UNIT-II

ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE

THE EARLY UNIVERSE

• The history of the universe and how it evolved is broadly accepted as the Big Bang
model, which states that the universe began as an incredibly hot, dense point
roughly 13.7 billion years ago.
• The Planck epoch Is an era in traditional (non-inflationary) Big Bang cosmology
immediately after the event which began the known universe. During this epoch,
the temperature and average energies within the universe were so high that
everyday subatomic particles could not form, and even the four fundamental
forces that shape the universe—gravitation, electromagnetism, the weak nuclear
force, and the strong nuclear force—were combined and formed one fundamental
force. Little is understood about physics at this temperature; different hypotheses
propose different scenarios. Traditional big bang cosmology predicts a
gravitational singularity before this time, but this theory relies on the theory of
general relativity, which is thought to break down for this epoch due to quantum
effects.

ORIGIN:
• In the first moments after the Big Bang, the universe was extremely hot and dense.
As the universe cooled, conditions became just right to give rise to the building
blocks of matter – the quarks and electrons of which we are all made. A few
millionths of a second later, quarks aggregated to produce protons and neutrons.
Within minutes, these protons and neutrons combined into nuclei. As the universe
continued to expand and cool, things began to happen more slowly. It took 380,000
years for electrons to be trapped in orbits around nuclei, forming the first atoms.
These were mainly helium and hydrogen, which are still by far the most abundant
elements in the universe. Present observations suggest that the first stars formed
from clouds of gas around 150–200 million years after the Big Bang. Heavier atoms
 such as carbon, oxygen and iron, have since been continuously produced in the
hearts of stars and catapulted throughout the universe in spectacular stellar
explosions called supernovae.

• But stars and galaxies do not tell the whole story. Astronomical and physical
calculations suggest that the visible universe is only a tiny amount (4%) of what the
universe is actually made of. A very large fraction of the universe, in fact 26%, is
made of an unknown type of matter called “dark matter”. Unlike stars and galaxies,
dark matter does not emit any light or electromagnetic radiation of any kind, so that
we can detect it only through its gravitational effects.

• An even more mysterious form of energy called “dark energy” accounts for about
70% of the mass-energy content of the universe. Even less is known about it than
dark matter. This idea stems from the observation that all galaxies seems to be
receding from each other at an accelerating pace, implying that some invisible extra
energy is at work.

• About 370,000 years after the Big Bang, two connected events occurred: the ending
of recombination and photon decoupling. Recombination describes the ionized
particles combining to form the first neutral atoms, and decoupling refers to the
photons released (“decoupled”) as the newly formed atoms settle into more stable
energy states.

CONCLUSION:
• Astronomers think the first stars may have been very massive compared with
modern stars, and may have formed the first black holes in the cosmos. Individual
stars are too small to be seen from so great a distance, so researchers look for
indirect evidence about the nature of these objects, through how they influenced
their surroundings.
• Studying the dark ages and first stars is a way to understand the genealogy of all
stars, including our own Sun. These original stars began the process of making most
of the elements heavier than helium, which includes the atoms like oxygen and
 carbon necessary for life. The earliest stars, galaxies, and black holes changed the
cloudy universe of the dark ages into the vast cosmic structures we see today.

BIG BANG THEORY

The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model explaining the existence and
development of the universe. It proposes that the universe originated from a singular,
extremely hot and dense state about 13.8 billion years ago. According to this theory, the
universe has been expanding ever since its initial moment, with matter, energy, space, and
time all originating from this initial singularity.

Key points of the Big Bang theory include:

• Expansion of the Universe: The universe is continually expanding, with galaxies
moving away from each other. This expansion suggests that the universe was once
denser and hotter in the past.

• Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB): The discovery of the cosmic

microwave background radiation in 1965 provided strong evidence for the Big Bang
theory. This radiation is a faint glow of microwaves that fills the universe in all
directions, thought to be the afterglow of the hot, dense early universe.

• Nucleosynthesis: During the first few minutes after the Big Bang, the conditions
were right for the formation of hydrogen, helium, and small amounts of lithium and
other light elements through a process called nucleosynthesis.

Formation of Structure:
Over billions of years, gravity caused matter to clump together, leading to the formation of
stars, galaxies, and galaxy clusters.
Observable Universe:
• The observable universe is the portion of the entire universe that we can potentially
observe. It extends as far as light has had time to travel since the Big Bang, about
13.8 billion years ago.

