Soil Characteristics: EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

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SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Gahilomo, Jun Marc L.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D


What is Soil?

A soil is the unconsolidated cover on Earth surface. It’s composed primarily of decomposed rock

materials and varying amount of water, gases and organic materials. It also provides the

structural support to plants used in agriculture and is also their source of water and nutrients.

Characteristics of a Soil

At a soil site, horizons in a soil profile are distinguished from one another by differences in their

structure, color, consistence, texture, and the amount of roots, rocks, and free carbonates they

contain. Laboratory or classroom analyses of bulk density, particle density, particle size

distribution, pH, and soil fertility also reveal the differences among horizons.

Structure

Soil structure is about how clumps of soil particles, called peds, are naturally shaped in the soil.

The way these peds are arranged tells us about the size and shape of the gaps where water, heat,

and air move, and where plant roots grow. There are different types of soil ped structures, like

granular, blocky, prismatic, columnar, or platy. When soil doesn't have any structure, we call it

either single-grained or massive.

Color

Soil color comes from the chemical coatings on soil particles, the amount of organic stuff in the

soil, and how wet it is. For instance, soil looks darker when there's organic matter in it. Minerals,
like iron, can make the soil look red or yellow on the surface. In dry places, soil can appear white

because of a coating of calcium carbonate. Also, the moisture in the soil affects its color. If the

soil has a lot of water, it usually looks darker. It depends on how well the soil drains and if it's

soaked with water for a long time. More moisture makes the soil darker in color.

Consistence

Consistence refers to how firm or solid the individual clumps of soil (peds) are and how easily

they break apart. We use words like loose, friable, firm, and extra-firm to describe soil

consistence. Soil with friable consistence is easier for roots, shovels, or plows to move through

compared to soil with firm consistence.

Texture

Soil texture is about how the soil feels, and it's determined by the mix of sand, silt, and clay

particles in the soil. This texture affects how much water, heat, and nutrients the soil can hold.

Our hands can tell the difference in particle size:

- Sand particles are the largest and feel gritty.

- Silt particles are next in size and feel smooth or like flour.

- Clay particles are the smallest and feel sticky and hard to squeeze.

The exact amounts of these particles in a soil sample are measured in a lab or classroom, and this

mix is called the "particle size distribution."


Roots

An estimate of the roots in each layer of a soil profile shows how deep plants go to get what they

need from the soil, like nutrients and water. If there are a lot of roots in a layer, it means more

water and nutrients are being taken from the soil, and more organic material is going back into it.

This helps scientists figure out things like the soil's richness, how tightly packed it is, how well it

holds water, and how deep it goes. If a layer is very compact, it makes it hard for roots to grow,

but a porous layer is better for root development.

Rocks

An estimate of the number of rocks in each horizon helps to understand the movement of water,

heat, and air through the soil, root growth, and the amount of soil material involved in chemical

and physical reactions. Soil particles greater than 2 mm in size are considered to be rocks.

Carbonates

Carbonates, like calcium carbonate, tend to accumulate in regions with minimal water-based

weathering. Their presence in soil can indicate a dry climate or the presence of parent material

rich in calcium, such as limestone. These carbonates often coat soil particles in soils that are

more alkaline (having a pH greater than 7), and these soils are often found in arid or semi-arid

climates. Carbonates are typically white in color and can be easily scratched with a fingernail.

In very dry climates, carbonates can form a hard, dense layer in the soil, similar to cement,

making it difficult for plant roots to penetrate. To test for the presence of carbonates, an acid, like
vinegar, is applied to the soil. If carbonates are present, a chemical reaction occurs between the

vinegar (an acid) and the carbonates (a base), resulting in the release of carbon dioxide gas. This

release of carbon dioxide causes the vinegar to bubble or effervesce. The more carbonates there

are, the more bubbling or effervescence occurs during the test. This test helps determine the

extent of carbonates in the soil, which can provide insights into the soil's history and

characteristics.

Bulk Density

Soil bulk density measures how tightly packed or dense the soil is and is calculated by the mass

of dry soil in a given volume (usually in g/cm³). This density depends on various factors,

including the soil's composition, the arrangement of soil clumps, the distribution of sand, silt,

and clay particles, the amount of empty spaces, and how closely the particles are packed

together. Soils made of mineral particles have different bulk densities than those made mostly of

organic material. Typically, soil bulk density ranges from 0.5 g/cm³ in porous soils to 2.0 g/cm³

or more in densely compacted mineral layers.

Particle Density

The particle density of a soil sample is the mass of dry soil in a particular volume of the soil

when all of the air spaces have been removed. The type of minerals the soil particles are made of

affects the particle density. Soils consisting of pure quartz particles generally have a particle

density of 2.65 g/cm³. Soils consisting of particles made of minerals other than quartz will have a

different mass for the same volume of particles. By knowing both the particle density and the
bulk density, the porosity (the proportion of the soil volume that is pore space) can be calculated.

Porosity establishes the amount of air or water that can be stored or moved through the soil.

Particle Size Distribution

The proportion of each particle size group (sand, silt, or clay) in the soil is called the soil

particle-size distribution. Sand is the largest soil particle, silt is intermediate in size, and clay is

the smallest. The particle-size distribution of a soil sample determines its exact textural class

(which is "estimated" in the field by doing the Soil Texture Protocol). It also helps determine

how much water, heat, and nutrients the soil will hold, how fast water and heat will move

through the soil, and the structure and consistence of the soil. The amount of sand, silt, and clay

in a soil sample is determined by a settling method using an instrument called a hydrometer. A

dried sample of soil is first dispersed so that none of the particles stick together, and then it is

suspended in water and allowed to settle. The largest particles (sand) settle out in minutes while

the smallest particles (clay) stay suspended for days. A hydrometer is used to measure the

specific gravity of the soil suspension after settling has proceeded for specific amounts of time.

pH

The pH of a soil horizon (how acidic or basic the soil is) is determined by the parent material

from which the soil is formed, the chemical nature of the rain or other water entering the soil,

land management practices, and the activities of organisms (plants, animals, and

microorganisms) living in the soil


Fertility

The fertility of a soil is determined by the amount of nutrients it contains. Nitrogen (N),

phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) are three of the most important nutrients needed by plants for

optimum plant growth. Each horizon in a soil profile can be tested for the presence of these

nutrients. The results of these measurements help to determine the suitability of a soil for

growing plants. Soil fertility can be related to water chemistry measurements carried out in the

Hydrology Investigation.

REFERENCE

https://www.kau.edu.sa/Files/0001553/Subjects/SOIL%20AND%20SOIL%20ENGINEERING

%20%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B6%D8%B1%D9%87%201.doc
WEATHERING
AND
EROSION

EPS 131 (TA) — Chemistry for Engineers


Gallegos, Mary Virlen S.
BSCoE 1
Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela. Ph.D.
Introduction

In the words of the renowned physicist Richard Feynman, “Nature is always doing something

interesting.” Indeed, the way rocks break down and landscapes change over time resembles a

never-ending story written by nature. Weathering and erosion are two interconnected and important

geological processes that shape the Earth's surface over time. To be more specific, weathering

refers to the gradual breakdown of rocks into smaller particles, a process caused by different

factors. Erosion, on the other hand, is the movement of these weathered materials, shaping

landscapes and leaving a mark on the Earth. This report delves into the intricacies of weathering

and erosion, understanding how they mold Earth's surface by breaking down rocks and moving

particles, while also highlighting their relevance to the field of Computer Engineering.

I. Weathering

Weathering is the process which rocks and minerals are broken down into smaller parts through

various natural forces like water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature. The

longer a rock is exposed to those elements, the more vulnerable it becomes to weathering. There

are two main types of weathering: mechanical (physical), and chemical weathering.

1.1. Mechanical (Physical) Weathering

Mechanical weathering is the gradual breakdown of rocks and minerals by physical methods

that is caused by many processes. It’s the gradual breakdown of rocks into small pieces due to

strain and rupture. Mechanical weathering may be caused by pressure, temperature, freezing and

thawing cycle of water, plant or animal activity, and salt evaporation (Chris Johnson, 2017)

1
Mechanical weathering caused by pressure is when rocks undergo stress and break apart due

to the force exerted by surrounding materials. Meanwhile, temperature changes are when rocks

can expand and contract with extreme temperature fluctuations, leading to cracking and eventual

breakdown. The freezing and thawing cycle of water is another contributor to mechanical

weathering. Water entering rock cracks freezes, expands, and exerts pressure on the rocks. When

it thaws, the rocks may further crack and fragment. Furthermore, plant or animal activity is when

plant roots can grow into rock crevices, exerting pressure and causing rocks to break. Burrowing

animals further enhance this process. Lastly is salt evaporation. This is when the deposition of

salt in rock crevices followed by evaporation can exert pressure, contributing to the breakdown

of rocks over time (Nycz, 2010)

1.2. Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering is the process where rocks break down through chemical reactions with

elements like water and acids, gradually transforming their composition. You can see the effects

of chemical weathering in various landscapes, such as the formation of caves, valleys, and

weathered rock surfaces. Additionally, changes in the color and composition of rocks over time

are visible indicators of chemical weathering. To put it simply, it's when things in the environment,

like rainwater or air, team up with the minerals in rocks to create a reaction that breaks down the

rock. It is sort of like how water slowly dissolves sugar. Over time, this chemical reaction weakens

the rock, making it crumble or change its appearance (National Geographic, 2015)

One prominent type of chemical weathering is solution, where acidic rainwater breaks down

rocks; for instance, limestone weathers when exposed to rainwater containing dissolved CO2.

Another type is hydrolysis, where acidic rain breaks down rocks into clay and soluble salts.

Additionally, oxidation is a process where rocks break down due to the combined effects of oxygen

2
and water, resulting in a rusty-colored surface on iron-rich rocks. Lastly, carbonation involves the

reaction of minerals in rocks with carbonic acid, which is formed when carbon dioxide dissolves

in water. (B. A., n.d.)

II. Erosion

Once the rocks are weathered, erosion comes into play. Erosion is the process of

transporting or moving weathered particles from one place to another, often helped by natural

forces like wind, water, or ice. It can be caused by frequent and intense rain, high river levels,

strong storms and fast-moving streams (National Geographic, 2015)

2.1. Agents of Erosion

Water erosion is the most common erosion. This is when the rainfall moves small rocks or

particles off the land and into a stream or other body of water. Water's energy and force will

determine the rock's size or particle that it can move. It is very intriguing to know that streams

can help particles by size. The water, energy, and force are much higher in the mountains.

Therefore, there are larger rocks and particles.

Ice erosions on the other hand, are very powerful. In fact, glaciers can move huge rocks

from one place to another. This is achieved as the movement of glaciers erodes by

abrasion/scouring and plucking, creeping along the rock surface. Through this process, pieces

of bedrock crack off and join the flowing ice.

Another agent of erosion is wind erosion. It is when the rock develops physical wear due

to wind. Wind erosion moves soil particles from one area to another making it more common

in dry areas and environments. (National Geographic, 2023)

3
2.2.Factors Influencing Erosion

Erosion is influenced by several natural factors. These primary factors include

climate, topography, vegetation, and tectonic activity.

The weather, especially rain and wind, has a big say in erosion. How often and how hard it

rains, or if there's a strong wind, affects how rocks and soil get moved around.

Topography, the surface features' shape, also plays a role—areas like earthen

floodplains (area of land adjacent to a river) erode more easily than rocky channels. The

type of rock matters, too, with softer rocks eroding faster than harder ones.

Vegetation acts as a ‘mitigating force’, as plant roots anchor soil and rock particles,

reducing erosion during rainfall or wind events. Deserts, with sparse vegetation, often face

heightened erosion.

Tectonic activity, such as uplift, shapes landscapes, impacting erosion dynamics.

For instance, the Colorado River created the Grand Canyon over a long time because the

land it flows through was pushed up by tectonic activity (Berlin University, 2008)

III. Relationship Between Weathering and Erosion

Weathering and erosion are like partners in crime, working together to shape the Earth's

surface. Weathering breaks down rocks into smaller particles, creating loose debris. Then, erosion

steps in to remove and transport those debris, exposing new rock surfaces.

“Weathering is the mechanical and chemical hammer that breaks down and sculpts the rocks.

Erosion transports the fragments away” (National Geographic, 2023)

4
IV. Weathering and Erosion in the Field of Computer Engineering

The similarities between weathering and erosion take shape in the dynamic processes

which form and modify digital environments.

Just like rocks can wear down over time, in computer engineering, weathering is like the

wear and tear on our devices and software. The constant use, heat, and other factors slowly make

them less efficient and reliable. In computers, erosion is about moving or taking away digital

pieces. This happens when data is transferred, communicated over networks, or moved between

different places in the digital world. It's like how erosion changes the shape of the land, but here

it's about how digital information moves around (Adrien Verhulst, 2023)

Conclusion

To conclude, rocks and landscapes changes over time due to erosion and weathering, While

weathering breaks rocks into smaller parts through natural forces like water, ice, acids, salts, plants,

animals, and temperature changes. erosion comes in to move these parts around, shaping the land

we know today. Weathering has two main types, which is the mechanical and chemical weathering.

