference [17]. If this plant is installed and operated in
ocean latitudes with local temperature differences of 24 ◦ C or higher,
the equatorial it is
5 of 21
5 of 21
estimated that about 1000 kW will be produced.
Figure 3. History of OTEC and current status.
Figure 4. Examples of typical OTEC power plants before 2007 [14]. (a) Mini-OTEC (USA), (b) OC-
OTEC (USA), (c) Nauru OTEC (Japan), (d) NIOT OTEC (India).
Since 2008, the United States, Japan, and France have resumed research and devel-
opment for seawater temperature thermal gradient OTEC generation, and additionally,
in 2011, Korea, developed a 100 W class land-based proto-type OTEC plant (Figure 5a),
followed
Figure 3. by a 20of
3. History kW class pilot OTEC plant (Figure 5b) in 2012–2013 [13], by the Institute
Figure History of OTEC
OTECand andcurrent
currentstatus.
status.
Figure
of 3. History
Marine Scienceof OTEC and current status.
and Technology with affiliated ships and offshore plants developed
from 2011. The hybrid OTEC system to produce about 200 kW (Figure 5c) was fabricated
and demonstrated in 2014, that used deep ocean water as a heat sink (5 °C) and waste heat
from a wood gasification generator as a heat source (75 °C) [16]. Based on this, in 2019, a
1000 kW class OTEC demonstration plant (Figure 6) was produced, and a performance
evaluation field test was successfully conducted in the south eastern sea, of the East Sea
of Korea, demonstrating the production of 338 kW of electricity, with a relatively small
temperature difference [17]. If this plant is installed and operated in the equatorial ocean
Figure 4. Examples of typical OTEC power plants before 2007 [14]. (a) Mini-OTEC (USA), (b) OC-
latitudes
Figure4.
Figure with localofoftemperature
Examples
4. Examples typical OTECdifferences
typicalOTEC powerplants
power of
plants 24 °C
before
before or [14].
higher,
2007
2007 [14]. itMini-OTEC
(a)(a) is estimated
Mini-OTEC that
(USA),
(USA), about
(b)(b)
OC-OC-
OTEC (USA), (c) Nauru OTEC (Japan), (d) NIOT OTEC (India).
1000
OTEC
OTEC kW will(c)
(USA),
(USA), beNauru
(c) produced.
Nauru OTEC(Japan),
OTEC (Japan),(d)
(d)NIOT
NIOTOTEC
OTEC(India).
(India).
Since 2008, the United States, Japan, and France have resumed research and devel-
opmentSincefor2008, the United
seawater States, thermal
temperature Japan, and FranceOTEC
gradient have generation,
resumed research and devel-
and additionally,
opment
in 2011, for seawater
Korea, temperature
developed a 100 Wthermal gradient OTEC
class land-based proto-typegeneration,
OTEC plant and additionally,
(Figure 5a),
in 2011, Korea, developed a 100 W class land-based proto-type
followed by a 20 kW class pilot OTEC plant (Figure 5b) in 2012–2013 [13], by the OTEC plant (Figure 5a),
Institute
followed by a 20 kW class pilot OTEC plant (Figure 5b) in 2012–2013
of Marine Science and Technology with affiliated ships and offshore plants developed [13], by the Institute
of Marine
from 2011.Science
The hybridand OTEC
Technology
systemwith affiliated
to produce ships
about 200andkWoffshore
(Figure 5c) plants
was developed
fabricated
from 2011. The hybrid OTEC system to produce about 200
and demonstrated in 2014, that used deep ocean water as a heat sink (5 °C) and kW (Figure 5c) waswaste
fabricated
heat
and demonstrated in 2014, that used deep ocean water as a heat sink
from a wood gasification generator as a heat source (75 °C) [16]. Based on this, in 2019, (5 °C) and waste heat
a
from
1000 kW class OTEC demonstration plant (Figure 6) was produced, and a performancea
a wood gasification generator as a heat source (75 °C) [16]. Based on this, in 2019,
Figure
1000
FigurekW5.5.Research
evaluation class
Research
field and
OTECanddevelopment
test demonstration
development
was ofofOTEC
successfully plant
OTEC systems
(Figure
systems
conducted by
in 6)
by KRISO
thewas
KRISO
south[13,16]
produced,
[13,16](a)
eastern(a)100
100W
and
sea, WaOTEC
of performance
OTEC Mock-up,
the EastMock-up,
Sea
(b)
(b)20 kW
evaluation OTEC
20 kW OTEC
of Korea, pilot
field pilot
demonstratingplant,
test was (c) 200
(c) 200
the kW
plant,successfully HOTEC(ORC)
conducted
kW HOTEC(ORC)
production of 338 kW plant.
inplant.
the south eastern
of electricity, withsea, of the East
a relatively Sea
small
of Korea, demonstrating
temperature difference [17]. the Ifproduction
this plant is ofinstalled
338 kW and of electricity,
operated in withtheaequatorial
relatively ocean
small
The with
temperature
latitudes OTEC industry
difference
local can
[17].
temperature be differences
If thisthought
plant is of as24
both
installed
of °Candaorplant manufacturing,
operated
higher, in estimated
it is the equatorialand
that aabout
power
ocean
generation
latitudes withbusiness.
local
1000 kW will be produced. Plant
temperature manufacturing
differences is
of the
24 °C manufacturing
or higher, it is of systems,
estimated parts
that aboutand
devices,
1000 kW and consists
will be of turbines, generators, evaporators, condensers, refrigerant pumps,
produced.
seawater pumps, water intake pipes (risers), power control devices, and plant monitoring
and control devices. The seawater temperature difference power plant can be built onshore
or installed offshore. When installed within the ocean, a constant position should be main-
tained, so that the plant does not drift or fluctuate with the waves or ocean currents, and the
design of a platform, as well as an appropriate mooring/anchoring system is developed.
As an example of the OTEC platform, we introduced a Sevan-type platform (Figure 7) that
acquired AIP from BV [19]. It aims to manufacture platforms, systems, parts, and devices
with high performance, a long life, low cost, and at minimal environmental impact.
Figure 5. Research and development of OTEC systems by KRISO [13,16] (a) 100 W OTEC Mock-up,
(b) 20 kW
Figure OTEC pilot
5. Research andplant, (c) 200 kW
development HOTEC(ORC)
of OTEC plant.
systems by KRISO [13,16] (a) 100 W OTEC Mock-up,
(b) 20 kW OTEC pilot plant, (c) 200 kW HOTEC(ORC) plant.
Geosciences 2021,
Geosciences 11,11,407
2021, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21 6 of 21
Figure 6. 1 MW OTEC demonstration Power Plant Assembly ((a), Busan Port) and field experiment
((b), Pohang offshore) (KRISO [17,18]).
The OTEC industry can be thought of as both a plant manufacturing, and a power
generation business. Plant manufacturing is the manufacturing of systems, parts and de-
vices, and consists of turbines, generators, evaporators, condensers, refrigerant pumps,
and control devices. The seawater temperature difference power plant can be built on-
shore or installed offshore. When installed within the ocean, a constant position should
be maintained, so that the plant does not drift or fluctuate with the waves or ocean cur-
rents, and the design of a platform, as well as an appropriate mooring/anchoring system
is developed. As an example of the OTEC platform, we introduced a Sevan-type platform
(Figure
Figure 6. 7) thatOTEC
acquired AIP from BV [19]. It aims to((a),
manufacture
Port) platforms, systems,
Figure 6.11MW
MW OTEC demonstration
demonstrationPower Plant
Power Assembly
Plant Assembly Busan
((a), Busan and field
Port) andexperiment
field experiment
parts, and devices with high performance,
((b), Pohang offshore) (KRISO [17,18]). a long life, low cost, and at minimal environ-
((b), Pohang offshore) (KRISO [17,18]).
mental impact.
The OTEC industry can be thought of as both a plant manufacturing, and a power
generation business. Plant manufacturing is the manufacturing of systems, parts and de-
vices, and consists of turbines, generators, evaporators, condensers, refrigerant pumps,
and control devices. The seawater temperature difference power plant can be built on-
shore or installed offshore. When installed within the ocean, a constant position should
be maintained, so that the plant does not drift or fluctuate with the waves or ocean cur-
rents, and the design of a platform, as well as an appropriate mooring/anchoring system
is developed. As an example of the OTEC platform, we introduced a Sevan-type platform
(Figure 7) that acquired AIP from BV [19]. It aims to manufacture platforms, systems,
parts, and devices with high performance, a long life, low cost, and at minimal environ-
mental impact.
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Aerial
Aerialview
viewofofthe
thefloating type
floating 1 MW
type or 10
1 MW or MW OTEC
10 MW power
OTEC plantplant
power (KRISO, [19]). [19]).
(KRISO,
The current
The current status
statusof
ofOTEC-potential
OTEC-potentialfor forvarious
variouscountries around
countries thethe
around world, includ-
world, including
ing research and development, is being investigated and analysed, every three-months,
research and development, is being investigated and analysed, every three-months, under
under
the the commission
commission of IEA-OES
of IEA-OES [20,21].
[20,21]. Currently,planning,
Currently, planning, installation,
installation,andandoperation
operation of
OTEC are in progress at about 20 locations around the world (Figure 8). results
of OTEC are in progress at about 20 locations around the world (Figure 8). The of
The results of
on-line surveys of global OTEC status are summarized with respect to type, project stage,
generation capacity, heat exchange, working fluid requirements, and so forth (Figure 9).
generation capacity, heat exchange, working fluid requirements, and so forth7 (Figure
Geosciences 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 21 9).
OTEC Plants can be onshore or offshore, or combinations of both.
Figure 7. Aerial view of the floating type 1 MW or 10 MW OTEC power plant (KRISO, [19]).
The current status of OTEC-potential for various countries around the world, includ-
ing research and development, is being investigated and analysed, every three-months,
under the commission of IEA-OES [20,21]. Currently, planning, installation, and operation
of OTEC are in progress at about 20 locations around the world (Figure 8). The results of
generation capacity, heat exchange, working fluid requirements, and so forth (Figure 9).
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Promising
PromisingOTEC
OTECsite
siteand
andProject Progress
Project (KRISO
Progress [20],[20],
(KRISO IEA-OES [21]).[21]).
IEA-OES
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 7 of 21
Figure 8. Promising OTEC site and Project Progress (KRISO [20], IEA-OES [21]).
Figure 9. OTEC
Figure 9. OTEC technology technology
status surveystatus
resultsurvey result
(KRISO (KRISO
[20], [20], IEA-OES
IEA-OES [21]). [21]).
5. Economic Feasibility of OTEC and Applicability of Pacific Island Countries
5. Economic Feasibility of OTEC and Applicability of Pacific Island Countries
It is imperative that a robust economic case is designed for the development of OTEC at
It is imperative any
thatspecific
a robust
site, economic case ismarket.
within a particular designed for the development
An economic analysis requiresof OTEC of
consideration
the quality of resources and economies of scale, alongside
at any specific site, within a particular market. An economic analysis requires considera- market place supply and demand
tion of the quality ofconditions.
resourcesThe andIEA-OES
economies(2015 [22]) presented
of scale, the power
alongside generation
market placecost (LCOE)
supply of OTEC,
and
by comparing it with wave power generation, and tidal power generation (Table 1). The
demand conditions.power The IEA-OES (2015 [22]) presented the power generation cost (LCOE)
generation cost of a 10–20 MW class commercialization demonstration plant is
of OTEC, by comparing it with wave power generation,
estimated to reach US-cents 35~65/kWh, and tidal power
and US-cents generation
15~28/kWh (Table
for larger 100 MW
1). The power generation cost of a 10–20 MW
class commercialization class
plants. commercialization
Vega, demonstration
Oh, and others, estimate plant MW
that when 100–400
is estimated to reach class commercial
US-cents plants beginand
35~65/kWh, to beUS-cents
deployed, at around 2030,for
15~28/kWh andlarger
potential
100carbon
MWcredits
are taken into account ($2/t CO2 ), the power generation cost will decrease to US-cents
class commercialization plants. Vega, Oh, and others, estimate that when 100–400 MW
8–15/kWh [23,24]. Solar and wind power generation is expected to decrease to US-cents
class commercial plants beginaround
7–8/kWh to be 2020,
deployed, at power
but these around 2030,
types andelectricity
require potentialstorage,
carbon credits
which adds cost.
are taken into account ($2/t CO
Pacific 2), the
Island powertend
countries generation
to have highcost will decrease
electricity torelatively
rates, with US-cents 8- mar-
small
15/kWh [23,24]. Solar kets,
andandwind
volatile demand.
power According is
generation to expected
the current status of electricity
to decrease rates in the
to US-cents 7-Pacific
8/kWh around 2020,Islands (Tablepower
but these 2), it is types
estimated that the
require costs of modern
electricity day OTEC
storage, whichplants
addswill
costbe competi-
tive with respect to present day electricity prices for countries such as Tonga, Vanuatu, and
Solomon Islands. Improvements in OTEC plant efficiencies will make OTEC highly com-
petitive for many small islands developing states, including Pacific Island countries [25].
Therefore, the power generation cost of OTEC will not only be cheaper than the local
electricity rates, but also will realize energy welfare through stable supply. In addition,
since it is possible to reduce greenhouse gases, it is expected that it can be put into practical
use as an energy source for establishing a carbon-neutral eco-friendly clean foundation [2].
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 8 of 21
Table 1. Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) of marine energy estimated (IEA-OES) [22].
Wave Tidal OTEC