• While the Big Bang theory has gained widespread acceptance and is supported by a
substantial body of evidence, it doesn’t explain everything about the universe, such
as what preceded the Big Bang or what caused it. These remain open questions in
cosmology.

HUBBLE EXPANSION MODEL OF UNIVERSE

The Hubble expansion model, also known as the Hubble-Lemaître law or simply Hubble’s
law, describes the expansion of the universe. It was formulated based on observations
made by astronomers in the early 20th century, notably by Edwin Hubble in 1929. This
model forms the cornerstone of modern cosmology and our understanding of the large-
scale structure and evolution of the universe.

Here's a detailed explanation of the Hubble expansion model:

1. **Discovery by Edwin Hubble**: In the 1920s, Edwin Hubble, using the 100-inch
Hooker Telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory, observed distant galaxies and
discovered that they were moving away from us in all directions. He found a
correlation between a galaxy’s distance from us and its velocity of recession: the
farther away a galaxy is, the faster it appears to be moving away. This relationship is
expressed by the equation:

\[v = H_0 \times d\]

 Where:

- \(v\) is the recessional velocity of the galaxy,

- \(d\) is the distance of the galaxy from Earth,

- \(H_0\) is the Hubble constant, which represents the rate of expansion of the universe.

2. **Implications of the Hubble Law**:

- The universe is expanding uniformly in all directions.

- There is no need for a center or an edge to the expansion; it’s the expansion of space
itself.

- The relationship between distance and velocity implies that the universe had a beginning
in a hot, dense state, known as the Big Bang.

2. **Hubble Constant (H0)**: The Hubble constant represents the current rate of
expansion of the universe. Its value is often denoted as \(H_0\) and is usually
expressed in units of kilometers per second per megaparsec (km/s/Mpc). The
precise value of the Hubble constant has been a subject of debate over the years
due to observational uncertainties, but modern measurements put it at around 70
km/s/Mpc.

3. **Expansion of Space**: It’s crucial to understand that the Hubble expansion

doesn’t mean galaxies are moving through space like objects on the surface of an
inflating balloon. Instead, the fabric of space itself is expanding, causing galaxies to
move apart from each other. This expansion doesn’t violate the principles of
relativity since there is no privileged frame of reference.

4. **Cosmological Redshift**: The apparent shift of light from distant galaxies towards
longer (redder) wavelengths is known as cosmological redshift. It occurs because
the space between galaxies is expanding, stretching the wavelength of light as it
 travels through space. The amount of redshift is directly proportional to the distance
of the galaxy from us, as per Hubble’s law.

5. **Role of Dark Energy**: While the Hubble expansion model beautifully explains the
observed recession of galaxies, recent observations suggest that the expansion rate
of the universe is accelerating. This acceleration is attributed to a mysterious force
called dark energy, which constitutes about 68% of the total energy density of the
universe. The exact nature of dark energy remains one of the most significant
puzzles in cosmology.

In summary, the Hubble expansion model describes how the universe is expanding
uniformly, with the rate of expansion proportional to the distance of galaxies from us. This
model, along with the concept of cosmic redshift, provides strong evidence for the Big
Bang theory and forms the foundation of modern cosmology.

COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RADIATION

➢ The Big Bang theory predicts that the early universe was a very hot place and
that as it expands, the gas within it cools. Thus the universe should be filled
with radiation that is literally the remnant heat left over from the Big Bang,
called the “cosmic microwave background”, or CMB.
➢ The cosmic microwave background radiation is the faint remnant glow of the
big bang. This false color image, covering about 2.5 percent of the sky, shows
fluctuations in the ionized gas that later condensed to make superclusters of
galaxies. Photo courtesy of the BOOMERANG Project.

Discovery and Significance:

Discovery: Discovered in 1965 by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, the CMB was initially
detected as a faint background signal while they were conducting radio astronomy
experiments.
Significance: Its discovery provided strong evidence for the Big Bang theory, supporting the
idea of a hot, dense early universe that has since expanded and cooled.

Characteristics:
• Temperature: The CMB permeates the universe with a nearly uniform temperature of
approximately 2.7 Kelvin, representing the thermal radiation left over from the Big
Bang.
• Isotropy: It exhibits an almost perfect isotropy, meaning it appears uniform in all
directions, confirming the universe’s homogeneity on large scales.
• Polarization: Contains polarization patterns that carry information about the early
universe’s density fluctuations and the presence of primordial gravitational waves.