Mechanical weathering involves rocks breaking into small pieces due to pressure, temperature

changes, freezing and thawing cycles of water, plant or animal activity, and salt evaporation.

Chemical weathering on the other hand, transforms rocks through reactions with water and acids,

altering their composition. Erosion then transports weathered particles using natural forces like

water, wind, and ice, influenced by climate, topography, vegetation, and tectonic activity.

5
In computer engineering, we can relate weathering to the wear and tear on devices, slowly

reducing efficiency. Meanwhile erosion could be associated to the movement or removal of digital

pieces during data transfer, influencing the flow of digital information.

In essence, just like rocks and landscapes have a story to tell as they change, our own stories

develop as we go through life. "Nature is always doing something interesting." As we are part of

nature, each experience leaves its own mark on our lives, just like the way nature shapes things.

6
References

Adrien Verhulst, J.-M. N. (2023). Deep Weathering Effects. Science Direct, 40-49.
B. A., E. S. (n.d.). Learn How Rock Breaks Down With Chemical Weathering. Retrieved from
ThoughtCo: https://www.thoughtco.com/chemical-weathering-1440852
Berlin University. (2008). Erosion. Retrieved from Berlin University.
Chris Johnson, M. D. (2017). An Introduction to Geology. Retrieved from
https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geology/Book%3A_An_Introduction_to_Geology
_(Johnson_Affolter_Inkenbrandt_and_Mosher)/05%3A_Weathering_Erosion_and_Sedim
entary_Rocks/5.0S%3A_5.S%3A_Weathering_Erosion_and_Sedimentary_Rocks_(Sum
mary)
National Geographic. (2015). National Geographic. Retrieved from
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/weathering-
erosion#:~:text=Weathering%20is%20the%20mechanical%20and,cliffs%20braced%20ag
ainst%20violent%20seas.
National Geographic. (2023). Erosion. Retrieved from National Geographic Society:
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/weathering-erosion
Nycz. (2010). Processes of Change. Retrieved from University of Saskatchewan:
https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/

7
The Carbon Cycle

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Jeff Roel A. Garsula

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D


What is Carbon and its importance?

Carbon is essential to life. This is because it is able to form a huge variety of chains

of different lengths. It was once thought that the carbon-based molecules of life could only

be obtained from living things. They were thought to contain a ‘spark of life’. However, in

1828, urea was synthesized from inorganic reagents and the branches of organic and

inorganic chemistry were united.

Living things get almost all their carbon from carbon dioxide, either from the

atmosphere or dissolved in water. Photosynthesis by green plants and photosynthetic

plankton uses energy from the sun to split water into oxygen and hydrogen. The oxygen is

released to the atmosphere, fresh water and seas, and the hydrogen joins with carbon

dioxide to produce carbohydrates.

Some of the carbohydrates are used, along with nitrogen, phosphorus and other

elements, to form the other monomer molecules of life. These include bases and sugars for

RNA and DNA, and amino acids for proteins.

Living things that do not photosynthesize have to rely on consuming other living

things for their source of carbon molecules. Their digestive systems break carbohydrates

into monomers that they can use to build their own cellular structures. Respiration provides

the energy needed for these reactions. In respiration oxygen rejoins carbohydrates, to form

carbon dioxide and water again. The energy released in this reaction is made available for

the cells.

Fun Fact: The amount of carbon that the earth had at the start is still the same amount today.
What is The Carbon Cycle?

The Carbon Cycle is the process of Recycling and Reusing carbon atoms by

absorbing and releasing them. The carbon atoms in the atmosphere are absorbed by the

organisms on earth and then it is released back to the atmosphere over and over again.

Carbon is always on the move. Put simply, the carbon cycle is the transfer of carbon

atoms between different zones in, on, and around the planet. In other words, carbon atoms

take a cyclical pathway through Earth’s systems, into the atmosphere, and back—over and

over again.

The environment is one large, closed system. All its parts must work together and

regulate as a whole to continue to support life. A healthy balance of carbon is crucial for

both the atmosphere surrounding the planet and the life forms that call this planet home.

To maintain this balance—and a healthy distribution of carbon—nature recycles all

existing carbon atoms through each step of the carbon cycle.

Carbon is an essential building block of life on Earth. It’s released through human

activity and natural processes alike. As carbon atoms are released, they make their way

through the planet’s many environments, including the:

● Biosphere, or all Earth’s ecosystems

● Pedosphere, or the planet’s soil mantle

● Geosphere, or Earth’s rocks and minerals

● Hydrosphere, or the planet’s water bodies


● Atmosphere, or the gasses enveloping the globe

How does The Carbon Cycle happen?

The Carbon Cycle has 5 steps:

1. Carbon enters the atmosphere via carbon dioxide.

2. Carbon dioxide is absorbed and used as energy.

3. Carbon compounds enter the food chain.

4. Carbon reenters the atmosphere via respiration and decomposition.

5. The carbon cycle repeats.

What Two Processes Fuel the Carbon Cycle?

Ultimately, the carbon cycle relies heavily on two natural mechanisms:

photosynthesis and cellular respiration (also referred to as metabolism).

1. Photosynthesis

With photosynthesis, plants intake carbon dioxide to produce energy and maintain

growth, emitting oxygen in the process.

2. Cellular Respiration

During cellular respiration, organisms use oxygen to convert food and water into

energy, producing carbon dioxide as a result.


These two processes work in tandem to keep the natural carbon cycle going—and

global reservoirs in balance.

Why Is the Carbon Cycle Important?

Without a healthy balance of carbon, there would be no viable life on the planet.

Any imbalance in carbon levels would potentially render the earth inhospitable, and life as

we know it would cease to exist.

Carbon is constantly in circulation and is neither created nor destroyed throughout

the cycle. Too much carbon in any one area, however, puts the planet and its inhabitants at

risk. Carbon dioxide levels must remain stable through each phase of the cycle to maintain

an ideal global temperature—and plants and producer organisms can only absorb so much.

This imbalance has hazardous consequences. Too much carbon in the atmosphere

can cause an increase in surface temperature, making it more difficult for the planet’s

ecosystems to cool down.

Much like the inside of a greenhouse, high carbon dioxide levels function like

gaseous insulation to trap heat that naturally radiates from the earth’s surface. Because that

radiation has nowhere else to go, the planet heats up.

What Impact Do Humans Have on the Carbon Cycle?

Human intervention plays a crucial role in either supporting or disrupting the steps

of the carbon cycle. Elevated levels in the atmosphere (or trapped in the planet’s other
reservoirs) upset the planet’s equal balance of carbon. Unfortunately, because of human

activity, carbon emissions are at an all-time high.

This increase in emissions is largely due to our use of fossil fuels for energy—and

the removal of large forests that remove carbon from the atmosphere.

Carbon neutrality is a common goal among environmentalists. Achieving a carbon-

neutral world would mean restoring a healthy balance between carbon stores and carbon

emissions. Scientists are working hard to remove carbon from the atmosphere, and to

protect the carbon cycle by fighting to preserve ecosystems that naturally manage excess

carbon dioxide in the air.

To support healthy carbon levels, there are several things you can do to minimize

your impact on the carbon cycle. Businesses and consumers can rethink their routines and

make eco-friendly choices to:

● Walk, bike, or carpool

● Switch to solar-powered energy

● Use public transportation when possible

● Minimize air travel

● Cut down on household energy consumption

● Support movement toward low-carbon fuel sources


References:

⮚ Carbon - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table. (n.d.).

https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/6/carbon

⮚ What is the carbon cycle? (n.d.). https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/carbon-

cycle.html#transcript

⮚ Nikki. (2023, February 15). The five steps of the Carbon Cycle | Kiwi Energy. Kiwi

Energy. https://kiwienergy.us/the-five-steps-of-the-carbon-cycle-and-why-theyre-

important/

⮚ Hannah. (2022, October 4). What is the Carbon Cycle & Why is it So Important? Crown

Oil. https://www.crownoil.co.uk/news/what-is-the-carbon-cycle-why-is-it-so-

important/#:~:text=The%20carbon%20cycle%20refers%20to,the%20Earth%20would%2

0be%20frozen.
NITROGEN
CYCLE
REA JEAN M. GORNEZ- BSCoE

SUBMITTED BY

ENGR. MARINELA C. BANSUELA, Ph. D.

PROFESSOR
We all know that the earth is finite, matter has to be reused and recycled over and over

again. So, the atoms that are in you, were once in the air, in soil, in water, and in rocks. These

atoms have also been used by countless other living things, from dinosaurs to plants, to human

beings. And do you know that, after they leave you, they will become part of other living things

or the environment. This recycling of matter is known as a nutrient cycle and there are several

different nutrient cycles for different elements, these elements are the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle,

phosphorus cycle, and others. However, we will focus on the nitrogen cycle, the process by which

the element nitrogen moves around in ecosystems.

What is the nitrogen cycle?

The nitrogen cycle is a biogeochemical process through which nitrogen is converted into

many forms, consecutively passing from the atmosphere to the soil to organisms and back into the

atmosphere.

Our atmosphere is made up of 78% nitrogen. The nitrogen cycle is crucial for all life on

earth because nitrogen is needed to make some of the most important molecules for life, including

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), Ribonucleic acid (RNA), and proteins that are needed by all living

things. Without nitrogen, there would be, literally, no life. All plants will die and human beings

will dehydrate very quickly. However, we can’t breathe in nitrogen like oxygen, but we can absorb

nitrogen through food intake.

We all know nitrogen gas exists in both organic and inorganic forms. Organic nitrogen

exists in living organisms, and it gets passed through the food chain by the consumption of other
living organisms. However, inorganic forms of nitrogen are found in abundance in the atmosphere.

This nitrogen is made available to plants by symbiotic bacteria which can convert the inert nitrogen

into a usable form – such as nitrites and nitrates.

Nitrogen follows a cycle where it travels from the atmosphere to the soil to animals and

back. It involves several processes such as Nitrogen fixation, Nitrification, Assimilation,

Ammonification, and Denitrification.

1. Nitrogen Fixation

Nitrogen follows a cycle where it travels from the atmosphere to the soil and in a cycle,

nitrogen in the atmosphere falls to the earth by precipitation such as rain or snow. So, once the

nitrogen gas is in the soil it finds its way to bacteria on the roots, which are known as Diazotrophs.

Azotobacter and Rhizobium also have a major role in this process. These bacteria consist

of a nitrogenase enzyme, which can combine gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonia

(NH3), or ammonium (NH4+). Ammonia is a nitrogen compound that can dissolve in water and

is easier for other organisms’ enzymes to interact with.

Three types of Nitrogen Fixation:

a. Atmospheric fixation. It is a natural phenomenon where the energy of lightning breaks

the nitrogen into nitrogen oxides, which are then used by plants.
b. Industrial nitrogen fixation, is a man-made alternative that aids in nitrogen fixation

by the use of ammonia. Ammonia is produced by the direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen.

Later, it is converted into various fertilizers such as urea.

c. Biological nitrogen fixation. We already know that nitrogen is not used directly in

the air by plants and animals, thus, bacteria like Rhizobium and blue-green algae transform the

unusable form of nitrogen into other compounds that are more readily usable. These nitrogen

compounds get fixed in the soil by these microbes.

Ammonia can be taken up by plants and used to make important biological molecules like

DNA and proteins. However, not all of the ammonia produced by nitrogen fixation gets assimilated

into plants. Too much ammonia can be toxic, and sometimes plants prefer to assimilate other

nitrogen compounds called nitrates. So, the next step is the conversion of ammonia into nitrates, a

process called nitrification.

2. Nitrification

In this process, the ammonia is converted into nitrate by the presence of bacteria in the soil.

Thus, it is done by nitrifying bacteria. These bacteria oxidize or add oxygen to ammonia in

chemical reactions that first convert the ammonia to nitrite (NO2-) and then to nitrate (NO3-).

Because oxygen is needed for these reactions, nitrification happens best in well-aerated soils.

Nitrites are formed by the oxidation of ammonia with the help of Nitrosomonas bacteria

species. Later, the produced nitrites are converted into nitrates by Nitrobacter. Like ammonia,
nitrate is a plant fertilizer because it can be assimilated and used to make key biomolecules (DNA,

RNA, Proteins, etc.).

The reaction involved in the process of Nitrification is as follows:

2NH3 + 3O2 → (2NO2^– )+( 2H^+) + 2H2O

2NO2– + O2 → 2NO3–

The equation can be read as follows: “Two molecules of ammonia (NH3) react with three

molecules of oxygen (O2) to produce two nitrite ions (NO2–), two hydrogen ions (H+), and two

water molecules (H2O).” In the first step, ammonia is oxidized to nitrite in the presence of

ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. The second step is the oxidation of nitrite to nitrate and oxygen in a

neutral environment.