Deployment Stage Variable
Min Max Min Max Min Max
Project
1 3 0.3 10 0.1 5
First array/ Capacity (MW)
First project CAPEX ($/kW) 4000 18,100 5100 14,600 25,000 45,000
OPEX ($/kW, year) 140 1500 160 1160 800 1440
Project
1 10 0.5 28 10 20
Capacity (MW)
CAPEX ($/kW) 3600 15,300 4300 8700 15,000 30,000
Second array/ OPEX ($/kW, year) 100 500 150 530 480 950
Second project
Availability (%) 85% 98% 85% 98% 95% 95%
Capacity Factor (%) 30% 35% 35% 42% 97% 97%
LCOE($/MWh) 210 670 210 470 350 650
Project
2 75 3 90 100 100
Capacity (MW)
First CAPEX ($/kW) 2700 9100 3300 5600 7000 13,000
commercial-scale OPEX ($/kW, year) 70 380 90 400 340 620
project
Availability (%) 95% 98% 92% 98% 95% 95%
Capacity Factor (%) 35% 40% 35% 40% 97% 97%
LCOE ($/MWh) 120 470 130 280 150 280
Table 2. Current status of electricity prices and supply in Pacific island countries (IRENA) [25].
Renewable Percentile of
Electricity Population GDP per
Energy Renewable Energy
Rank Country Price (¢/kWh) Penetration (1000 Capita
Production Rate over Total Electricity
Rate (%) People) (USD)
(MWh) Production
1 Vanuatu 18~159 27 1328 2 246 3335
2 Solomon Islands 80~85 15 2365.3 3.1 552 1517
3 Cook Islands 44~65 99 592.8 2 24 10,875
4 Kiribati 33~58 90 19.4 0.1 100 1490
5 Tuvalu 31~58 92 200 2 10 1831
6 Niue 41~57 97 90 3 1.6 9618
7 Micronesia 37~56 65 3000 4.3 106 2852
8 Tonga 47 95 15.192 0.03 105 4168
9 Samoa 35~42 95 28.108 0.04 184 3532
10 Nauru 8~41 100 2.057 0.01 10 2071
11 Palau 28.2~40.5 99 67.44 0.1 21 8730
12 Marshall Islands 33~40 90 16.71 0.03 55 3169
13 Papua New Guinea 19.6~38.8 89.7 402,408 12 7059 1845
14 Fiji 9~17 90 66,593.8 9.1 868 4391
www.irena.org, http://www.fea.com.fj/your-home/electricity-tariffs-and-rates (accessed on 12 May 2015).
6. OTEC-Based Processing Plant and Applicability in Pacific Island Countries

The prescient risks posed by anthropogenically caused climate change are requiring
urgent actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The irony in the Pacific region is that
the very existence of countries that have produced a tiny proportion of global cumulative
greenhouse gases could be threatened by sea level rise (e.g., COP21). Assisting Pacific
Island Countries to develop greener economies is part of the global response to CO2
emission reductions, and helps the region develop future-looking economies [2,26]. Whilst
there are a variety of solutions (solar, wind, etc.) that are possible within the Pacific region,
OTEC offers the opportunity to access huge amounts of stored ocean energy, and develop
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 9 of 21
a range of future-looking seawater utilisation industries (aquaculture, seawater minerals,

drinking water, hydrogen-generation) that can generate high quality livelihoods [1].
Various useful mineral resources exist on the ocean floor (seabed minerals) (Figure 10, [27]).
These include polymetallic nodules, polymetallic or seafloor massive sulfides, and cobalt-
rich ferromanganese crusts. Manganese nodules (Figure 11, [27]) are gravel-potato-sized
mineral aggregations that contain manganese, nickel, copper, titanium, cobalt, and rare
earth elements. They are situated on the oceanic abyssal plains, at depths of 4000 to 6000 m.
There are a range of estimates of metal resources contained within manganese nodules:
around 1.7 trillion t of manganese nodules exist in the Pacific Ocean alone. Around 15% of
the world’s ocean floors contain manganese nodules, with an average of 15 kg/m2 [28].
It is estimated that the global mineable quantity of manganese nodules is around 500 bil-
lion t [29].
_
尸）、lI 寸
r ,. 、
r- ·\`
`0
已
`\
、
`,
卫
.\j,! ，人
Clarion Clipperton )
、，
j
i
Marshall
、
父
( \
.. Islands
-------
`.j. Federated States Zone
. Pal扣 of Micronesia ·
'··~、凸 .
' ',
,f- ^,r Kiribati Ki(ibati
勾 a七
又·`·
(i
i , .. 2c ·i-
`. ,5«{_ Nauru (Gilbert lss.) Kiribati (Line lss.)
\/
~\
宁
`、) , ,'`l
1
、
` .9
｀已
L`
New uinea (Phoenix lss.)