Formation and Evolution:

Formation: Originated around 380,000 years after the Big Bang during recombination, when
the universe cooled enough for neutral atoms to form, allowing photons to travel freely.

Evolution: Since its formation, the CMB has propagated largely unchanged through the
expanding universe, serving as a snapshot of the universe’s state at that early time.

Cosmological Implications:
• Structure Formation: Tiny temperature fluctuations in the CMB serve as seeds for
the formation of large-scale structures like galaxies and galaxy clusters.
• Cosmological Parameters: Precise measurements of the CMB’s temperature and
polarization provide constraints on fundamental cosmological parameters such as
the universe’s age, composition, and geometry.
• Inflationary Cosmology: Anomalies and patterns in the CMB data offer insights into
inflationary models, helping to refine our understanding of the universe’s early rapid
expansion.
 Dark Matter and Dark Energy

Introduction:
- Dark matter and dark energy are two of the most mysterious phenomena in the
universe.
- They make up a large portion of the universe, yet their nature remains largely
unknown.
- Understanding dark matter and dark energy is crucial in unraveling the mysteries of
the cosmos.
Dark Matter:

- Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter that does not emit, absorb, or reflect
light.
- It makes up about 27% of the universe’s mass-energy content, according to current
estimates
- Dark matter is believed to play a crucial role in the formation and evolution of
galaxies.
- It was first proposed by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky in the 1930s, based on
observations of the Coma Cluster.
 - There are several theories about the nature of dark matter, including weakly
interacting massive particles (WIMPs) and axions.

Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs):

Hypothetical particles that interact through gravity and the weak force, considered prime
dark matter candidates.

Axions:
Hypothetical particles originally proposed to solve certain problems in particle physics,
also considered as dark matter candidates.

- Detecting dark matter has proven to be a significant challenge, as it does not

interact with electromagnetic radiation.

Dark Energy:
- Dark energy is a form of energy that permeates the entire universe and exerts a
negative pressure, causing the expansion of the universe to accelerate.
- It makes up about 68% of the universe’s mass-energy content, according to current
estimates.
- Dark energy was discovered in the late 1990s through observations of distant
supernovae.
- Nature: It’s hypothesized to have negative pressure, leading to repulsive
gravitational effects.
- The existence of dark energy has profound implications for the fate of the universe,
leading to the theory of the “big rip” or “heat death.”
- The nature of dark energy remains one of the most perplexing questions in
cosmology, with some theories suggesting it could be related to vacuum energy or a
cosmological constant.

Similarities and Differences:

• Both dark matter and dark energy are mysterious substances that cannot
be directly observed.
• Both play significant roles in the structure and evolution of the universe.
• Dark matter is a form of matter, while dark energy is a form of energy.
 • Dark matter’s existence is inferred based on its gravitational effects, while
dark energy’s existence is inferred based on observations of distant
supernovae and the cosmic microwave background radiation.

Implications of Dark Matter and Dark Energy:

- Dark matter and dark energy have profound implications for our understanding of
the universe.
- The presence of dark matter helps to explain the observed rotation curves of
galaxies and the large-scale structure of the cosmos.
- Dark energy is responsible for the observed accelerated expansion of the universe,
which has led to the theory of a "multiverse" with multiple parallel universes.
- Understanding dark matter and dark energy is crucial for cosmologists to develop
accurate models of the universe and its evolution over time.

Current Research and Future Prospects:

- Research into dark matter and dark energy is ongoing, with scientists using a variety
of observational and theoretical methods to study these mysterious phenomena.
- The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN is one of the facilities that researchers are
using to search for particles of dark matter.
- The upcoming James Webb Space Telescope is expected to provide new insights
into the nature of dark energy through observations of distant galaxies and
supernovae.
- Future missions, such as the European Space Agency’s Euclid mission and the
NASA-ESA joint mission WFIRST, are also planned to further investigate dark matter
and dark energy.
- While many questions remain unanswered, the study of dark matter and dark
energy continues to be a vibrant and exciting field in space science.

Conclusion:
- Dark matter and dark energy are two of the most enigmatic and mysterious
phenomena in the universe.
- Understanding these elusive substances is crucial for unraveling the mysteries of
the cosmos and developing accurate models of the universe’s evolution over time.
- Research into dark matter and dark energy is ongoing, with scientists using a variety
of observational and theoretical methods to study these mysterious phenomena.
- The future promises new insights and discoveries that will further our understanding
of the nature of dark matter and dark energy in the universe.