3. Assimilation

Assimilation is the primary producer – plants take in the nitrogen compounds from the soil

with the help of their roots, which are available in the form of ammonia, nitrite ions, nitrate ions,

or ammonium ions and are used in the formation of the plant and animal proteins. Once nitrogen

is inside the plants and used to build our sweet biomolecules, it can pass to other living things

through food webs. When an animal eats the plant, the nitrogen-containing compounds in the plant

move to the animal. And if that animal gets eaten, nitrogen moves to its predator, and so on.
4. Ammonification

When plants or animals die, the nitrogen present in the organic matter is released back into

the soil. The decomposers, namely bacteria or fungi present in the soil, convert the organic matter

back into ammonium. This process of decomposition produces ammonia, which is further used for

other biological processes.

But we are still missing one key part of our cycle. In order to have a complete cycle,

nitrogen gas needs to get back into the air. This is done by denitrifying bacteria and is called

denitrification.

5. Denitrification

The process in which nitrogen compounds make their way back into the atmosphere by

converting nitrate (NO3-) into gaseous nitrogen (N). This process of the nitrogen cycle is the final

stage and occurs in the absence of oxygen. Denitrification is carried out by the denitrifying

bacterial species- Clostridium and Pseudomonas, which will process nitrate to gain oxygen and

give out free nitrogen gas as a byproduct. It usually happens best in low-oxygen environments,

like waterlogged soils, and it reduces the fertility of the soil.

Also, marine ecosystems, have a process in the same manner as terrestrial ecosystems. The

only difference is that marine bacteria perform it. To conclude, let me share with you the

importance of the Nitrogen Cycle, these are they help plants to synthesize chlorophyll from the

nitrogen compounds. Also, its unique chemical bonding properties allow it to create structures

such as DNA and RNA nucleotides, and the amino acids from which proteins are built. Without
nitrogen, these molecules would not be able to exist. However, we should be mindful that with too

much use of nitrogen, plants can suffer harmful effects, and nitrates can also be directly toxic to

humans, they can increase cancer risks and interfere with blood chemistry, leaving blood unable

to properly carry oxygen.


References

BYJU'S (2023), Nitrogen Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle Explained - Definition, Stages and Importance

(byjus.com)

Gabe Buckley (2021), Nitrogen Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle - Definition, Steps and Importance |

Biology Dictionary

BioMAn Biology (2023), The Nitrogen Cycle, (116) The Nitrogen Cycle! - YouTube
PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Hamoy, Marion Rafael C.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D.


Phosphorous Cycle

What is Phosphorous Cycle?

The phosphorus cycle involves the movement of phosphorus through the Earth's systems,

crucial for life's essential functions. Unlike some other cycles, it doesn't involve the atmosphere

much because phosphorus is usually in solid form. Over time, phosphorus becomes less available

to plants in ecosystems due to various factors. Human activities, like mining and fertilizer use,

have disrupted this cycle, and transporting food from farms to cities also leads to phosphorus loss.

The Phosphorous Cycle

The phosphorous cycle comprises several crucial stages

 Weathering: Weathering processes release phosphorus from rocks and minerals, allowing

phosphate ions to enter soil and water systems.

 Plant Uptake: Plants absorb phosphate ions from the soil, incorporating them into their

biological structures for growth.

 Trophic Transfer: Phosphorus is transferred through trophic levels as organisms consume

one another, ensuring the distribution of this essential nutrient.

 Decomposition: When organisms die, decomposition processes release phosphorus back

into the soil, continuing the cycle.

 Sedimentation and Geological Uplift: Phosphorus becomes part of sedimentary rock

layers through geological processes, which may resurface through tectonic activities.
 Erosion and Runoff: Weathered phosphorus-rich materials are transported through

erosion, ultimately reaching bodies of water via runoff.

The phosphorus cycle primarily operates within terrestrial and aquatic systems, with the

atmosphere playing a minimal role.

Ecological Importance of Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus plays a critical role in various ecosystems:

 Primary Production: Phosphorus is an essential component for photosynthesis and

primary production, influencing the abundance and diversity of life.

 Limiting Nutrient: In many ecosystems, phosphorus can be a limiting nutrient, regulating

the growth of organisms and overall productivity.

 Aquatic Ecosystems: Phosphorus availability significantly impacts water quality, leading

to concerns such as eutrophication.

Understanding the ecological importance of the phosphorus cycle is crucial for ecosystem

management and preservation.


Human Impact on Phosphorus Cycle

Human activities have disrupted the natural phosphorus cycle through:

 Agriculture: Excessive use of phosphorus-based fertilizers and runoff from agricultural

practices contribute to phosphorus pollution.

 Mining: Phosphorus mining for fertilizer production can lead to environmental issues.

 Wastewater Discharge: Human sewage and wastewater release phosphorus into aquatic

systems.

These activities have significant consequences for the environment, altering phosphorus

distribution and ecosystem health.

Environmental Consequences

The alteration of the phosphorus cycle results in several environmental consequences:

 Nutrient Pollution: Excess phosphorus in water bodies leads to nutrient pollution, causing

issues such as algal blooms and oxygen depletion.

 Algal Blooms: Algal blooms disrupt aquatic ecosystems and can produce harmful toxins.

 Dead Zones: Oxygen-depleted dead zones in water bodies harm aquatic life.

These consequences underscore the importance of responsible phosphorus management.


Mitigation and Sustainable Practices

Efforts to mitigate the environmental impact of human activities on the phosphorus cycle include:

 Reducing Fertilizer Use: Implementing strategies to minimize fertilizer application, such

as precision farming and the 4R nutrient stewardship approach.

 Sustainable Agriculture: Promoting sustainable agricultural practices to minimize nutrient

runoff and pollution.

 Regulation and Policy: Developing and enforcing regulations to manage phosphorus

discharge and protect water quality.

These practices are essential for maintaining the health of ecosystems while sustaining agricultural

production.

Significance of Phosphorous Cycle in Chemistry for Engineers

The phosphorus cycle is significant in chemistry for engineers because it plays a crucial role in

nutrient cycling, water treatment, environmental impact assessment, chemical reactions, material

science, and energy storage. Engineers need to understand the phosphorus cycle to address various

challenges related to agriculture, water quality, environmental sustainability, and engineering

applications involving phosphorus compounds.


Significance of Phosphorous Cycle in Computer Engineering

The phosphorus cycle doesn't really have any direct relevance to computer engineering. Computer

engineering is all about designing and creating computer systems, hardware, and software. The

phosphorus cycle, on the other hand, is more about how phosphorus moves through the

environment, mostly in the context of biology and ecology. In computer engineering, we don't

typically deal with these environmental cycles. However, there can be instances where computer

engineering and technology are used to monitor and manage environmental data, including things

like biogeochemical cycles, but that's not the main focus of the field.

Significance of Phosphorous Cycle in the field of Engineering

In the context of engineering, which includes fields like civil, electrical, and mechanical

engineering, the phosphorus cycle isn't directly involved. Engineers are primarily concerned with

designing, constructing, and maintaining various systems and infrastructure but aren't directly

dealing with ecological or environmental cycles like the phosphorus cycle. However, knowledge

of ecological cycles and environmental factors can be useful in certain engineering projects related

to sustainability, water management, or agriculture, where a basic understanding of

biogeochemical processes might come in handy. In such cases, collaboration between engineers

and environmental scientists may be necessary to address specific challenges.


The difference between Phosphorous and Phosphorus

Phosphorous and phosphorus are closely related terms, but they refer to slightly different things:

 Phosphorous: Phosphorous is an adjective that describes something that contains or is

related to phosphorus. For example, you might say "phosphorous compounds" to refer to

chemical compounds that contain phosphorus atoms.

 Phosphorus: Phosphorus is a chemical element with the symbol "P" on the periodic table.

It is a non-metal element that is essential for life and is commonly found in nature.

Phosphorus is an important component of DNA, RNA, ATP (adenosine triphosphate, a

molecule that stores and transfers energy within cells), and various other biological

molecules. It is also used in fertilizers and a wide range of industrial applications.

Conclusion

The phosphorus cycle is essential for life's functions, mainly operating within terrestrial and

aquatic systems. Human activities like agriculture and mining disrupt this cycle, leading to

environmental problems. Efforts to mitigate these impacts include reducing fertilizer use,

promoting sustainable agriculture, and enforcing regulations. Engineers need to understand the
phosphorus cycle as it has implications in various fields. Overall, recognizing its significance and

implementing sustainable practices is crucial for ecosystem health and engineering applications.

Reference

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle

https://swroc.cfans.umn.edu/research/soil-water/phosphorus-

cycle#:~:text=The%20Phosphorus%20Cycle%20is%20the,living%20and%20dead%20organic%

20material.

https://www.britannica.com/science/phosphorus-cycle

https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/961-the-phosphorus-

cycle#:~:text=Phosphorus%20moves%20in%20a%20cycle,soil%20and%20sediments%20and%

20organisms.&text=Over%20time%2C%20rain%20and%20weathering,inorganic%20phosphate

%20from%20the%20soil.

https://sapling.ai/mixup/phosphorous_phosphorus#:~:text=phosphorous%3A%20(adjective)%20

containing%20or,occurs%20in%20several%20allotropic%20forms.

https://byjus.com/biology/phosphorus-cycle/

https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.geeksforgeeks.org/phosphorus-cycle/amp/
ROCK FORMATION

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Loyloy, Carl Jake B.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D


WHAT IS ROCK?

Rock, in geology, naturally occurring and coherent aggregate of one or more minerals. Such

aggregates constitute the basic unit of which the solid Earth is composed and typically form

recognizable and mappable volumes.

WHAT IS A ROCK FORMATION?

A rock formation is an isolated, scenic, or spectacular surface rock outcrop. Rock formations are

usually the result of weathering and erosion sculpting the existing rock. Rock formation can also

refer to specific sedimentary strata or other rock units in stratigraphic and petrologic studies. Rocks

are commonly divided into three major classes according to the processes that resulted in their

formation. These classes are (1) igneous rocks, which have solidified from molten material called

magma; (2) sedimentary rocks, those consisting of fragments derived from pre-existing rocks or

of materials precipitated from solutions; and (3) metamorphic rocks, which have been derived from

either igneous or sedimentary rocks under conditions that caused changes in mineralogical

composition, texture, and internal structure. These three classes, in turn, are subdivided into

numerous groups and types on the basis of various factors, the most important of which are

chemical, mineralogical, and textural attributes.

ROCK CYCLE

The rock cycle is a process that explains the basic relationships among igneous, metamorphic, and

sedimentary rocks. The process depends on temperature, pressure, time, and changes in environmental

conditions in the Earth’s crust and at its surface.


WHY IS THE ROCK CYCLE IMPORTANT?

The rock cycle is predictable and provides insight into the probable locations of energy sources. For

example, fossil fuels are found in sedimentary.

At first glance, weathering and erosion break lower the igneous rock into pebbles, sand, and dirt, creating

sediment, which builds up in basins around the Earth’s surface. As successive layers of sediment settle on

top of each other, the sediment close to the bottom is compressed, hardens, and forms sedimentary rock.

The rock cycle also gives scientists and engineers an idea of where energy sources (mainly fossil fuels,

which are found only in sedimentary rock) and building materials such as marble or granite may be located.

We will see throughout the course how this cycle plays into just about every aspect of geology. Through

the continuous process, older rocks are transformed into new rocks by means of erosion, depositions,

pressure, melting, and cooling. It is an endless process by which rocks are formed, destroyed, and formed

again. That is why the rock cycle is considered a cyclic process. Rocks have a broad range of uses that make

them significantly important to human life. For instance, rocks are used in construction, for manufacturing

substances making medicine, and for the production of gas. Rocks are also extremely vital to scientists as

they provide clues about the Earth’s history. The cycle has no beginning and no end. Rocks deep within the

Earth are right now becoming other types of rocks.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ROCKS

Igneous rocks form when magma (molten rock) cools and crystallizes, either at volcanoes on the

surface of the Earth or while the melted rock is still inside the crust. All magma develops

underground, in the lower crust or upper mantle, because of the intense heat there. Igneous rocks

can have many different compositions, depending on the magma they cool from. They can also

look different based on their cooling conditions. For example, two rocks from identical magma
can become either rhyolite or granite, depending on whether they cool quickly or slowly. The two

main categories of igneous rocks are extrusive and intrusive. Extrusive rocks are formed on the

surface of the Earth from lava, which is magma that has emerged from underground. Intrusive

rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the crust of the planet

Sedimentary rocks are formed on or near the Earth’s surface, in contrast to metamorphic and

igneous rocks, which are formed deep within the Earth. The most important geological processes

that lead to the creation of sedimentary rocks are erosion, weathering, dissolution, precipitation,

and lithification. Erosion and weathering include the effects of wind and rain, which slowly break

down large rocks into smaller ones. Erosion and weathering transform boulders and even

mountains into sediments, such as sand or mud. Dissolution is a form of weathering—chemical

weathering. With this process, water that is slightly acidic slowly wears away stone. These three

processes create the raw materials for new, sedimentary rocks. Precipitation and lithification are

processes that build new rocks or minerals. Precipitation is the formation of rocks and minerals

from chemicals that precipitate from water. For example, as a lake dries up over many thousands

of years, it leaves behind mineral deposits; this is what happened in California’s Death Valley.