hr Tuvalu
«星
, Solomon
ifmor Leste 皇、～
亡
Islands
、
屿己
.,,I Samoa
~-~
{ . ~ Vanu~tu Fiji
~
Cook
,f Tonga Niue Islands
、
如
'
`、 `,
`,
I
、，
'\..J'\ ;/
Kj
心..
”,?.
豆
气
/'
.
－
r
六
Darker Blue Areas: EEZ

1000km
Pacific & Indian Ocean Manganese Nodu les
Figure 10. Map of Manganese Nodule Rich Regions in parts of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Pacific
Island State Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) shown in darker blue. Nodule rich fields are bounded
by brown lines. The Clarion Clipperton Zone contains the world most abundant Manganese
Geosciences 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10Nodule
of 21
Field [27]. Reproduced with permission, and with full acknowledgement, SPC (Pacific Community).
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Examples
Examplesofofmanganese
manganesenodule density
nodule on the
density on seabed. (A) Small
the seabed. (A) nodules of high of
Small nodules abun-
high
dance; (B) Large nodules of high abundance; (C) Small nodules of low abundance; (D) Bi-modal
abundance; (B) Large nodules of high abundance; (C) Small nodules of low abundance; (D) Bi-modal
nodules of high abundance [27]. Reproduced with permission, and with full acknowledgement, SPC
(Pacific Community).
It will be useful to consider the energy requirements of ocean floor mining operations
(Figure 12). The greener energy options will be particularly attractive. The operation of
deep-sea mines generates CO2 through: (1) the operation of ships used to transport ore to
the destination port; (2) transportation of personnel and goods through supply lines; and
(3) the generation of electricity (Figure 13). External costs associated with increased CO2
emissions from shipping and mining operations are based on estimates of total annual
fuel use (in tons). Fuel use includes the following activities: (1) submarine mining tools
and power supply of production support vessels; (2) barge activities; and; (3) crew boats.
Figure 11. Examples of manganese nodule density on the seabed. (A) Small nodules of high abun-
Figure 11. Examples of manganese nodule density on the seabed. (A) Small nodules of high abun-
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 10 of 21
the
thedestination
destinationport;
port;(2)
(2)transportation
transportationofofpersonnel
personneland
andgoods
goodsthrough
throughsupply
supplylines;
lines;and
and
the destination port; (2) transportation of personnel and goods through supply lines; and
(3) the generation of electricity (Figure 13). External costs associated with increased
(3) the generation of electricity (Figure 13). External costs associated with increased CO2 2 CO
(3) the generation of electricity (Figure 13). External costs associated with increased CO2
emissions
emissionsfromfromshipping
shippingand mining
and miningoperations areare
operations based on estimates
based of total
on estimates annual
of total fuel
annual
emissions
use (in from
tons). shipping
Fuel use and mining
includes the operations
following are based
activities: (1) on estimates
submarine of total
mining annual
tools and
fuel use (in tons). Fuel use includes the following activities: (1) submarine mining tools
fuel
power usesupply
(in tons). Fuel use includes
of production support the following
vessels; activities:
(2) barge (1) and
activities; submarine
(3) crew mining tools
and power supply of production support vessels; (2) barge activities; and; (3)boats.
crew boats.
and power supply of production support vessels; (2) barge activities; and; (3) crew boats.
Figure12.
Figure 12.Typical
Typicaldeep-sea
deep-seaminerals
mineralsmining
miningvalue
valuechain
chain[30].
[30].Reprinted
Reprintedwith
withpermission
permissionfrom
fromSPC
Figure 12. Typical deep-sea minerals mining value chain [30]. Reprinted with permission from
SPC(Pacific
Community).
SPC(Pacific Community).
Figure 13. Potential range of mining activities for deep sea mining activities [30]. Reprinted with
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Potential
Potential range
rangeof
ofmining
miningactivities
activitiesfor
fordeep
deepsea
seamining
miningactivities [30].
activities Reprinted
[30]. with
Reprinted with
permission from SPC(Pacific Community).
permission
permission from
from SPC(Pacific
SPC (PacificCommunity).
Community).
The feasibility of manganese nodules mining within the Pacific Ocean has been re-
viewed by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (Cardno, 2016 [30]). The Penrhyn
Basin, Cook Islands, is an example of a Pacific region containing high concentrations of
nodules, and an abundant resource of nodules (Hein et al., 2015 [31]). There is a high
nodular abundance (>25 kg/m2 ) and area of 124,000 km2 , and an estimate mineral resource
of 3.6 billion t (Hein et al., 2015 [31]). The generally accepted economic nodule density
cut-off grade for commercial mining, is around 5 kg/m2 , with the nodule density range
within the Cook Islands Exclusive Economic Zone ranging from 5 kg/m2 to over 50 kg/m2
(Cronan, 2013 [32]).
Mining operations are varied and complex, from exploration, to extraction, to refining
and final metal production (Figures 14–16).
Manganese nodule processing, mineral beneficiation, and smelting plants required
for manganese nodules would treat 2.5 million t of manganese nodules per year [30]. If it
is installed on land, a high pressure/high temperature acid leaching facility covering an
area of about 180 acres will be required. Refining plants would include processing and
support facilities, as well as long-term waste containment areas, with possible separate
processing buildings for copper and nickel end-product development, nodule grinding and
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 viewed by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (Cardno, 2016 [30]). The Penrhyn 11 Ba-
of 21
viewed by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (Cardno, 2016 [30]). The Penrhyn Ba-
sin, Cook Islands, is an example of a Pacific region containing high concentrations of nod-
sin, Cook Islands, is an example of a Pacific region containing high concentrations of nod-
ules, and an abundant resource of nodules (Hein et al., 2015 [31]). There is a high nodular
ules, and an abundant2 resource of nodules (Hein et al., 2015 [31]). There is a high nodular
abundance (>25 kg/m2 ) and area of 124,000 km22, and an estimate mineral resource of 3.6
abundance
leaching, pH(>25 kg/m ) and area
adjustment of 124,000 km , and an estimate mineral resource of 3.6
billion t (Hein et al., 2015and neutralization,
[31]). The generallyand ammonia
accepted recovery
economic (Dames
nodule and cut-off
density Moore,
billion
1977 t (Hein
[34]). Thereetwould
al., 2015
be [31]).
a The generally accepted
boiler-house/power-house economic
and several nodule
coolingdensity
towers cut-off
located
grade for commercial mining, is around 5 kg/m22, with the nodule density range within the
grade fortocommercial
adjacent theExclusive
chemical mining,
processis around
areas, 5 kg/m , with the laboratories,
nodule density range within the
Cook Islands Economic Zonealongside
ranging fromoffices,
5 kg/m2 to over maintenance shops,
50 kg/m2 (Cronan,
Cook Islandsworker-cafeteria,
warehouses, Exclusive Economic and Zone
other ranging from 5 kg/m2 to over 50 kg/m2 (Cronan,
facilities.
2013 [32]).
2013The
[32]).
plants in total could occupy
Mining operations are varied andan area of 20–40
complex, acres (8.1~16.2
from exploration, ha), whileto
to extraction, anrefin-
addi-
tional Mining operations are varied and complex, from exploration, to extraction,
20 acres (8.1 ha) would be needed for raw ore storage, settling ponds for treating to refin-
ing and final metal production (Figures 14–16).
ing and finaland
wastewater, metal production
storage (Figures
for various 14–16).
other inputs that feed into the process [34].
In addition to raw nodules and waste, about 5500 t of fuel and process materials
would enter the facility, and about 240 t of waste products would be emitted per day [34].
Figure 14. Example

Figure ofofa Sea-floor
Exampleof Manganese
a Sea-floor Nodule
Manganese Mining
Nodule System
Mining (Credit:
System GRID-Arendal,
(Credit: GRID-Arendal,
Figure 14.
14. Example a Sea-floor Manganese Nodule Mining System (Credit: GRID-Arendal,
https://www.grida.no/resources/7352, accessed on 18 July 2021 [33]).
https://www.grida.no/resources/7352, accessed
https://www.grida.no/resources/7352, accessed onon
18 18 July
July 2021
2021 [33]).
[33]).
Figure 15. Deep Sea Mining Nodule Collector Unit (Cardno, 2013 [30]). Reprinted with permission
Figure 15.
15. Deep Sea
Sea Mining
Mining Nodule
Nodule Collector
CollectorUnit
Unit(Cardno,
(Cardno,2013
2013[30]).
[30]).Reprinted
Reprintedwith
withpermission
from SPC Deep
Figure (Pacific Community). permission
from SPC (Pacific Community).
from SPC (Pacific Community).
Mining and smelting 2.5 million t of manganese nodules per year requires 1.6 billion
gallons (6,056,658 m3 ) of water and 149 GWh of electricity per year [30]. Assuming that the
electricity demand for seawater desalination is 5 kWh per m3 , some 30.3 GWh of energy
will be required. The power demand could be met by installing an OTEC power plant with
a net output of 24 MW (total output 40 MW) or more, to supply 179.3 GWh annually to the
mineral refining plant, as well as all fresh water requirements from seawater desalination.
OTEC plants would prevent the emission of 82,370 t of CO2 per year. Hydrogen could also
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 12 of 21
be produced
Geosciences 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW by the OTEC plant: this fuel could be used to power ships and transportation
12 of 21
related to mining at sea.
Figure16.
Figure 16.Aerial
Aerialimage
imageofof
thethe Basamuk
Basamuk Refinery
Refinery in Papua
in Papua NewNew Guinea
Guinea (Cardno,
(Cardno, 2013 [30]).
2013 [30]). Re-
Reprinted
printed with permission from SPC(Pacific Community). https://miningdataonline.com/prop-
with permission from SPC (Pacific Community). https://miningdataonline.com/property/3323
erty/3323/Ramu-Mine (accessed on 30 May 2021).
/Ramu-Mine (accessed on 30 May 2021).
Manganese
The nodule fisheries
current marine processing, mineral
industry beneficiation,
within the Pacificand smelting
is an extensiveplants required
large-volume
for manganese nodules would treat 2.5 million t of manganese nodules
industry. The distribution of Pacific tuna fisheries is shown in Figures 17 and 18. per year [30]. If itis
This
is installed on land, a high pressure/high temperature acid leaching
also the region where OTEC plants can operate most efficiently and effectively. facility covering an
area of about 180 acres will be required. Refining plants would include processing and
support facilities, as well as long-term waste containment areas, with possible separate
processing buildings for copper and nickel end-product development, nodule grinding
and leaching, pH adjustment and neutralization, and ammonia recovery (Dames and
Moore, 1977 [34]). There would be a boiler-house/power-house and several cooling towers
located adjacent to the chemical process areas, alongside offices, laboratories, mainte-
nance shops, warehouses, worker-cafeteria, and other facilities.
The plants in total could occupy an area of 20–40 acres (8.1~16.2 ha), while an addi-
tional 20 acres (8.1 ha) would be needed for raw ore storage, settling ponds for treating
wastewater, and storage for various other inputs that feed into the process [34].
In addition to raw nodules and waste, about 5500 t of fuel and process materials
would enter the facility, and about 240 t of waste products would be emitted per day [34].
Mining and smelting 2.5 million t of manganese nodules per year requires 1.6 billion
gallons (6,056,658 m3) of water and 149 GWh of electricity per year [30]. Assuming that
the electricity demand for seawater desalination is 5 kWh per m3, some 30.3 GWh of en-
ergy will be required. The power demand could be met by installing an OTEC power plant
with a net output of 24 MW (total output 40 MW) or more, to supply 179.3 GWh annually
to the mineral refining plant, as well as all fresh water requirements from seawater desal-
ination. The
Figure OTEC plants would prevent the emission of 82,370 t of CO2 per year. Hydrogen
Figure17.
17. Thespatial
spatialdistribution
distributionofofthe
thelongline
longlinecatch
catchbybyTuna
Tunaspecies
speciesinin2015–2019
2015–2019ininthetheWCPO.
WCPO.
could
The also belargest
produced by the OTEC plant: this fuel could be used to power ships and
The size of the largest pie corresponds to the maximum value of 70,000 t (Hare et al., 2020[35]).
size of the pie corresponds to the maximum value of 70,000 t (Hare et al., 2020 [35]).
transportation
Reprinted with related tofrom
permission mining
SPC at sea. Community).
(Pacific
Reprinted with permission from SPC (Pacific Community).
The current maritime fisheries industry within the Pacific is an extensive large-vol-
ume industry. The distribution of Pacific tuna fisheries is shown in Figures 17 and 18. This
is also the region where OTEC plants can operate most efficiently and effectively.
Figure 17. The spatial distribution of the longline catch by Tuna species in 2015–2019 in the WCPO.
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 13 of 21
The size of the largest pie corresponds to the maximum value of 70,000 t (Hare et al., 2020 [35]).
Reprinted with permission from SPC (Pacific Community).
Figure
Figure18.
18.Spatial
Spatialdistribution
distributionofofthe
thepurse
purseseine
seinecatch
catchbybyTuna
Tunaspecies
speciesinin2015–2019
2015–2019ininthetheWCPO.
WCPO.
The the largest pie corresponds to the maximum value of 1,031,000 t (Hare et
The size of the largest pie corresponds to the maximum value of 1,031,000 t (Hare et al., 2020[35]).
size of al., 2020 [35]).
Reprinted
Reprintedwithwithpermission
permissionfrom
fromSPCSPC(Pacific
(PacificCommunity).
Community).
The
Thecaught
caught tuna
tuna isistransported
transporteddirectly
directly to the
to the market
market through
through a carrier,
a carrier, or trans-to
or transported
ported to a treatment facility, for processing and sale. Processing is rarely
a treatment facility, for processing and sale. Processing is rarely undertaken within the Pacific undertaken
within
regionthe Pacific
itself, for aregion
range ofitself, for aincluding
reasons range of reasons including
electricity capacity,electricity capacity,
water resource water
availability,
resource availability,
and distance and distancemarket.
from international from international market.
There is scope There is scope
for increasing for increasing
the number of fish
the number plants
processing of fishwithin
processing plants
the Pacific within
region. thecase
The Pacific region.
of fish The case
production of fish is
in Kiribati production
considered
inhere
Kiribati
fromistheconsidered
viewpointhere from assisting
of OTEC the viewpoint of OTEC
this area assisting
of economic this area of economic
development.
development.
Kiribati Fish Ltd. [36] was established in 2010 and completed in 2012. It is located at
Kiribati
Betio Fish Ltd.
Port, South Tarawa[36]Island.
was established in 2010
Fiji and China haveand completed
invested US $8in 2012. Itcontributing
million, is located atto
Betio Port, South Tarawa
the revitalization Island.
of the local Fiji andand
economy China have invested
job creation. US $8
The core million, of
businesses contributing
the Kiribati
toFisheries
the Company
revitalization ofare
thetuna
localfishing,
economy local fisheries,
and job fish
creation. processing,
The core and export
businesses of the14 of 21
packaging
Kir-
andFisheries
ibati transportCompany
(Figures 19 areand
tuna 20). This industry
fishing, has created
local fisheries, jobs for 200and
fish processing, people.
export pack-
aging and transport (Figures 19 and 20). This industry has created jobs for 200 people.
Figure19.
Figure 19. Unloading
Unloading of
of tuna
tunaat
atBetio
Betioport
port(Tarawa,
(Tarawa,Kiribati,
Kiribati,Photo:
Photo:H.J.
H.J.Kim).
Kim).
Figure 19. Unloading of tuna at Betio port (Tarawa, Kiribati, Photo: H.J. Kim).
Figure 20. Tuna processing work (Tarawa, Kiribati, Photo: H.J. Kim).
Figure20.
Figure 20.Tuna
Tunaprocessing
processingwork
work(Tarawa,
(Tarawa,Kiribati,
Kiribati,Photo:
Photo:H.J.
H.J.Kim).
Kim).
Electricity and fresh water are essential for processing tuna (Figure 20) and other fish
products. At the present time, diesel generators and seawater desalination systems are
installed for plant operation purposes. Fuel costs are an important consideration for busi-
ness such as this, as are carbon emissions, and water costs. The power generation cost of
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 14 of 21
Electricity and fresh water
Electricity waterare areessential
essentialfor forprocessing
processing tuna
tuna (Figure
(Figure 20)20) andandother fish
other
products.
fish products.At the present
At the time,
present diesel
time, generators
diesel generators andand seawater
seawater desalination
desalination systems
systems are
installed
are installedfor for
plant operation
plant operationpurposes.
purposes. FuelFuel
costscosts
are anareimportant
an importantconsideration
consideration for busi-
for
ness such
business as this,
such as are
as this, carbon
as are carbon emissions,
emissions, andandwater
water costs. The
costs. power
The power generation
generation cost
costof
diesel
of generators
diesel generators depends
depends on onthethefuelfuel
cost: these
cost: are relatively
these expensive
are relatively expensive in Kiribati, with
in Kiribati,
diesel generators depends on the fuel cost: these are relatively expensive in Kiribati, with
the resulting
with the resulting power power being
being supplied
supplied atatrates
ratesofof AU$0.55/kWh
AU$0.55/kWh for commercial and
for commercial and
the resulting for
AU$0.70/kwh power being use.
industrial supplied at rates of AU$0.55/kWh for commercialif and
AU$0.70/kwh use. Water
Water isisalsoalsoscarce,
scarce,and andexpensive
expensiveatatAU$2/KL,
AU$2/KL, ifthe the
AU$0.70/kwh
monthly for industrial use. Water is also scarce, and expensive at AU$2/KL, if the
monthlyusage usageisisless
lessthan
than2.52.5t,t,and
andAU$15.00/KL
AU$15.00/KL if it is more more than
than 10
10 tt [37].
[37].
monthly
The usage isFisheries
less than 2.5 t, and AU$15.00/KL if it is more than 10 t [37].
TheKiribati
Kiribati FisheriesCompany
Companyisisoperatingoperatingtwo two200 200kW
kWclass
classdiesel
dieselgenerators
generatorsand and
two The Kiribati Fisheries Company is operating two 200 kW class diesel generators and
two50 50t/day
t/dayreverse
reverseosmosis
osmosisseawater
seawater desalination
desalination systems,
systems,as shown
as shown in Figures
in Figures 21 and 22.
21 and
Ittwo
was 50not
t/day
easyreverse
to osmosis
estimate the seawater
unit cost desalination
of power systems,and
generation
22. It was not easy to estimate the unit cost of power generation and desalination, but
as shown in Figures
desalination, but 21 and
when
22. It
one 200was
kW200not easy to estimate
diesel the unitfor cost ofhour,
power generation andconsumed,
desalination, but
when one kW generator is operated
diesel generator is operated one for one59.5 L of
hour, diesel
59.5 L ofisdiesel so the
is consumed,
when
fuel one
cost 200 kW
is about diesel generator isdepreciation
operated forand onemaintenance
hour, 59.5 Lcosts,
of diesel is consumed,
so the fuel cost isAU$73.6. Including
about AU$73.6. Including depreciation and maintenance it iscosts,
estimated to
it is esti-
so
be the fuel
equivalent cost is about
to commercial AU$73.6. Including
electricity rates depreciation
(AU$0.55/kWh). and maintenance
To this end, if costs, it is esti-
mated to be equivalent to commercial electricity rates (AU$0.55/kWh). ToanthisOTECend,plant
if an
mated
with to be
a net equivalent
output to commercial electricity rateswere
(AU$0.55/kWh). Toannual
this end, if an
OTEC plant with aofnet 0.6output
MW (total
of 0.6 output
MW (total of 1output
MW) deployed,
of 1 MW) the
were deployed, thecarbon
annual
OTEC
emission plant with
reduction a net output
is estimated of 0.6 MW
to reach to (total
2294 output
t CO of 1
2 . t CO2.
MW) were deployed, the annual
carbon emission reduction is estimated reach 2294
carbon emission reduction is estimated to reach 2294 t CO2.
Figure 21.200
200 kWclass
class dieselgenerator
generator (KiribatiFish
Fish Ltd.(Tarawa,
(Tarawa, Kiribati),Photo:
Photo: H.J.Kim).
Kim).
Figure 21. 200 kW
Figure21. kW class diesel
diesel generator(Kiribati
(Kiribati FishLtd.
Ltd. (Tarawa,Kiribati),
Kiribati), Photo:H.J.
H.J. Kim).
Figure 22. 50 m3/day desalination system (Kiribati Fish Ltd. (Tarawa, Kiribati), Photo: H.J. Kim).
Figure22.
Figure 22. 50
50 m
m33/day
/day desalination
desalination system
system (Kiribati
(Kiribati Fish
Fish Ltd.
Ltd. (Tarawa,
(Tarawa, Kiribati),
Kiribati), Photo:
Photo: H.J.
H.J. Kim).
Kim).
In South Tarawa, Kiribati, the annual temperature of the sea surface water is c.
28~30 ◦ C, and the deep seawater at a depth of 1000 m is c. 5 ◦ C, which makes OTEC
plants located in South Tarawa particularly efficient and able to produce 24/7 year-round
power. Assuming that the annual operating cost is 5% of the production cost, based on
the production cost of the 1 MW OTEC plant, and experiences within Korea to date for
OTEC technologies, (Figure 23 [17,18]), the life cycle power generation cost (LCOE) is
estimated to be less than US$0.39/kWh (Table 3 [23]). Based on this, it is estimated that the
power generation cost of 10 MW and 100 MW commercial plants will decrease to less than
US$0.18/kWh and US$0.09/kWh respectively, with efficiency improvements and capacity
increase progress [38]. Therefore, within the oceans of equatorial island countries such
as Tarawa, it will be possible to establish a low-carbon, clean production base, through
power-generation and desalination, using an appropriately scaled OTEC plant.
Hydrogen generation from OTEC plants is increasingly becoming a realistic propo-
sition, with 100 MW plants generating (Figure 24 [39]), 10 MW (83,220 MWh/year) for
electricity, and 50 MW (416,100 MWh/year) used for desalination and hydrogen production.
Some 19 t of hydrogen could be produced per day (about 7000 t/year).
technologies, (Figure 23 [17,18]), the life cycle power generation cost (LCOE) is estimated
to be less than US$0.39//kWh (Table 3 [23]). Based on this, it is estimated that the power
generation cost of 10 MW and 100 MW commercial plants will decrease to less than
US$0.18/kWh and US$0.09/kWh respectively, with efficiency improvements and capacity
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 increase progress [38]. Therefore, within the oceans of equatorial island countries such
15 ofas21
Tarawa, it will be possible to establish a low-carbon, clean production base, through
power-generation and desalination, using an appropriately scaled OTEC plant.
Figure 23.
Figure 23. 11 MW
MW OTEC
OTEC demonstration
demonstration plant
plant (KRISO)
(KRISO) [17].
[17].
Table3.3.LCOE
Table LCOEof
of11 MW
MW OTEC
OTEC power
power generation
generation (KRISO)
(KRISO) [23].
[23].
LCOE
LCOEof
ofK-OTEC
K-OTEC (KRISO, 2018)
(KRISO, 2018)
Conditions
Conditions EvenEven price
price
BasisBasis $0.39/kWh
$0.39/kWh
CDM $20/t CO2 $0.38/kWh
Geosciences 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW Reduce CDM $20/t15%
initial cost: CO2 $0.38/kWh
$0.34/kWh 16 of 21
Reduce initial cost: 30%
Reduce initial cost: 15% $0.30/kWh
$0.34/kWh
Reduce initial cost: 30% $0.30/kWh
Hydrogen generation from OTEC plants is increasingly becoming a realistic propo-