Finally, lithification is the process by which clay, sand, and other sediments on the bottom of the

ocean or other bodies of water are slowly compacted into rocks from the weight of overlying

sediments.

Metamorphic rocks the term “metamorphosis” is most often used in reference to the process of a

caterpillar changing into a butterfly. However, the word “metamorphosis” is a broad term that

indicates a change from one thing to another. Even rocks, a seemingly constant substance, can

change into a new type of rock. Rocks that undergo a change to form a new rock are referred to as
metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks are very specific. The existing rock must be exposed to

high heat, high pressure, or to a hot, mineral-rich fluid. Usually, all three of these circumstances

are met. These conditions are most often found either deep in Earth’s crust or at plate boundaries

where tectonic plates collide. In order to create metamorphic rock, it is vital that the existing rock

remains solid and does not melt. If there is too much heat or pressure, the rock will melt and

become magma. This will result in the formation of an igneous rock, not a metamorphic rock.

Although metamorphic rocks typically form deep in the planet’s crust, they are often exposed on

the surface of the Earth. This happens due to geologic uplift and the erosion of the rock and soil

above them. At the surface, metamorphic rocks will be exposed to weathering processes and may

break down into sediment. These sediments could then be compressed to form sedimentary rocks,

which would start the entire cycle anew.

INTEREST AND UTILITY OF ROCK FORMATIONS IN MANY FIELDS

OF WORK?

Physical properties of rocks are of interest and utility in many fields of work, including geology,

petrophysics, geophysics, materials science, geochemistry, and geotechnical engineering. The

scale of investigation ranges from the molecular and crystalline up to terrestrial studies of the Earth

and other planetary bodies. Geologists are interested in the radioactive age dating of rocks to

reconstruct the origin of mineral deposits; seismologists formulate prospective earthquake

predictions using premonitory physical or chemical changes; crystallographers study the synthesis

of minerals with special optical or physical properties; exploration geophysicists investigate the
variation of physical properties of subsurface rocks to make possible detection of natural resources

such as oil and gas, geothermal energy, and ores of metals; geotechnical engineers examine the

nature and behavior of the materials on, in, or of which such structures as buildings, dams, tunnels,

bridges, and underground storage vaults are to be constructed; solid-state physicists study the

magnetic, electrical, and mechanical properties of materials for electronic devices, computer

components, or high-performance ceramics; and petroleum reservoir engineers analyze the

response measured on well logs or in the processes of deep drilling at elevated temperature and

pressure.
REFERENCES:

● Klein, C., & Carmichael, R. S. (1998, October 27). Rock | Definition, Characteristics,

Formation, cycle, Classification, Types, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britanica.

https://www.britannica.com/science/rock-geology

● Van Den Burg, E. (2021, September 27). Exactly why is the rock cycle important?

Curious Science! https://sciencebriefss.com/geology/exactly-why-is-the-rock-cycle-

important/#:~:text=The%20rock%20cycle%20also%20gives%20scientists%20and%20en

gineers,such%20as%20marble%20or%20granite%20may%20be%20located.

● Igneous Rocks. (n.d.). https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/igneous-rocks/

● Sedimentary rocks. (n.d.). https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/sedimentary-

rock/

● Metamorphic Rocks. (n.d.). https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/metamorphic-

rocks/
THE BIOSPHERE

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

MALIBIRAN, HARRY J.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela


What is The Biosphere?

The Biosphere

The biosphere includes all life on our planet. It is not only all the things that are living, but

also the remains of organisms that have died and not yet decomposed. It also includes the regions

of the other parts of the Earth system (atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere) occupied by living

organisms. For hundreds of years, people have recognized connections between living things and

the climate (for example, cutting down the trees of a forest can change the temperature of the

immediate area). Still, although the term “biosphere” was first coined in the 1920s by Russian

scientist Vladimir I. Vernadsky, focused studies of the biosphere’s interactions with the rest of the

planet were not underway until the 1960s and later decades.

How the Biosphere Influences the Earth System

In the 1960s, scientists began actively exploring how biological processes, both natural and those

due to humans, affect Earth’s atmosphere. For instance, in just a short amount of time, the length

of a season, plants change the world. When it is spring and summer in the Northern Hemisphere,

more plants are around to photosynthesize and extract carbon from the atmosphere, decreasing the

amount of carbon dioxide by about 3% by the time fall arrives. When many of the Northern

Hemisphere plants drop leaves and become dormant in the autumn and winter, there is less
photosynthesis occurring, leading to more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in late winter and

early spring.

The biosphere Is made up of the parts of Earth where life exists. The biosphere extends from the

deepest root systems of trees, to the dark environment of ocean trenches, to lush rainforests and

high mountaintops.

Scientists describe Earth in terms of spheres. The solid surface layer of Earth is the lithosphere.

The atmosphere is the layer of air that stretches above the lithosphere. The Earth’s water—on the

surface, in the ground, and in the air—makes up the hydrosphere.

Since life exists on the ground, in the air, and in the water, the biosphere overlaps all these spheres.

Although the biosphere measures about 20 kilometers (12 miles) from top to bottom, almost all

life exists between about 500 meters (1,640 feet) below the ocean’s surface to about six kilometers

(3.75 miles) above sea level.

Origin of the Biosphere

The biosphere has existed for about 3.5 billion years. The biosphere’s earliest life-forms, called

prokaryotes, survived without oxygen. Ancient prokaryotes included single-celled organisms such

as bacteria and archaea.

Some prokaryotes developed a unique chemical process. They were able to use sunlight to make

simple sugars and oxygen out of water and carbon dioxide, a process called photosynthesis. These

photosynthetic organisms were so plentiful that they changed the biosphere. Over a long period of

time, the atmosphere developed a mix of oxygen and other gases that could sustain new forms of

life.
The addition of oxygen to the biosphere allowed more complex life-forms to evolve. Millions of

different plants and other photosynthetic species developed. Animals, which consume plants (and

other animals) evolved. Bacteria and other organisms evolved to decompose, or break down, dead

animals and plants.

The biosphere benefits from this food web. The remains of dead plants and animals release

nutrients into the soil and ocean. These nutrients are reabsorbed by growing plants. This exchange

of food and energy makes the biosphere a self-supporting and self-regulating system.

The biosphere is sometimes thought of as one large ecosystem—a complex community of living

and nonliving things functioning as a single unit. More often, however, the biosphere is described

as having many ecosystems.

As part of the biosphere, humans account for just 0.01% of Earth’s biomass. Even at that small

scale, our impacts on the overall Earth system can be quite large, whether or not we expect them

to be. For example, since 1750, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased

from a relatively stable 280 parts per million to over 420 parts per million in 2022. That’s an

increase of nearly 50%, which seems dramatic. But it didn’t happen all at once. As humans began

extracting and using more and more fossil fuels, carbon dioxide amounts in the atmosphere began

to slowly increase, causing the uphill appearance of the Keeling Curve. Each year, the extra carbon

dioxide added into the atmosphere accumulates, so that for every year and every decade, the total

amount continues to rise.

The biosphere is divided into several interconnected parts or components, including:


1.Atmosphere: This is the layer of gases surrounding Earth. It includes the air we breathe and plays

a crucial role in supporting life, providing oxygen and regulating temperature.

2.Hydrosphere: This encompasses all of Earth’s water, including oceans, rivers, lakes,

groundwater, and even water vapor in the atmosphere. It’s essential for life as we know it.

3.Lithosphere: The solid, rocky part of Earth’s surface, including the continents and ocean floors.

It provides a substrate for terrestrial ecosystems.

4.Biosphere: This is the layer of life on Earth, where living organisms, including plants, animals,

and microorganisms, exist. It’s the sum of all ecosystems and their interactions.

These components interact and influence each other, creating a dynamic and interconnected system

that supports life on our planet.

Importance of The Biosphere

The biosphere, often described as the “thin layer of life,” is a realm teeming with incredible

diversity, complexity, and interdependence. It encompasses all living organisms on our planet,
from the tiniest microorganisms to the grandest trees, and from the depths of the oceans to the

peaks of mountains. In this essay, we will explore the profound importance of the biosphere and

its far-reaching implications for life on Earth.

One of the most fundamental aspects of the biosphere is its role in sustaining life itself. It is the

cradle of existence, providing the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat. The

biosphere offers the very foundation of life, creating an environment where living organisms can

thrive and evolve. Without the biosphere, life on Earth, as we know it, would cease to exist.

In addition to sustaining life, the biosphere plays a critical role in maintaining ecological balance.

It is a complex web of interactions between different species and ecosystems. These interactions

regulate populations, nutrient cycles, and energy flow, ensuring that no single species overruns or

disrupts the delicate balance of the ecosystem. When this balance is disturbed, it can have far-

reaching consequences, leading to issues like overpopulation of certain species or the depletion of

essential resources.

Furthermore, the biosphere provides an array of invaluable ecosystem services. It purifies water,

regulates climate, and supports agriculture through processes like pollination and soil fertility.

These services are essential for human well-being and the sustainability of agriculture, which is

the foundation of our food supply.


Scientifically, the biosphere offers endless opportunities for study and understanding. Exploring

the biosphere helps us unravel the processes of life, ecology, and evolution. This knowledge

informs scientific research, conservation efforts, and technological innovations, allowing us to

develop a deeper understanding of our planet and its complexities.

In conclusion, the biosphere is not merely a physical entity but a living, breathing entity that

sustains life, maintains ecological balance, and offers countless benefits to humanity. Its

importance cannot be overstated, as it serves as the foundation upon which our existence is built.

Recognizing the significance of the biosphere is the first step toward ensuring its conservation and

the well-being of both current and future generations. It is our collective duty to protect and

preserve this invaluable resource, for the biosphere’s health is intimately linked with our own.

REFERENCES

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0,5&q=thebiosphere&btnG=#d=gs_qabs&t=1

698801518091&u=#p=vuciaAIVVPMJ

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/biosphere/

https://www.britannica.com/science/biosphere
https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/how-climate-works/biosphere
Food Chain and Food Web

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Jonfred M. Maxino

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D


What is a Food Chain?

A food chain refers to the order of events in an ecosystem, where one living organism eats

another organism, and later that organism is consumed by another larger organism. The flow of

nutrients and energy from one organism to another at different trophic levels forms a food chain.

The food chain also explains the feeding pattern or relationship between living organisms.

A trophic level refers to the sequential stages in a food chain, starting with producers at the bottom,

followed by primary, secondary and tertiary consumers. Every level in a food chain is known as a

trophic level.

Here's an example of a very simple food chain:

Sun----->Grass----->Zebra---->Lion

Food chains show how all living things get their energy from food, and how nutrients are

passed from species to species down the chain.

Here is a more complex food chain:

Sun----->Grass----->Grasshopper----->Mouse----->Snake----->Hawk
Trophic Levels of a Food Chain

All living creatures within a food chain are broken down into different groups, or trophic

levels, those help ecologists understand their specific role in the ecosystem. Here's a closer look at

each of the trophic levels within a food chain.

Producers: Producers make up the first trophic level of an ecosystem. They earn their name via

their ability to produce their own food. They do not depend upon any other creature for their

energy. Most producers utilize the Sun's energy in a process called photosynthesis to create their

own energy and nutrients. Plants are producers. So are algae, phytoplankton, and some types of

bacteria.

Consumers: The next trophic level focuses on the species that eat the producers. There are three

types of consumers.

Herbivores: Herbivores are primary consumers that eat only plants. They may eat any or all parts

of the plant such as leaves, branches, fruit, berries, nuts, grass, flowers, roots, or pollen. Deer,

rabbits, horses, cows, sheep, and insects are a few examples of herbivores.

Carnivores: Carnivores eat only animals. Cats, hawks, sharks, frogs, owls, and spiders are just a

few of the world's carnivores.


Omnivores: Omnivores eat both plants and animals. Bears, humans, raccoons, most primates, and

many birds are omnivores.

There are various levels of consumers that work their way on up the food chain. For

example, primary consumers are the herbivores that eat only plants, while secondary consumers

are the creatures that eat secondary consumers. In the example above, the mouse would be a

secondary consumer. Tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers - on our example that was the

snake.

Finally, the food chain ends at the apex predator - the animal who resides at the top of the

food chain. In the example above, that was the hawk. Lions, bobcats, mountain lions, and great

white sharks are more examples of apex predators within their ecosystems.

Decomposers: The last level of the food chain is made up by the decomposers. These are the

bacteria and fungi that eat decaying matter - dead plants and animals and turn them into nutrient-

rich soil. These are the nutrients that plants then use to produce their own food - thus, starting a

new food chain.


What is a Food Web?