sition, with 100 MW plants generating (Figure 24 [39]), 10 MW (83,220 MWh/year) for
electricity, and 50 MW (416,100 MWh/year) used for desalination and hydrogen produc-
tion. Some 19 t of hydrogen could be produced per day (about 7000 t/year).
Figure24.
Figure Conceptualdrawings
24.Conceptual drawings of
of hybrid
hybrid OTEC
OTEC plants
plantsfor
forpower
powergeneration-desalination-hydrogen
generation-desalination-hydro-
production (KRISO) [17].
gen production (KRISO) [17].
MakaiOcean
Makai OceanEngineering.
Engineering.Inc.
Inc.has
hasreviewed
estimatedthe
theproduction
productioncost
costofofOTEC
OTECpower
powerfor
for
hydrogen production and transporting it to a demand site, based on a range of scenarios.
hydrogen production and transporting it to a demand site, based on a range of scenarios.
For the case of using all of the electricity of an OTEC plant, capable of producing 25 to
For the case of using all of the electricity of an OTEC plant, capable of producing 25 to 200
200 t/day hydrogen, the supply cost, including transportation, was estimated at US$8 to
t/day hydrogen, the supply cost, including transportation, was estimated at US$8 to
US$3/kg H2 (Figure 25, [39]). This accounted for an interest rate on initial investment of
US$3/kgH2 (Figure 25, [39]). This accounted for an interest rate on initial investment of
10%. If a discounted c. 4% interest rate were applied, costs reduce to c. US$4.5–2/kg H2
10%. If a discounted c.4% interest rate were applied, costs reduce to c. US$4.5–2/kgH2 (Fig-
(Figure 26, [39]). Interest rates of 4–6%, on initial investment costs, could achieve a price
ure 26, [39]). Interest rates of 4–6%, on initial investment costs, could achieve a price for
for green hydrogen of $3/kg.
green hydrogen of $3/kg.
Therefore, if the current OTEC technologies become successful and further im-
proved, the generation of green hydrogen is a distinct technical and economic possibility
(Figure 27, [40]). A very large floating structure (VLFS) is required for processing of deep-
sea mineral resources and pelagic aquatic resources, and hydrogen production in the open
sea. VLFS can be fabricated by connecting multiple Octagonal Sevan platforms centering
on the OTEC platform, and basic studies were carried out through numerical analysis and
Therefore, if the current OTEC technologies become successful and further im-
proved, the generation of green hydrogen is a distinct technical and economic possibility
(Figure 27, [40]). A very large floating structure (VLFS) is required for processing of deep-
sea mineral resources and pelagic aquatic resources, and hydrogen production in the open
sea. VLFS can be fabricated by connecting multiple Octagonal Sevan platforms centering
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 16 of 21
on the OTEC platform, and basic studies were carried out through numerical analysis and
Ocean Engineering basin experiments in KRISO [41,42].

Figure 25.
Figure Hydrogen production
25. Hydrogen production costs
costs according
according to
to the
the size
size of
of OTEC-H2
OTEC-H2 plant
plant (Makai
(Makai Ocean
Ocean Eng.,
Eng.,
2000
2000 [39]).
[39]). Reprinted
Reprinted with
with permission
permission from
from Richard
Richard Argall,
Argall, Makai Ocean Engineering, Inc.
Figure26.
Figure Hydrogenproduction
26.Hydrogen productioncosts
costsaccording
according to
to size
size of
of OTEC-H2
OTEC-H2 plant
plant and
and interest
interest rate
rate (Makai
(Makai
OceanEng.,
Ocean Eng.,2000
2000[39]).
[39]).Reprinted
Reprinted with
with permission
permission fromfrom Richard
Richard Argall,
Argall, Makai
Makai OceanOcean Engineer-
Engineering,
Inc.
ing, Inc.
Therefore, if the current OTEC technologies become successful and further improved, the
generation of green hydrogen is a distinct technical and economic possibility (Figure 27, [40]).
A very large floating structure (VLFS) is required for processing of deep-sea mineral
resources and pelagic aquatic resources, and hydrogen production in the open sea. VLFS
can be fabricated by connecting multiple Octagonal Sevan platforms centering on the
OTEC platform, and basic studies were carried out through numerical analysis and Ocean
Engineering basin experiments in KRISO [41,42].
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 Figure 26. Hydrogen production costs according to size of OTEC-H2 plant and interest rate17 of 21
(Makai
Ocean Eng., 2000 [39]). Reprinted with permission from Richard Argall, Makai Ocean Engineering,
Inc.
Figure27.
Figure 27.Conceptual
Conceptualdrawing
drawingofofsustainable
sustainableand
andself-sufficient
self-sufficientoceanic
oceanicbase
baseof
ofvery
verylarge
largefloating
floating
structure for OTEC-H2 system (KRISO, [41,42]).
structure for OTEC-H2 system (KRISO, [41,42]).
7.7. Direction
Directionof
ofUse
Useof
ofOTEC
OTECto
toStrengthen
StrengthenRegional
RegionalResilience
Resilience
Theclimate
The climatecrisis
crisisfacing
facingPacific
Pacificisland
island nations
nations notnot only
only relates
relates to the
to the possible
possible shrink-
shrinking
of island
ing boundaries
of island with sea
boundaries withlevel
searise
levelbut, also
rise relates
but, to a number
also relates of aspects
to a number of of life quality
aspects of life
and livelihoods.
quality These may
and livelihoods. relate
These may torelate
the shortage and costand
to the shortage of energy
cost ofsupply,
energy impacts on
supply, im-
food
pactsandon water security,
food and waterand ecosystem
security, degradation,
and ecosystem as well as increasing
degradation, risks related
as well as increasing to
risks
coastal erosion, heat waves, cyclone frequency and intensity, drought length
related to coastal erosion, heat waves, cyclone frequency and intensity, drought length and frequency,
and
andother environmental
frequency, and otherimpacts. OTEC impacts.
environmental technologies
OTEC cantechnologies
have a placecan in have
assisting with
a place in
more optimistic
assisting futureoptimistic
with more scenarios [43].
futureThese include[43].
scenarios 24/7These
production
includeof 24/7
greenproduction
energy from of
agreen
practically
energyinexhaustible energy
from a practically source, the provision
inexhaustible of fresh
energy source, thewater from of
provision desalination,
fresh water
opportunities for cooling,
from desalination, refrigeration
opportunities and heating,
for cooling, contributions
refrigeration to aquaculture
and heating, contributions and to
hydroponic agriculture, the potential development of seawater mineral industries (e.g.,
salt, lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, strontium, chlorine, etc.), and the generation
of hydrogen.
An economically sized OTEC plant will enable the sustainable development of related
projects that require a large amount of seawater. For example, the 100 MW class OTEC
plant has to take in more than about 10 million t of deep seawater per day, and drain it to
about 10 ◦ C with clean seawater quality. This will enable a large scale aquaculture complex
that produces more than 50,000 t of salmon per year, or desalination or facility agriculture,
microalgae culture, and so on. In addition to green power and fuel supply, district cooling
is capable of establishing carbon-neutral communities along Pacific Islands Countries.
This paper focuses on small island developing states (SIDS) that have a number of
advantages for small scale to medium scale OTEC plants. However, the return on economic
investment is not anticipated to be large, as markets are small. SIDS have an urgent need for
reliable green energy and they are excellent ‘testing grounds’ for the further development
of OTEC technologies. It is probable that if the proof on concept for OTEC plants in SIDS
is realized, there would be a natural progression to larger scale OTEC plants (100 MW to
GWs), which would require larger markets and bigger populations. Countries such as
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Mexico, etc. are candidates for the development of
large OTEC plants.
OTEC can assist with a range of industries including fisheries, shipping, and seabed
mining. These are an impressive combination of potential outputs from one generic
need for reliable green energy and they are excellent ‘testing grounds’ for the further de-
velopment of OTEC technologies. It is probable that if the proof on concept for OTEC
plants in SIDS is realized, there would be a natural progression to larger scale OTEC plants
(100 MW to GWs), which would require larger markets and bigger populations. Countries
such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Mexico, etc. are candidates for the develop-
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 18 of 21
ment of large OTEC plants.
OTEC can assist with a range of industries including fisheries, shipping, and seabed
mining. These are an impressive combination of potential outputs from one generic tech-
nology. TheseThese
technology. environments, materials,
environments, and and
materials, energy cancan
energy be used to to
be used promote health
promote healthand
and
improve
improve economic
economicregeneration.
regeneration.InInother
otherwords,
words,the use
the ofof
use seawater energy
seawater and
energy andresources
resources
could
couldcontribute
contributetotoachieving
achievinga arange
rangeofofUNUNSustainable
SustainableDevelopment
DevelopmentGoals
Goals(SDGs)
(SDGs)forfor
the local
the community
local community(Figures
(Figures2828and
and29).
29).