Simply put, a food web describes all of the food chains in a given ecosystem. Rather than

forming a straight line that goes from the sun to the plants to the animals that eat them, food webs

show the interconnectedness of all of the living creatures in an ecosystem. A food web is made up

of many interconnected and overlapping food chains. They are created to describe species

interactions and relationships within an ecosystem.

Complexity of Food Webs

The diversity of organisms in an ecosystem determines the complexity of food webs. Two

important factors determine the complexity of food webs.

Length of the Food Chain: The diversity of organisms and their food habits in an ecosystem

determine the length of the food chain. More diverse organisms and their food habits make the

food chain to be longer.

Alternatives at different trophic levels: The number of alternatives at different trophic levels of

a food chain increases the complexity of food webs. An increase in the number of alternatives also

increases the interlocking pattern of the food web. For example, the presence of a wide variety of

organisms in the deep sea and oceans makes these aquatic food webs more complex.
Types of Food Web:

The food web shows the relationship between species in an ecosystem. These

interrelationships vary based on energy flow and dynamics of species populations. Food webs are

classified into different types namely,

Connectedness Food Webs:

These food webs are also known as topological food webs. They indicate a feeding

relationship. These food webs indicate only the presence or absence of a trophic interaction. They

do not show the strength of the interaction or changes taking place in the trophic relationships.

Hence, these food webs are also known as static food webs.

Energy Flow Food Webs:

These food webs indicate information about the strength of feeding interactions. They

indicate the quantity of energy flow from one species to another. The strength of relationship

between species is indicated by the thickness of arrow.

Functional or Interaction Food Webs:

These food webs show the influence of one group of species over the other. They represent

the significance of each species in maintaining communal integrity.


Difference of Food Chain and Food Web

Food Chains and Food Webs both show the direction of the flow of energy and nutrients in

the ecosystem. The food chain is a linear representation of organisms along the trophic level, while

the food web is multiple interconnected food chains. It makes us understand the interaction among

the species and the way they are interdependent. Overall, it gives an impression of the workings

of the ecosystem and the balance it maintains within.

Importance of food chains and food webs:

 The food chain and food web help to understand the feeding relationship between

organisms in an ecosystem.

 Food chains and food webs provide a clear understanding of the nutrient cycling and energy

flow in an ecosystem.

 Food chains help to check the population size of different organisms in an ecosystem.

 Example: In a grassland ecosystem, if there is an increase in the deer population, food

availability will be higher for the carnivores which feed on them. Similarly, if there is a

reduction in the deer population, some carnivores would starve and die. As a consequence,

the deer population would increase.

 Food webs help to understand the natural stability of an ecosystem. If one species gets

affected, it provides an impact on the subsequent trophic levels.

 Food chains and food webs help to understand the natural balance of the population of each

species in an ecosystem.
References:

 https://byjus.com/biology/overview-of-food-chain/

 https://www.treehugger.com/difference-between-food-chains-and-webs-4011388

 https://www.turito.com/learn/biology/food-chain-and-food-web-grade-9

 https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/food-chains-and-food-webs/
Negros Oriental State University
College of Engineering and Architecture
Main Campus 2, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

Flow of Energy and Energy Pyramid

Submitted by:

Khiana Khate S. Medina

EPS 131- Chemistry for Engineers

BS Computer Engineering- 1st Year

Submitted to:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela


Negros Oriental State University
College of Engineering and Architecture
Main Campus 2, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

Introduction:

Energy flow in ecosystems refers to the movement and transformation of energy within a

biological community. It involves the transfer of energy from one organism to another through

feeding relationships. This process is crucial for the survival and functioning of all living

organisms within an ecosystem.

Importance in the Context of Chemistry:

Understanding energy transfer in ecosystems is vital in the field of chemistry for several reasons:

1. Thermodynamics: This helps chemists study how energy is converted and utilized in

biological systems.

2. Biochemical Reactions: Knowledge of energy flow is fundamental in studying the metabolic

processes that sustain life.

3. Nutrient Cycles: Energy flow is intimately linked with nutrient cycles, which involve the

movement of elements like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus through the environment.

4. Sustainable Practices: Understanding energy flow helps in optimizing processes.

5. Environmental Impact: It enables scientists to understand how chemical substances can

disrupt or influence natural energy transfer processes.

In summary, comprehending the flow of energy in ecosystems is essential in connecting

biological processes with chemical principles.


Negros Oriental State University
College of Engineering and Architecture
Main Campus 2, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

Definition of Energy:

Energy is the capacity to do work or produce an effect. In the context of physics and chemistry, it

is a fundamental concept that underlies all physical processes. Energy comes in various forms,

each with distinct characteristics:

1. Kinetic Energy: This is the energy associated with motion.

2. Potential Energy: This is stored energy that is associated with an object's position or state.

3. Chemical Energy: This form of energy is stored within the bonds of chemical compounds.

4. Thermal (Heat) Energy: It is the energy associated with the random motion of particles

within a substance.

5. Electromagnetic Energy: This encompasses a wide range of energies associated with

electromagnetic waves, including visible light, radio waves, microwaves, and more.

6. Nuclear Energy: It is released during nuclear reactions.

Laws of Thermodynamics and Their Relevance:

The laws of thermodynamics are fundamental principles governing the behavior of energy in

physical systems. They are crucial in understanding energy flow:

1. First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation of Energy): This law states that energy

cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another. In

the context of ecosystems, it means that the total energy within a closed system remains constant.
Negros Oriental State University
College of Engineering and Architecture
Main Campus 2, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

2. Second Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Entropy):This implies that energy

transformations are not perfectly efficient, and some energy is lost as waste heat.

3. Third Law of Thermodynamics: It has implications for understanding energy behavior at

extremely low temperatures.

These laws are pertinent to the study of energy flow in ecosystems because they provide a

framework for understanding the efficiency and limitations of energy transfer processes within

biological systems.

Concept of Trophic Levels:

Trophic levels represent different positions in a food chain or food web within an ecosystem.

They categorize organisms based on their feeding relationships and energy source. There are

typically four main trophic levels:

1. Producers (Autotroph): These are organisms that can produce their own food

2. Primary Consumers (Herbivores): These are organisms that consume producers directly for

energy.

3. Secondary Consumers (Carnivores): These organisms feed on primary consumers.

4. Tertiary Consumers (Top Predators): These are organisms that feed on secondary

consumers and they are at the highest trophic level in a typical food chain.
Negros Oriental State University
College of Engineering and Architecture
Main Campus 2, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

Energy Transfer between Trophic Levels:

Energy moves through trophic levels via feeding, but not all acquired energy is passed on. Much

is lost due to metabolism and heat production, a concept known as ecological efficiency. For

instance, a primary consumer only retains a fraction of the energy from consuming a producer

for its growth, reproduction, and maintenance. This results in an energy pyramid, with each level

holding less available energy than the one below, due to losses in heat and metabolic processes,

making higher levels less energetically efficient.

Energy Pyramid Definition and Purpose:

An energy pyramid is a graphical representation that shows the flow of energy through different

trophic levels in an ecosystem. It illustrates the distribution of energy, biomass, or the number of

organisms at each trophic level. The pyramid shape arises from the fact that energy is lost as it

moves up the food chain, resulting in a decrease in available energy at higher trophic levels.

Notice that the width of each level

decreases as you move up. This

reflects the decreasing energy

availability. It's important to note that

only about 10% of the energy from

one trophic level is transferred to the

next, with the rest being lost as heat

and used in metabolic processes.


Negros Oriental State University
College of Engineering and Architecture
Main Campus 2, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

Concept of Ecological Efficiency and its Importance:

Ecological efficiency refers to the proportion of energy that is transferred from one trophic level

to the next. It quantifies how effectively energy is passed along the food chain. Understanding

ecological efficiency is crucial for several reasons:

1. Ecosystem Stability: It helps assess the stability and resilience of ecosystems. Higher

ecological efficiency indicates a more stable and sustainable ecosystem.

2. Resource Management: Knowledge of ecological efficiency is important in managing natural

resources and ecosystems for sustainable use, such as in fisheries or agriculture.

3. Conservation Efforts: It guides conservation efforts by identifying key species and trophic

interactions that are vital for maintaining ecosystem health and function.

4. Predicting Impacts of Environmental Changes: Knowing how energy flows through trophic

levels helps predict the effects of environmental changes, such as habitat loss or climate change,

on ecosystems.
Negros Oriental State University
College of Engineering and Architecture
Main Campus 2, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

References:

Admin. (2022a, July 8). Trophic level Diagram - Ecological Pyramids. BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/biology/trophic-level-diagram/
Admin. (2022b, September 1). Energy flow in Ecosystem- Food Chain,Food Web and Energy
Pyramids. BYJUS. https://byjus.com/biology/energy-flow-in-ecosystem/
Bio, S. (2023, June 11). Ecological Efficiency - Definition, factors, calculation, applications.
Microbiology Note – Online Biology Notes.
https://microbiologynote.com/ecological-efficiency-definition-factors-calculation-applica
tions/
Blog archives. (n.d.). Science News.
https://taylorsciencegeeks.weebly.com/blog/archives/05-2018/19
Energy flow in an ecosystem. (n.d.).
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/energy-flow-ecosystm/
energy pyramid. (n.d.). Britannica Kids.
https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/energy-pyramid/611153#:~:text=An%20energ
y%20pyramid%20is%20a,units%20of%20kilocalories%20(kcal).
Libretexts. (2022, January 9). 15.5: Energy flow through ecosystems. Biology LibreTexts.
https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_Pittsburgh/Environmental_Science_(Whi
ttinghill)/15%3A_Community_and_Ecosystem_Ecology/15.05%3A_Energy_Flow_Thro
ugh_Ecosystems
Libretexts. (2023, October 31). 46.2D: Ecological Pyramids. Biology LibreTexts.
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_Ge
neral_Biology_(Boundless)/46%3A_Ecosystems/46.02%3A_Energy_Flow_through_Eco
systems/46.2D%3A_Ecological_Pyramids
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2023, September 27). Trophic level | Definition,
Examples, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/science/trophic-level
Types of energy - Knowledge Bank - solar schools. (n.d.).
https://www.solarschools.net/knowledge-bank/energy/types
Wikipedia contributors. (2023a, April 20). Ecological efficiency. Wikipedia.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_efficiency#:~:text=Ecological%20efficiency
%20describes%20the%20efficiency,and%20assimilation%20in%20an%20ecosystem.
Wikipedia contributors. (2023b, October 26). Trophic level. Wikipedia.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_level
Toxic Chemicals
In the
Environment

Subject: Chemistry

Course: BS CoE

Section: TA

Instructor

Name: Marinela C. Bansuela

Submitted by:

Zyren C. Mendoza

Submitted to:

Marinela C. Bansuela Ph,D.

Toxic chemicals in the environment

Pose a significant threat to both ecosystems and human health.

Sources of toxic chemicals


Industrial Discharges: Factories and manufacturing plants release pollutants into water

bodies and air.

Agricultural Runoff: Pesticides and fertilizers used in agricultures can contaminate soil

and water.

Household Products: Cleaning agents, paints and personal care products often contain

harmful chemicals.

Improper Waste Disposal: Hazardous waste, if not managed properly, can seep into

the ground and pollute water sources.

Impact in Ecosystems

Water Pollution: Chemicals like mercury, lead and pesticides contaminate water,

harming aquatic life and disrupting ecosystems.

Air Pollution: Airborne toxins contribute to air pollution, affecting both flora and

fauna.

Soil Contamination: Chemicals degrade soil quality, impacting plant growth and food

crops.

Biodiversity Loss: Pollution disrupts natural habitats, leading to a decline in

biodiversity.

Impact on human health


Respiratory Issues: Airborne pollutants can cause respiratory diseases such as asthma

and bronchitis.

Waterborne Diseases: Contaminated water sources can lead to diseases like cholera

and dysentery.

Cancer Risk: Long term exposure to certain chemicals increases the risk of cancer.

Neurological Disorders: Some toxins can affect the nervous system, leading to

developmental issues in children.

Mitigation and Solutions

Regulations and Policies: Government should enforce strict regulations on

industries and promote eco- friendly practices.

Research and Innovation: Invest in research for alternative, non toxic chemicals and

promote eco- friendly lifestyles.

Waste management: Proper disposal and recycling of hazardous waste

Green Technologies: Encourage the adoption of renewable energy sources and eco-

friendly technologies to reduce overall pollution.

Conclusions: Toxic chemicals in the environment demand urgent attention and collective efforts.

By implementing stringent regulations, fostering innovation, and raising public awareness, we

can mitigate the adverse effects to these chemicals, ensuring a healthier environment for current

and future generations.


References

Han, X. Armstrong, D. W., Accounts of Chemical Research, 2007, 40, 1079-1086.

Kamrin MA. Pesticide Profiles – Toxicity, Environmental Impact and Fate. Boca Raton, FL:

Lewis Publishers; 1997.

https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climatechange/services/management-toxic-

substances.html
Air Pollution

EPS 131-Chemistry for Engineering (TA)

By:

Millarez, Samuel, Jr. G.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D


Air Pollution

What is air pollution?