Figure 28. Cascade use model of deep ocean water and surface water [43].
Figure 28. Cascade use model of deep ocean water and surface water [43].
If seawater energy and land energy are combined, a range of eco-friendly blue-green
infrastructures can be assembled encompassing industry, residences, recreational areas,
on and off-shore. OTEC and offshore solar power generation, sea water air conditioning
(SWAC) and freezing or refrigeration, seawater desalination and extraction of useful sub-
stances, aquaculture and plant factories, and land and sea forest development could be
created in urban and rural areas alongside infrastructure such as ports and airports (blue
ports), universities, and public institutions. Furthermore, features (Figure 29) such as the
Blue campus, sports, and cultural facilities (Blue arena) [44], and energy-independent vil-
lages and islands, can be created alongside the OTEC and seawater utilization technolo-
gies.
Figure infrastructure concepts

Figure 29. Blue infrastructure concepts using
usingOTEC
OTECand
andSWAC
SWACsystems
systems[44].
[44].
If seawater energy and onshore energy are combined, a range of eco-friendly blue-
8. Conclusions
greenTheinfrastructures
human race iscan be assembled
facing encompassing
an existential climate crisis.industry, residences, recreational
There is widespread agreement
areas, on and off-shore.
that greenhouse OTECbeand
gases must offshore
rapidly solar to
reduced power generation,
minimise sea impacts
the worst water airofcondition-
the cli-
ing
mate(SWAC) and freezing
crisis. Through COP21or refrigeration, seawater desalination
and related agreements, and extraction
over 120 countries of useful
have submitted
substances, aquaculture
long-term reduction and
plans plantfor
(LIDS) factories,
‘carbonand land andtosea
neutrality’ theforest
United development
Nations. Thecould
Inter-be
created in urban and rural areas alongside infrastructure such as ports
national Maritime Organization (IMO) is committed to reduce carbon emissions by 40% and airports (blue
ports), universities, and public institutions. Furthermore, features (Figure
compared to 2008 figures for ships ordered after 2030, and by 50% by 2050 [45]. Shipping 29) such as the
Blue campus, sports, and cultural facilities (Blue arena) [44], and energy-independent
emissions amounts to 2.5% (about 1 billion t per year) of total global emissions. vil-
lagesThe
anddevelopment
islands, can beofcreated alongside the OTEC and seawater utilization
renewable energy resources and the creation of carbon-absorb-technologies.
ing ecosystems for residential and industrial activities in Pacific island countries is an area
8. Conclusions
in which OTEC technologies can significantly contribute to a greener and more sustaina-
The human
ble future raceIsland
for Pacific is facing an existential
countries climate
[46]. Pacific crisis.
island Therehave
nations is widespread agreement
provided miniscule
that greenhouse gases must be rapidly reduced to minimise the worst impacts
amounts of global greenhouse gases, but are suffering more than most parts of the worldof the climate
crisis. Through COP21 and related agreements, over 120 countries have submitted
from the negative impacts of the climate crisis. Existential threats include rising sea levels, long-
term reduction plans (LIDS) for ‘carbon neutrality’ to the United Nations. The
changing rainfall distributions, increasing cyclone intensities and frequencies, and soInternational
Maritime Organization
forth. Energy (IMO)costs
and electricity is committed
for PacifictoIsland
reduce carbon emissions
countries by the
are amongst 40%highest
comparedin
the world [25]. Even though all Pacific Island countries are surrounded by abundant sea-
water and marine resources, they are suffering chronic deficiency of drinkable water and
food materials [2].
Future economic possibilities for Pacific countries include fishing, tourism, and sea-
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 19 of 21
to 2008 figures for ships ordered after 2030, and by 50% by 2050 [45]. Shipping emissions
amounts to 2.5% (about 1 billion t per year) of total global emissions.
The development of renewable energy resources and the creation of carbon-absorbing
ecosystems for residential and industrial activities in Pacific island countries is an area in
which OTEC technologies can significantly contribute to a greener and more sustainable
future for Pacific Island countries [46]. Pacific island nations have provided miniscule
amounts of global greenhouse gases, but are suffering more than most parts of the world
from the negative impacts of the climate crisis. Existential threats include rising sea levels,
changing rainfall distributions, increasing cyclone intensities and frequencies, and so forth.
Energy and electricity costs for Pacific Island countries are amongst the highest in the
world [25]. Even though all Pacific Island countries are surrounded by abundant seawater
and marine resources, they are suffering chronic deficiency of drinkable water and food
materials [2].
Future economic possibilities for Pacific countries include fishing, tourism, and seabed
mining. OTEC provides a possibility for the further development of these industries using
green energy, and greatly reducing carbon footprints [47].
Tropical oceanic regions have the highest thermal differentials in the world between
surface waters and waters at depths of 1000 m. Furthermore, the Pacific equatorial waters
have the advantage of not being exposed to harsh external force environments such as
typhoons and high waves. This situation makes OTEC technology particularly viable in
this region.
SIDS have an urgent need for reliable green energy and they are excellent ‘testing
grounds’ for the further development of OTEC technologies. It is probable that if the proof
on concept for OTEC plants in SIDS is realized, there would be a natural progression to
larger scale OTEC plants (100 MW to GWs), which would be required larger markets and
bigger populations.
OTEC can also provide a range of ancillary industries and outputs including fresh
water, a range of heating, cooling and refrigeration services, aquaculture and hydroponic
agriculture, green hydrogen generation, seawater mineral production, and so on [48].
Models are currently being created for a range of possible new modes of living com-
bining OTEC technologies with on-land technologies producing a blue-green ecologically
friendly environment to implement sustainable communities along the tropical belt.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.-J.K. and M.P.; Methodology, H.-S.L. and S.-T.L.; Vali-
dation, H.-J.K.; Investigation, S.-T.L.; Resources, H.-J.K. and M.P.; Data curation, H.-S.L. and S.-T.L.;
Writing—original draft preparation, H.-J.K. and S.-T.L.; Writing—review and editing, H.-S.L. and
M.P.; Visualization, S.-T.L.; Supervision, H.-J.K. and M.P.; Project administration, H.-J.K.; Funding
acquisition, H.-J.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries of the Republic of Korea
(grant number: PMS4730).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: This work was financially supported by the national R&D project of “Develop-
ment of 1 MW OTEC demonstration plant (6/6)” (PMS4730) funded by the Ministry of Oceans and
Fisheries of the Republic of Korea.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1. Kim, H.J. Use of Marine Energy and Resources in Pacific Island Countries: Focused on Kiribati, White Paper on International Fisheries
Cooperation (Networking-Past and Future of International Cooperation in Marine Fisheries); Korea Institute of Maritime Affairs and
Fisheries: Busan, Korea, 2021; pp. 142–157.
2. Petterson, M.G.; Kim, H.J. Can Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion and Seawater Utilisation Assist Small Island Developing States? A
Case Study of Kiribati, Pacific Islands Region, Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)—Past, Present, and Progress; IntechOpen:
London, UK, 2019; pp. 1–28.
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 20 of 21
3. UN. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Sdgs, A/RES/70/1. 2015; p. 40. Available online:
Sustainabledevelopment.un.org (accessed on 30 May 2021).
4. Ferroukhi, R.; Nagpal, D.; Lopez-Peña, A.; Hodges, T.; Mohtar, R.H.; Daher, B.; Mohtar, S.; Keulertz, M. Renewable Energy in the
Water, Energy & Food Nexus; IRENA: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2015; p. 124.
5. Vega, L. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion. In Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology; Meyers, R.A., Ed.; Springer:
New York, NY, USA, 2012; pp. 7296–7328.
6. Lennard, D.E. Ocean Thermal Energy. Encycl. Energy 2004, 4, 511–520.
7. Lee, H.S.; Lim, S.T.; Jung, J.I.; Kim, H.J. OTEC Cycle Novel OTEC Cycle Using Efficiency Enhancer, Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
(OTEC)—Past, Present, and Progress; IntechOpen: London, UK, 2019; pp. 1–19.
8. Yoon, J.I.; Son, C.H.; Baek, S.M.; Kim, H.J.; Lee, H.S. Efficiency comparison of subcritical OTEC power cycle using various
working fluids. Heat Mass Transfer. 2014, 50, 985–996. [CrossRef]
9. Webb, P. Introduction to Oceanography, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License; Rebus Community: Montreal, QC,
Canada, 2020; p. 393.
10. Nihous, G.C. A Preliminary Assessment of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Resources. 2007. Available online: http:
//www.asme.org/terms/Terms_Use.cfm (accessed on 30 May 2021).
11. Nilhous, G.C. An order-of-magnitude estimate of ocean thermal energy resources. Trans. ASME 2005, 127, 328–333.
12. Nilhous, G.C. An estimate of Atlantic Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) resources. Ocean Eng. 2007, 34, 2210–2221.
[CrossRef]
13. Lee, H.S.; Cha, S.W.; Jung, Y.K.; Kim, H.J. Performance Analysis on the Multi Stage Reheater Regeneration Cycle for Ocean
Geothermal Power Generation. J. Korean Soc. Mar. Environ. Energy 2014, 17, 116–121. [CrossRef]
14. Ryu, C.R.; Hong, S.W.; Kim, H.J.; Kang, Y.K. Marine Energy Engineering; Book Publishing New Technology: Seoul, Korea, 1999;
p. 231.
15. Cho, C.H.; Lee, Y.H.; Kim, H.J.; Choi, Y.D.; Kim, B.S. Marine Energy Engineering; Dasom Publishing Co.: Seoul, Korea, 2016; p. 261.
16. Lee, H.S.; Cha, S.W.; Kim, Y.S.; Son, J.H.; Kim, H.J. Design and experiment of 20 kW Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion pilot
plant. Deep Ocean Water Res. 2013, 14, 121.
17. Kim, H.J. Introduction of the Korean OTEC application. In Proceedings of the International OTEC Symposium, Busan, Korea,
26–27 September 2019; pp. 134–146.
18. Kim, H.J.; Lee, H.S.; Seo, J.B.; Lim, S.T.; Moon, J.H. Demonstration Test Result of K-OTEC 1000 (1 MW Barge Mounted OTEC
Power Plant). In Proceedings of the 4th China-Korea Ocean Energy Workshop, Qingdao, China, 30 October 2020; Volume 1.
19. BV. AIP for 1 MW OTEC Platform in Kiribati for KRISO. 2016. Available online: http://www.bureauveritas.com/home/news/
business-news/ocean-thermal-energy-converter-approved-290116 (accessed on 30 May 2021).
20. Kim, H.J. Current Status of OTEC around the World—A Brief Survey Report for IEA-OES; KRISO: Daejon, Korea, 1 September 2021;
p. 6.
21. IEA-OES. Annual Report—An Overview of Ocean Energy Activities in 2020; The Executive Committee of Ocean Energy Systems:
Lisbon, Portugal, 2021; p. 168.
22. IEA-OES. International Levelized Cost of Energy for Ocean Energy Technologies; Technical Report; The Executive Committee of Ocean
Energy Systems: Lisbon, Portugal, 2015; p. 46.
23. Oh, W.Y.; Kim, B.Y.; Kim, H.J.; Jeong, I. A study on economic analysis of 1 MW OTEC plant for the direction of R&D. J. Korean Soc.
Ocean Policy 2014, 2, 1–13.
24. Lim, S.T.; Lee, H.S.; Moon, J.H.; Kim, H.J. Local Economic Analysis Simulation for Demonstration Application of Closed OTEC. J.
Power Syst. Eng. 2020, 24, 73–82. [CrossRef]
25. Price of Electricity in Pacific Island Countries. Available online: http://www.fea.com.fj/your-home/electricity-tariffs-and-rates
(accessed on 30 May 2015).
26. Isaka, M.; Mofor, L.; Wade, H. Renewable Energy Opportunities and Challenges in the Pacific Islands Region PICs; IRENA: Abu Dhabi,
United Arab Emirates, 2013; p. 16.
27. SPC. Deep Sea Minerals: Manganese Nodules, a Physical, Biological, Environmental, and Technical Review; Baker, E., Beaudoin, Y., Eds.;
Secretariat of the Pacific Community: Nouméa, New Caledonia, 2013; Volume 1B, p. 52.
28. ECORYS. Study to Investigate the State of Knowledge of Deep-Sea Mining. Final Report under FWC MARE/2012/06-SC
E1/2013/04. Prepared for European Commission—DG Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. 2014. Available online: https://webgate.
ec.europa.eu/maritimeforum/sites/maritimeforum/files/FGP96656_DSM_Final_report.pdf (accessed on 30 May 2021).
29. Mero, J.L. The Mineral Resources of the Sea; Elservier: Amsterdam, The Netheralnds, 1965.
30. Cardno. An Assessment of the Costs and Benefits of Mining Deep-Sea Minerals in the Pacific Island Region; SPC, Technical Report
SPC00035; Cardno: Brisbane, Australia, 2016; p. 229.
31. Hein, J.; Spinardi, F.; Okamoto, N.; Mizell, K.; Thorburn, D.; Tawake, A. Critical metals in manganese nodules from the Cook
Islands EEZ, abundances and distributions. Ore Geol. Rev. 2015, 68, 97–116. [CrossRef]
32. Cronan. The Distribution, Abundance, and Resource Potential of the Manganese Nodules in the Cook Islands Exclusive Economic
Zone-Deep-sea Mining Cost-Benefit Analysis; Cook Islands Seabed Mineral Authority: Ara Tapu, Cook Islands, 2016.
Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 21 of 21
33. GRID Arendal. Example of a Sea-Floor Manganese Nodule Mining System and Related Sources of Potential Environmental
Impact. Collected from Deep Sea Minerals. Volume 1B. Available online: https://www.grida.no/resources/7352 (accessed on
9 September 2021).
34. Dames and Moore, Inc. Description of Manganese Nodule Processing Activities for Environmental Studies. Vols 1–3: Processing Systems
Summary; Contract No. 6-35331; U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Marine Minerals: Washington, DC, USA, 1977.
35. Hare, S.R.; Williams, P.G.; Ducharme-Barth, N.D.; Hamer, P.A.; Hampton, W.J.; Scott, R.D.; Vincent, M.T.; Pilling, G.H. The Western
and Central Pacific Tuna Fishery: 2019 Overview and Status of Stocks; Tuna Fisheries Assessment Report No. 20; Pacific Community:
Noumea, New Caledonia, 2020; p. 49. Available online: http://purl.org/spc/digilib/doc/hsno3 (accessed on 20 August 2021).
36. Homepage of Kiribati Fish Limited. Available online: http://kiribatifishltd.com/ (accessed on 30 May 2021).
37. Public Utilities Board (PUB) Services. Available online: http://pub.com.ki/services/#electricity (accessed on 30 May 2021).
38. Ravindran, M. The Indian 1 MW Floating OTEC Plant—An Overview. Mar. Technol. Soc. J. 2002, 36, 36–41. [CrossRef]
39. Ryzin, J.V.; Grandelli, P.; Lipp, P.E.D.; Argall, R. The Hydrogen Economy of 2050: OTEC Driven? In Proceedings of the OCEANS
2005 MTS/IEEE, Washington, DC, USA, 17–23 September 2005.
40. Kim, H.J.; Moon, D.S.; Lee, H.S.; Seo, J.B.; Moon, J.H. Methods for the Use of Marine Energy Technology in the Hydrogen
Economy Era. In Proceedings of the Korean Society of Power and Mechanical Engineering 2019 Spring Conference, Daegu, Korea,
26–28 April 2019; pp. 52–53. (In Korean).
41. Kim, N.W.; Nam, B.W.; Kwon, Y.J.; Jung, D.H.; Hong, S.Y.; Kim, H.J. An Experimental Study on Motion Responses and Wave
Loads acting on OTEC Complex. J. Ships Ocean. Eng. 2016, 1, 1–8.
42. Hong, S.Y.; TJeong, Y.; Shin, H.K. Technology of ultra-large floating offshore structures. J. Korean Soc. Shipbuild. 2001, 38, 29–38.
(In Korean)
43. Kim, H.J. Development and Use of Deep Ocean Water; New Book Publishing Technology: Seoul, Korea, 2005; p. 257. (In Korean)
44. Kim, H.J.; Lee, H.S.; Lee, S.W.; Oh, W.Y.; Chun, S.G. Feasibility Study on the Utilization of Sea Water Resources for Green Olympic
Blue Ice rink. In Proceedings of the Tenth (2012) ISOPE Pacific/Asia Offshore Mechanics Symposium, Vladivostok, Russia,
3–5 October 2012; pp. 84–89.
45. IMO. IMO Action to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emission from International Shipping; IMO Catalog: London, UK, 2018; p. 4.
46. Petterson, M.G.; Kim, H.J.; Joel, J.C. Conserve and Sustainability Use the Oceans, Seas, and Marine Resources, Geosciences and the
Sustainable Development Goals; Sustainable Development Goals Series; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2021; pp. 339–367.
47. World Ocean Initiative; The Economist Group. A Sustainable Ocean Economy in 2030: Opportunities and Challenges; The Economist
Group Limited: London, UK; p. 43.
48. Kim, H.J.; Moon, D.S.; Lee, H.S.; Lee, K.H. SDGs achievement model using effluent from OTEC power plant-Introduction of
SSUA (Sustainable Seawater Utilization Academy). Proc. Int. Deep. Ocean. Water 2018, 1, 104–105.

Geosciences 11 00407 v2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Geosciences 11 00407 v2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Geosciences 11 00407 v2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

geosciences

Received: 18 July 2021

Geosciences 2021, 11, 407. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11100407 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences

2. Principles and Types of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

Geosciences 2021, 11, 407 3 of 21

The degree and duration of the temperature difference is an important influencing

efficiencies can be significantly increased by the thermal addition of additional energies

Figure 3. History of OTEC and current status.

Wave Tidal OTEC

6. OTEC-Based Processing Plant and Applicability in Pacific Island Countries

a range of future-looking seawater utilisation industries (aquaculture, seawater minerals,

New uinea (Phoenix lss.)

Darker Blue Areas: EEZ

Figure 14. Example

Hydrogen generation from OTEC plants is increasingly becoming a realistic propo-

Geosciences 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 21

Geosciences 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 21

Figure infrastructure concepts

You might also like