Air pollution can be defined as an alteration of air quality that can be characterized by

measurements of chemical, biological or physical pollutants in the air. It refers to the introduction

of substances into the atmosphere that have harmful effects on humans, other living organisms,

and the environment. These substances can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or

gases. Therefore, air pollution means the undesirable presence of impurities or the abnormal rise

in the proportion of some constituents of the atmosphere. Air pollution refers to the presence of

harmful substances in the air we breathe. When their concentration reaches a critical level, they

pose risks to human health, animals, plants, and the environment.

Local

This concerns the quality of ambient air within a radius of a few kilometres.

Regional

Pollution like acid rain, photochemical reactions and degradation of water quality at distances of

a few kilometers to a thousand kilometres.

Global

Depletion of the ozone layer and global warming caused by the emission of greenhouse gases,

mainly carbon dioxide (CO2).


Sources of Air Pollution

• Natural Processes: Dust storms, forest fires, and volcanic eruptions release particles and gases

into the air.

• Human Activities: These activities include driving cars, trucks and buses; burning coal, oil,

and wood; and manufacturing chemicals.

• Biomass Burning: Emissions from burning wood, crop residues, and other organic materials.

• Vehicular Emissions: Cars, trucks, and other vehicles release pollutants like carbon monoxide,

nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

• Industrial Processes: Factories, power plants, and construction sites emit various pollutants.

• Mining and Agriculture: Dust and chemicals from mining and agricultural activities contribute

to air pollution.

• Stationary Sources: These have fixed locations, such as power plant smokestacks, construction

sites, and farmlands.

• Mobile Sources: Vehicles, aircraft, ships, and trains emit pollutants while moving.

Types of pollutants can be classified in 2 sections: Natural Pollutants and Anthropogenic

Pollutants.

o Natural Pollutants

These are pollutants that occur naturally without any direct human influence. Natural pollutants

arise from Earth's own processes and cycles.

 Volcanic Eruptions: When volcanoes erupt, they release gases and particles into the

atmosphere, affecting air quality.


 Forest Fires: Smoke and particulate matter from wildfires can impact air quality.

 Dust Storms: Natural dust storms can carry particles and pollutants over long distances.

 Biological Processes: Natural decay of organic matter (like leaves or dead animals) can

release gases like methane.

o Anthropogenic Pollutants

These pollutants result from *human activities* and have a significant impact on the environment.

 Primary Pollutants- Released directly from sources in harmful forms. Common primary

pollutants include:

Carbon Monoxide (CO): A colorless, odorless gas produced by incomplete combustion.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Emitted from industrial processes and vehicle

exhaust.

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Formed during combustion and contribute to smog and acid rain.

Sulfur Dioxides (SO₂): Released from burning fossil fuels containing sulfur.

Particulate Material: Tiny solid particles suspended in the air.

 Secondary Pollutants- Formed through reactions between primary pollutants and

atmospheric compounds. For example, ground-level ozone forms when oxides of nitrogen

react with VOCs in sunlight.

Causes of Air Pollution

Air pollution is caused by the presence in the atmosphere of toxic substances, mainly produced by

human activities, even though sometimes it can result from natural phenomena such as volcanic

eruptions, dust storms and wildfires, also depleting the air quality.
Anthropogenic air pollution sources are:

1. Combustion of fossil fuels, like coal and oil for electricity and road transport, producing air

pollutants like nitrogen and sulfur dioxide

2. Emissions from industries and factories, releasing large amount of carbon monoxide,

hydrocarbon, chemicals and organic compounds into the air

3. Agricultural activities, due to the use of pesticides, insecticides, and fertilizers that emit harmful

chemicals

4. Waste production, mostly because of methane generation in landfills

Effects of Air Pollution

It is impossible to describe the whole extent of potential and actual damage caused by all forms

of air pollution. But here are the main consequences:

o Health Impact

Pollutants can cause respiratory diseases, cardiovascular problems, and even cancer. Our

continual exposure to air pollutants is responsible for the deterioration of human health. Air

pollution is indeed a significant risk factor for human health conditions, causing allergies,

respiratory and cardiovascular diseases as well as lung damage.

o Environmental Consequences

Damage to ecosystems, soil, water bodies, and vegetation. Air pollution has a major impact on

the process of plant evolution by preventing photosynthesis in many cases, with serious

consequences for the purification of the air we breathe. It also contributes to the formation of

acid rain, atmospheric precipitations in the form of rain, frost, snow or fog, which are released
during the combustion of fossil fuels and transformed by contact with water steam in the

atmosphere.

o Global Warming

On top of that, air pollution is a major contributor to global warming and climate change. In fact,

the abundance of carbon dioxide in the air is one of the causes of the greenhouse effect.

Normally, the presence of greenhouse gases should be beneficial for the planet because they

absorb the infra-red radiation produced by the surface of the earth. But the excessive

concentration of these gases in the atmosphere is the cause of the recent climate change.

While improved technology and policies have reduced outdoor air pollution in some industrialized

countries, it remains a significant concern in rapidly industrializing nations. Understanding air

pollution's chemistry is crucial for mitigating its effects on our health and environment.

Prevention to Air Pollution

There are ways to prevent, control and eventually reduce air pollution:

1. Renewable fuel and clean energy production

The most basic solution for air pollution is to move away from fossil fuels, replacing them with

alternative energies like solar, wind and geothermal.

2. Energy conservation and efficiency

Producing clean energy is crucial. But equally important is to reduce our consumption of energy

by adopting responsible habits and using more efficient devices.


3. Eco-friendly transportation

Shifting to electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles, and promoting shared mobility (i.e carpooling,

and public transports) could reduce air pollution.

4. Green building

From planning to demolition, green building aims to create environmentally responsible and

resource-efficient structures to reduce their carbon footprint.


References

Pollution - World Health Organization (WHO) https://www.who.int/health-topics/air-

pollution.

Air quality in Europe 2022 — European Environment Agency.

https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/air-quality-in-europe-2022.

Our Nation's Air 2021 - US EPA. https://gispub.epa.gov/air/trendsreport/2021/.

Air Pollution in the UK report - Defra, UK. https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/library/annualreport/.

Air Pollution Facts, Causes and the Effects of Pollutants in the Air - NRDC.

https://www.nrdc.org/stories/air-pollution-everything-you-need-know.

https://cdn.who.int/media/images/default-source/air-pollution/air-pollution-mix-of-outdoor-and-

indoor-air-pollution.tmb-1024v.jpeg?sfvrsn=b5fbc279_18%201024w

Air Pollution - National Geographic Society.

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/air-pollution/.

Prevention of Air Pollution - How Can Air Pollution be Prevented? (With ....

https://byjus.com/chemistry/prevention-of-air-pollution/.

Atmospheric Chemistry and Air Pollution - University of Birmingham.

https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/research/activity/environmental-

health/areas/atmospheric/index.aspx.

Air Pollution - Causes, Sources, Types, Consequences ... - Vedantu.

https://www.vedantu.com/chemistry/air-pollution.
EPS 131 - Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

WATER POLLUTION:
SOURCES

Prepared By: Professor:


Moso, Lloyd Alexandra T. Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D
One of the causes of climate change is pollution, and under the category of pollution

there are three major types of it, which are air pollution, water pollution and land pollution. The

focus of this report is water pollution, with its meaning, its causes, where water pollution comes

from and a few of its examples that came from different sources and websites.

According to the website of National Geographic, “from big pieces of garbage to

invisible chemicals, a wide range of pollutants end up in our planet's lakes, rivers, streams,

groundwater, and eventually the oceans. Water pollution—along with drought, inefficiency, and

an exploding population—has contributed to a freshwater crisis, threatening the sources we rely

on for drinking water and other critical needs.

Safeguarding water supplies is important because even though nearly 70 percent of the

world is covered by water, only 2.5 percent of it is fresh. And just one percent of freshwater is

easily accessible, with much of it trapped in remote glaciers and snowfields.”

As we all know, water is our universal solvent, which is said to be easy to contaminate

since water can dissolve anything. Water pollution degenerates the quality of water, and

sometimes can be harmful to human health and in the environment. Not only in those two but

also to animals, especially to marine life.

There are four major sources of water pollution, and these are Agriculture, Sewage and

Wastewater, Oil pollution, and Radioactive substances.


In the past, there was an issue about how crops don’t grow fully. In some website I

forgot to mention that in the early 1800s, scientists discovered which elements were most

essential to plant growth: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Now, in agriculture, many

farmers use chemical fertilizers with nitrates and phosphates because they greatly increase crop

yields.

Without pesticides, some crops could not be grown on a large scale, so our diets would

not be as diverse. According to Dr. Durham, without pesticides, fruits and vegetables would be

stunted, riddled with injuries and contaminated with microbes, contributing to food waste

(BestFoodFacts, 2020).

But with this large dependency of pesticides and fertilizers, this has become a problem.

Chemicals have disturbed the environment, often infecting the surroundings and water, while

being harmful to animals and other species that farmers do not intend to target. Chemical use

may also pose a health hazard to people, especially through contaminated water supplies.

According to NRDC, in the United States, agricultural pollution is the top source of

contamination in rivers and streams. Every time it rains, fertilizers, pesticides, and animal waste

from farms and livestock operations wash nutrients and pathogens—such as bacterias and

viruses—into our waterways. Nutrient pollution, caused by excess nitrogen and phosphorus in

water or air, is the number-one threat to water quality worldwide and can cause algal blooms, a

toxic soup of blue-green algae that can be harmful to people and wildlife.
Houses, on the other hand, releases wastewater that eventually makes its way to the

ocean, mixing with the seawater and affecting the quality of liquid and marine life. Along with

this wastewater, comes harmful bacteria and chemicals.

Used water is wastewater. It comes from our sinks, showers, and toilets and from

commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities (think metals, solvents, and toxic sludge). The

term also includes stormwater runoff, which occurs when rainfall carries road salts, oil, grease,

chemicals, and debris from impermeable surfaces into our waterways (NRDC, 2023).

Reef Resilience cited that pathogens from human waste spread diseases to people through

contaminated drinking water, food grown in contaminated soils, seafood harvested from

contaminated waters, and bathing and recreating in polluted waters. Exposure to pathogens can

also lead to infections in the ears, eyes, or chest and topical ailments, such as rashes and skin

infections.

In Oil Pollution, according to Robinson, nearly half of the estimated 1 million tons of oil

that makes its way into marine environments each year comes not from tanker spills but from

land-based sources such as factories, farms, and cities. Oil makes drinking water unsafe and a

substantial amount of oil released into oceans or river water pollution, will destroy marine life

and the ecosystems that support them. Oil reduces the oxygen supply within the water

environment. Oil is also naturally released from under the ocean floor through fractures known

as seeps.
However, the largest and most damaging pollution events usually involve spills of

petroleum or heavy bunker fuel from disabled tankers or drill platforms at sea, from barges or

ships on major inland waterways, or from blowouts of wells or broken pipelines on land

(Freedman, 1995).

An example of oil pollution is the CNN news where according to them, the MT Princess

Empress sank off Oriental Mindoro southwest of the capital Manila on February 28, discharging

its cargo of industrial fuel oil into the waters around the province, where authorities have

declared a state of calamity for nine towns and banned swimming and fishing as they battle one

of the region’s worst ever disasters.

Jennifer Cruz, mayor of the coastal town of Pola, which has been heavily affected by the

spill, told CNN affiliate CNN Philippines on Thursday that more than 50 residents had fallen ill,

reporting symptoms of cough, dizziness, eye irritation and fever.

“In the span of nine days, it’s getting worse. The stench from the oil is getting stronger as

the weather is also getting hotter,” Cruz told CNN Philippines. “More people are also getting

sick. I also was not able to visit one of the affected areas because I started feeling unwell due to

the smell.”

In Radioactive Substances, it is a radioactive waste pollution that emits radiation beyond

what is naturally released by the environment. It’s generated by uranium mining, nuclear power

plants, and the production and testing of military weapons, as well as by universities and
hospitals that use radioactive materials for research and medicine. Accidentally released or

improperly disposed of contaminants threaten groundwater, surface water, and marine resources

(NRDC, 2023).

According to Deena Robinson, in April 2021, Japan discharged contaminated water

containing radioactive materials from the damaged Fukushima nuclear plant into the sea. Though

the Japanese government claims potential health risks and damage to marine life to be minimal

as the wastewater has been treated, close monitoring is required to ensure there are no

environmental effects from the water pollution.

Now that we are done addressing the sources of this kind of pollution and, to help prevent

and can find a solution to this problem, we need to address where this pollution is coming from.

So, where is the water pollution really coming from?

First, we have this kind of pollution which we call point source pollution. Which means

the pollutant comes from a single source and that directly contaminates the water. It is stated that

in this kind of pollution, we can directly know or pinpoint the pollution’s origin. For example,

large farms that raise livestock, such as cows, pigs and chickens, are sources of point source

pollution.

In the report of National Ocean Service, another way that some factories and sewage

treatment plants handle waste material is by mixing it with urban runoff in a combined sewer

system. Runoff refers to storm water that flows over surfaces like driveways and lawns. As the
water crosses these surfaces, it picks up chemicals and pollutants. This untreated, polluted water

then runs directly into a sewer system.

When it rains excessively, a combined sewer system may not be able handle the volume

of water, and some of the combined runoff and raw sewage will overflow from the system,

discharging directly into the nearest water body without being treated. This combined sewer

overflow (CSO) is considered point source pollution, and can cause severe damage to human

health and the environment.

While point source pollution originates from a specific place, it can affect miles of

waterways and ocean.

Nonpoint source pollution is the leading cause of water pollution in U.S. waters, but it’s

difficult to regulate, since there’s no single, identifiable culprit (NRDC, 2023).

The United States Environmental Protection Agency claimed that nonpoint source

pollution generally results from land runoff, precipitation, atmospheric deposition, drainage,

seepage or hydrologic modification. Nonpoint source pollution, unlike pollution from industrial

and sewage treatment plants, comes from many diffuse sources. Nonpoint source pollution is

caused by rainfall or snow melt moving over and through the ground. As the runoff moves, it

picks up and carries away natural and human-made pollutants, finally depositing them into lakes,

rivers, wetlands, coastal waters and ground waters.


Transboundary, on the other hand, is a pollution that is defined legally as a pollution that

originates in one country but can cause damage in another country’s environment, by crossing

borders through pathways like water or air. The problems of transboundary pollution include

issues like the acidification of soils and lakes through acid rain, transboundary air pollution

(known variably as smog, haze, or smoke), and downstream river or ocean pollution due to

upstream activities. Contamination can result from a disaster—like an oil spill—or the slow,

downriver creep of industrial, agricultural, or municipal discharge (Varkkey, 2019).

Before this report has come to an end, there are an additional two sources of water

pollution which are, Industrial waste and Marine Dumping and Plastic Pollution in the sea.

From the word Industrial, its waste comes from Industrial sites, like coal ash from

thermal power plants and blast furnaces and steel melting slag from iron and steel mills. It is said

that industrial waste is one of the biggest sources of water contamination. Many industrial sites

produce waste in the form of toxic chemicals and pollutants, and some don’t have proper waste

management systems in place. Sometimes, industrial waste is dumped into nearby freshwater

systems.

This statement comes from Robinson as well, where she stated that the toxic chemicals

leached from this waste can make the water unsafe for human consumption, and they can also

cause the temperature in freshwater systems to change, making them dangerous for marine life.

Finally, industrial waste can cause “dead zones,” which are areas of water that contain so little

oxygen that marine life cannot survive in them.


Marine Dumping has been defined as the deliberate disposal at sea of wastes or other

matter from vessels, aircraft, platforms or other man-made structures, as well as the deliberate

disposal of these vessels or platforms themselves. Marine dumping can destroy or degrade

important habitats for aquatic species and cause coastal erosion and salutation, which affect the

health and productivity of the marine environment (Safe Drinking Water Foundation, 2002).

An example of how and why Marine Dumping is very dangerous to marine life, is stated

by the website called Safe Drinking Water Foundation, where they said that plastic bags are

mistakenly ingested by sea turtles as jellyfish, a common food item. For example, the world’s

largest living turtle, the leatherback, is found off our Atlantic and Pacific coasts. You wouldn’t

think much could get in this giant’s way. However, common plastic debris is causing

leatherbacks terrible trouble. They mistake plastic bags, balloons or containers for jellyfish —

their favorite food. Once swallowed, the plastic clogs the turtles’ intestines, causing them to die.

Trying to connect this topic to the E-waste problem, where it can also damage the

environment as various components of a machine contain chemicals. If we dispose of a

component or even the machine itself, if it rains, those chemicals in it will flow together with the

rainwater. Which is also very dangerous if it will contaminate freshwater.


REFERENCES:

Water Pollution: Everything You Need to Know:


https://www.nrdc.org/stories/water-pollution-everything-you-need-know#whatis

Causes of Water Pollution And How We Can Reduce It:


https://earth.org/what-are-the-causes-of-water-pollution/#:~:text=Sewage%20and%20Wastewater&text=
Households%20release%20sewage%20and%20wastewater,issues%20in%20humans%20and%20animals.

Oil Pollution:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/oil-pollution

Transboundary Pollution:
https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199756223/obo-9780199756223-0290
.xml#:~:text=Transboundary%20pollution%20is%20defined%20legally,pathways%20like%20water%20o
r%20air.

INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE:


https://www.pureingenium.com/blog/what-is-industrial-waste/#:~:text=It%20can%20include%20organic
%20matter,from%20iron%20and%20steel%20mills

Marine Dumping:
https://www.safewater.org/fact-sheets-1/2017/1/23/marine-dumping

Residents hit by dizziness and fever as oil spill blankets coast of Philippine island:
https://edition.cnn.com/2023/03/09/asia/philippines-oil-spill-residents-tourism-impact-intl-hnk/index.html

Water pollution is a rising global crisis:


https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/freshwater-pollution

Basic Information about Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution:


https://www.epa.gov/nps/basic-information-about-nonpoint-source-nps-pollution#:~:text=Nonpoint%20so
urce%20pollution%20can%20include,forest%20lands%2C%20and%20eroding%20streambanks

Point Source:
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_pollution/03pointsource.html#:~:text=The%20U.S.%20E
nvironmental%20Protection%20Agency%20(EPA)%20defines%20point%20source%20pollution,commo
n%20types%20of%20point%20sources.
“Water Pollutants: Types of Water Pollutants and their Effects on Water Quality, People,

and the Environment ”

________________________________________________

A Chemistry Report presented to

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D.

Chemistry for Engineers Instructor

________________________________________

In partial fulfillment for the subject

“EPS 131 Chemistry For Engineers”

Presented by:

Namol, Alfred James C.

_________________________

2023
Class Report: Water Pollutants

Introduction

Water is one of the most vital resources for all life on Earth, and it is essential for sustaining

ecosystems, human health, and economic development. However, the quality of our water

resources is under constant threat due to various pollutants. In this report, we will discuss the

different types of water pollutants, including pathogens, organic materials, inorganic compounds,

and macroscopic pollutants, and their impact on the environment.

Water pollutants are substances or contaminants that, when introduced into natural water bodies

such as rivers, lakes, oceans, or groundwater, can degrade water quality and harm the

environment or human health.

It's important to note that the definition of uncontaminated water may vary depending on its

intended use. For drinking water, the standards are typically more stringent than those for

recreational water or industrial processes. Local environmental agencies and health authorities

often set specific guidelines for determining the safety and quality of water in a given area.
Types of Water Pollutants

Pathogens

Pathogens are microorganisms that can cause diseases in humans and animals. They are a

significant concern in water pollution because contaminated water can transmit diseases to

individuals who consume or come into contact with it. Let's dive deeper into this with a real-life

example:

Imagine a scenario in a rural area where a community relies on a nearby river as their primary

source of drinking water. Unbeknownst to them, this river is contaminated with pathogens.

Among the pathogens present in the water are bacteria like coliform and E. coli, which often

originate from sewage and fecal matter.

As the community continues to use this water source for drinking, cooking, and bathing, the

concentration of these waterborne pathogens begins to increase due to a lack of proper sewage

treatment and sanitation practices. The combination of warm weather and the slow flow of the

river further promotes the growth of these bacteria.

Over time, several community members start experiencing gastrointestinal illnesses, diarrhea,

and other waterborne diseases. Some individuals, especially those with weaker immune systems,

may face severe health complications. As the local healthcare facility starts to see a surge in
cases, health authorities investigate the issue and find that the contaminated water is the source

of the outbreak.

In this real-life example, the increased population of waterborne pathogens, particularly coliform

and E. coli, has led to a serious health crisis within the community. This scenario underscores the

critical importance of ensuring clean and safe water sources, adequate sanitation infrastructure,

and proper waste management to prevent the proliferation of pathogens and protect public health.

Organic Materials

Organic materials in water are substances composed of carbon-containing molecules. They can

pose significant environmental and health risks when present in water sources. Let's delve deeper

into this topic with a real-life example:

In the late 20th century, methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) gained popularity as an additive to

gasoline to enhance combustion efficiency and reduce air pollution. However, this compound's

solubility in water made it a potential environmental hazard. Leakage from underground gasoline

storage tanks, accidents, or improper disposal led to the contamination of groundwater with

MTBE.

Consider a case in a suburban area where a gas station's underground fuel tank developed a small

leak, allowing MTBE to seep into the surrounding soil and eventually infiltrate the groundwater.
Over time, this contaminated groundwater began to spread, affecting private wells used by

nearby residents for drinking water.

As residents continued to consume water from their contaminated wells, they unknowingly

ingested MTBE and other organic materials. MTBE exposure has been associated with various

health issues, including an increased risk of tumors, leukemia, and thyroid problems. It was also

known for its unpleasant taste and odor, making the water unpalatable.

Local authorities initiated water quality testing and investigations after residents reported a rise

in health problems and unpleasant-tasting water. They discovered the presence of MTBE and

other organic contaminants in the well water, prompting immediate action to address the issue.

This involved providing alternative sources of clean water to affected households and

implementing remediation measures to treat the contaminated groundwater.

In this real-life example, the presence of organic materials, specifically MTBE, in the water

supply resulted in significant health concerns and necessitated costly and time-consuming efforts

to mitigate the contamination and provide safe drinking water to affected residents. It

underscores the importance of strict regulations, monitoring, and prevention measures to

safeguard water sources from organic pollutants and protect public health.
Inorganic Compounds

Inorganic compounds in water, such as heavy metals like copper, arsenic, barium, mercury, and

zinc, pose a serious threat to the environment and human health. Let's elaborate on this and

provide a real-life example.

1. Copper is often used in plumbing and industrial processes. When copper-containing

wastewater from factories or corroded copper pipes enters water bodies, it can exceed

safe levels. In real life, a copper mining operation might release excessive amounts of

copper into a nearby river, leading to contamination that harms aquatic life.

2. Arsenic is a naturally occurring element, but it can be found in higher concentrations in

groundwater due to geological factors. In regions like Bangladesh and parts of India,

people have suffered from arsenic poisoning by consuming water from contaminated

wells, leading to severe health problems.

3. Barium compounds are used in drilling fluids for oil and gas extraction. When these

fluids are not properly managed, barium can find its way into nearby water sources. For

instance, if an oil well has a blowout, barium-containing drilling fluids can contaminate

nearby rivers, affecting aquatic ecosystems.


4. Mercury is released into water bodies primarily from industrial processes, such as

coal-fired power plants. Once in the water, it can be converted into methylmercury, which

bioaccumulates in fish. In real life, the consumption of mercury-contaminated fish has led

to serious health issues, particularly in indigenous communities that rely on fish as a

staple food source.

5. Zinc is commonly used in galvanized steel and as a component in various industrial

processes. Runoff from construction sites, industrial facilities, or urban areas can carry

zinc into rivers and streams. In the Chesapeake Bay, for example, high zinc

concentrations have been linked to urban and industrial runoff, affecting aquatic

ecosystems.

These real-life examples highlight the widespread issue of heavy metal contamination in water,

demonstrating the critical need for strict environmental regulations and responsible waste

disposal practices to mitigate the health and environmental risks associated with inorganic

compounds in water.

Macroscopic Pollutants

Macroscopic pollutants are large, visible objects that can be easily spotted in water, and one of

the most prominent examples of such pollutants is plastic waste. Let's elaborate on this concept

and provide a real-life example:


1. Plastic Waste: Plastic is a non-biodegradable material that poses a significant

environmental threat. One of the most famous instances of plastic pollution is the "Great

Pacific Garbage Patch." This enormous collection of floating plastic debris, which is

comparable in size to France, is located in the North Pacific Ocean. It is a result of years

of illegal dumping, ocean currents, and the accumulation of plastic waste. This pollution

not only harms marine life but also poses a challenge for cleanup efforts.

2. Pieces of Metal: Abandoned or lost metal objects, such as car parts or industrial

equipment, can end up in water bodies. For example, a sunken ship with metal

components can release pieces of metal into the ocean, posing navigational hazards and

potential environmental damage.

3. Wood: Logs or wood debris from deforestation, construction, or natural disasters can be

carried by rivers and end up in oceans. These large pieces of wood can disrupt shipping

lanes and potentially damage coral reefs and coastal ecosystems.

4. Shipping Containers and Shipwrecks: Accidental cargo spills and shipwrecks can result

in shipping containers or parts of ships sinking to the ocean floor. These macroscopic

pollutants not only pose a danger to maritime traffic but can also affect marine life and

underwater habitats.
These real-life examples illustrate the visible and tangible nature of macroscopic pollutants in

water. Plastic waste, in particular, has gained global attention due to its widespread presence and

harmful impacts on marine ecosystems. Efforts to reduce the generation of plastic waste and

clean up existing pollution are critical in mitigating the environmental consequences of

macroscopic pollutants in water bodies.

Environmental Impact

The presence of these water pollutants has severe environmental consequences. Contaminated

water can harm aquatic ecosystems and the organisms within them. Pathogens can lead to the

spread of diseases, causing harm to both aquatic life and humans. Organic and inorganic

pollutants can result in long-term health issues and even mortality for species relying on polluted

water sources. Macroscopic pollutants can disrupt ecosystems, harm marine life, and contribute

to the growing global plastic waste crisis.

Solutions and Conclusion

It is crucial to address water pollution and take action to protect our water resources. Efforts to

reduce and prevent water pollution include:

1. Improved waste management:Proper disposal and recycling of waste materials to reduce

the introduction of macroscopic pollutants into water bodies.


2. Wastewater treatment: Enhanced treatment processes to remove pathogens, organic

materials, and inorganic compounds from wastewater.

3. Regulations and policies: Implementing and enforcing strict regulations to control the

release of pollutants into water bodies.

4. Public awareness: Educating the public about the importance of water conservation and

pollution prevention.

In conclusion, water pollution poses a significant threat to our environment, human health, and

aquatic ecosystems. To ensure a sustainable future, it is essential for individuals, communities,

and governments to work together to address and mitigate water pollution. Only through

collective efforts can we safeguard our precious water resources and protect the health and

well-being of all living organisms on our planet.


References:

Water pollutants - Lists, effects, examples, solved questions. (2019, December 2).

Toppr-guides.

https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/environmental-chemistry/water-pollutants/

Iowa PBS. (2015, April 28). Types of Pollutants that affect Water Quality [Video]. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yEci6iDkXYw
R. A. 9299 Republic of the Philippines June 25, 2004

NEGROS ORIENTAL STATE UNIVERSITY


NOHS (1907) NOTS (1927) EVSAT (1956) CVPC (1983)
Kagawasan Ave., Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental, Philippines 6200
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Main Campus II, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City 6200

Title

EUTROPHICATION

By:

OCTIZA, MARK ANGELO B.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph. D.


What is Eutrophication?

Eutrophication is an enrichment of water by nutrient salts that causes structural changes to

the ecosystem such as increased production of algae and aquatic plants, depletion of fish

species, general degradation of water quality and other effects that reduce and preclude use”.

Lake eutrophication has become a worldwide problem of pollution. Chlorophyll-a, total

nitrogen, total phosphorus, biological or chemical oxygen demand and Secchi depth are the

most indicators to gauge lake eutrophication level.

Mechanism of Eutrophication

Eutrophication most ordinarily arises from the oversupply of nutrients, most ordinarily as

nitrogen or phosphorus, which results in overgrowth of plants and algae in aquatic ecosystems.

After such organisms die, bacterial degradation of their biomass leads to oxygen consumption,

thereby creating the state of hypoxia.

The primary limiting factor for eutrophication is phosphate. The presence of phosphorus

normally helps in excessive plant growth and decay. It also favors simple algae and plankton

and causes a severe reduction in water quality. Phosphorus may be a necessary nutrient for

plants to measure and is that the limiting factor for plant growth in many freshwater ecosystems.

 Cultural Eutrophication: It is the process that increases the rate of natural eutrophication.

Because of clearing of land and building of towns and cities, land runoff is accelerated and

more nutrients like phosphates and nitrate are supplied to lakes and rivers, then to coastal

estuaries and bays.


 Natural Eutrophication: Eutrophy occurs in many lakes in temperate grasslands.

Paleolimnologists now signifies that global climate change, or change in geology, and other

external factors are critical in regulating the natural productivity of lakes. The natural action

is extremely slow, occurring on geologic time scales.

 Lakes and rivers: When algae die, it generally decomposes. Therefore the nutrients in it are

converted into inorganic form by microorganisms. This decomposition process takes in a lot

of oxygen, which reduces the concentration of dissolved oxygen. The depleted oxygen levels

successively may cause fish kills and a variety of other effects reducing biodiversity.

 Coastal waters: Eutrophication may be a common phenomenon in coastal waters. In contrast

to freshwater systems where phosphorus is usually the limiting nutrient, nitrogen is more

commonly the key limiting nutrient of marine waters.

Terrestrial Ecosystems

Eutrophication has an adverse effect on the terrestrial ecosystem. Increased nitrates in soil are

frequently undesirable for plants. Many terrestrial plant species are endangered as a result of

soil eutrophication. Meadows, forests, and bogs have usually low nutrient content and slowly

growing species adapt to those levels.

Chemical sorts of nitrogen is a matter of concern with due to eutrophication. Terrestrial

ecosystems believe the microbial organic process to convert N2 into other forms like nitrates.

However, there’s a limit to what proportion nitrogen are often utilized. Ecosystems that receives

more amount of nitrogen than the plants’ needs are nitrogen-saturated. Hence, saturated

terrestrial ecosystems are able to contribute to both inorganic and organic nitrogen to coastal,
freshwater, and marine eutrophication, where nitrogen is additionally typically a limiting

nutrient.

Ecological Effects

Eutrophication became a pollution problem since the mid-20th century in both European and

North American lakes and reservoirs. In general, there are particularly three ecological impacts

which are troublesome: decreased biodiversity, changes in species composition and dominance,

and toxicity effects.

 Decreased Biodiversity: In aquatic ecosystems, species like algae experience a population

increase (called an algal bloom) due to rise in nutrients. Algal blooms stop the daylight from

reaching to the bottom-dwelling organisms and cause wide swings within the amount of

dissolved oxygen within the water. If we study eutrophic conditions, we will see that

dissolved oxygen rises a lot during the day, and also reduced after dark by the respiring algae

and by microorganisms that prey on the increasing mass of dead algae. As soon as dissolved

oxygen levels reduce to hypoxic levels, fish and other marine animals suffocate. As a result,

creatures like fish, shrimp, and particularly immobile bottom dwellers die out.

 Toxicity: Some algal blooms are also known as “harmful algal blooms”, are toxic to plants

and animals. It results from eutrophication. Toxic compounds can make their high organic

phenomenon, leading to animal mortality. Dead algae release neuro- and hepatotoxins which

may kill animals and hence pose a threat to humans.


 New species invasion: Increased nitrogen content might allow new, competitive species to

invade and out-compete original inhabitant species. This process causes shifts within the

species composition of ecosystems.

Prevention and Reversal

Eutrophication poses a drag not only to ecosystems but to humans also. Reducing

eutrophication should be a key concern when considering a future policy. A sustainable

solution for everybody, including farmers and ranchers, seems feasible.

Shellfish in estuaries: One proposed solution to prevent and reverse eutrophication in estuaries

is to revive shellfish populations, like oysters and mussels. Oyster reefs helps in removing

nitrogen from the water column and filter suspended solids. Thus, subsequently reducing the

extent of harmful algal blooms or anoxic conditions.

Seaweed farming: It helps to adapt to global climate change. Seaweed, like kelp, also absorbs

phosphorus and nitrogen. It is thus useful to get rid of excessive nutrients from polluted parts

of the ocean. Some cultivated seaweeds have really high productivity and will absorb large

quantities of N, P, CO2, producing a great deal of O2 have a superb effect on decreasing

eutrophication.

Minimizing nonpoint pollution: Nonpoint pollution is that the most difficult source of

nutrients to manage. The subsequent steps are recommended to attenuate the quantity of

pollution which will enter aquatic ecosystems from ambiguous sources.

 Riparian buffer zones: Studies show that intercepting non-point pollution between the

source and therefore the water may be a successful means of prevention. Riparian buffer
zones are interfaces between a flowing body of water and land and are created near waterways

in an effort to filter pollutants.

 Prevention policy: New policies and laws to regulate the discharge and treatment of sewage

have led to potential nutrient reductions to surrounding ecosystems. But it’s generally agreed

that a policy, regulating the agricultural use of fertilizer along with animal waste must be

imposed.

 Organic farming: According to a study it is found that organic farming “significantly reduce

harmful nitrate leaching” compared to conventionally fertilized fields.

Geo-engineering in lakes: Geoengineering is the manipulation of biogeochemical processes.

Usually, it is the phosphorus cycle, to realize a desired ecological response within the

ecosystem. Phosphate is one of the major cause of algal growth, mainly cyanobacteria, so once

phosphate is reduced the algal isn’t ready to overgrow.

Eutrophication occurs in 4 simple steps:

 EXCESS NUTRIENTS: First, farmers apply fertilizer to the soil. Then, excess nutrients

runoff from the field into the water.

 ALGAE BLOOM: Next, the fertilizer rich in nitrate and phosphate sparks the

overgrowth of algae in water bodies.

 OXYGEN DEPLETION: When algae form, it blocks sunlight from entering water and

uses up oxygen. Eventually, water becomes oxygen-depleted.

 DEAD ZONES: Finally, water that is completely depleted of oxygen becomes a dead

zone and can no longer support life.


REFERENCES

https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/environmental-chemistry/eutrophication/

https://earthhow.com/eutrophication-causes-process-examples/
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Charlotte Jave Y. Omandam

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D


What is Solid Waste Management?

The term solid waste management mainly refers to the complete process of collecting,

treating and disposing of solid wastes. Solid waste can be domestic, agricultural or even industrial

wastes. ‘Waste’ is generally identified as goods or material that are perceived to be mostly

valueless. However, objects that are perceived to be waste based on consumers’ object valuation

can be redefined to create value. This requires a multitude of efforts using different strategies in

waste prevention and management. In the waste management process, the wastes are collected

from different sources and are disposed of. This process includes collection, transportation,

treatment, analysis and disposal of waste. It needs to be monitored so that strict regulations and

guidelines are followed.

Solid waste management is considered a pressing global issue calling for an immediate

response from the government and its people. The Philippines has a continuously rising amount of

waste and is expected to further increase in the succeeding years. As reviewed, associated problems

with solid waste management in the country include an increasing amount of solid waste, weak

law implementation, scarcity of sanitary landfills, and improper disposal. The ultimate solution

existing in the country is the RA 9003 or the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000

which highlights the practices of segregation, proper disposal, and waste diversion.

Types of Solid Waste

 Municipal Solid Waste. (MSW)

- ore commonly known as trash or garbage—consists of everyday items we use and

then throw away, such as product packaging, grass clippings, furniture, clothing,
bottles, food scraps, newspapers, appliances, paint, and batteries. This comes from

our homes, schools, hospitals, and businesses.

- Municipal solid waste can further be divided into biodegradable, recyclable and

hazardous domestic wastes. The biodegradable waste includes rotten food,

vegetable peel and mostly wet kitchen waste. Recyclable waste includes plastic and

hazardous wastes include, bulb, batteries, etc.

 Hazardous Solid Waste.

- Hazardous wastes are wastes or products that have the potential to harm humans or

the environment, either now or in the future.

- Common methods for disposing of hazardous wastes are land disposal and

incineration Industries need to be encouraged to generate less hazardous waste in

the manufacturing process. Although toxic wastes cannot be entirely eliminated,

technologies are available for minimizing recycling and treating the wastes.

 Industrial/Commercial Waste.

- Industrial waste means solid waste generated by manufacturing or industrial

processes. Commercial waste means solid waste generated by stores, offices,

restaurants, warehouses and nonmanufacturing activities at industrial facilities.

The 3 R’s of Solid Waste Management

Waste production can be minimized by adopting the 3 R’s principle:

 Reduce

 Reuse

 Recycle
Reduce (Waste Prevention):

Waste prevention, or “source reduction,” means consuming and discarding less, is a

successful method of reducing waste generation. Backyard composting, double sided copying of

papers, purchasing durable, long- lasting environmentally friendly goods; products and packaging

that are free of toxics, redesigning products to use less raw material production and transport

packaging reduction by industries are the normal practices used and have yielded substantial

environmental benefits.

Source reduction prevents emissions of many greenhouse gases, reduces pollutants the

need saves energy, conserves resources, and reduces wastes for new landfills and combustors. It

reduces the generation of waste and is generally preferred method of waste management that goes

a long way toward saving the environment.

Reuse:

Reuse is the process, which involves reusing items by repairing them, donating them to

charity and community groups, or selling them. Reusing products is an alternative to recycling

because the item does not need to be reprocessed for its use again. Using durable glassware, steel

using cloth napkins or towels, reusing bottles, reusing boxes, purchasing refillable pens and pencils

are suggested.

Recycling:

Recycling involves some form of reprocessing of waste materials to produce another

product. For example, recycling plastic bottles to make buckets. This helps to reduce the need for
landfill and more costly forms of disposal. Recycling also reduces the need for extracting (mining,

quarrying and logging), refining and processing raw materials all of which create substantial air

and water pollution.

Methods of Solid Waste Management:

Landfills are engineered areas where waste is placed into the land. Landfills usually have

liner systems and other safeguards to prevent polluting the groundwater.

Energy Recovery from Waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into

useable heat, electricity, or fuel.

Transfer Stations are facilities where municipal solid waste is unloaded from collection

vehicles and briefly held while it is reloaded onto larger, long-distance transport vehicles for

shipment to landfills or other treatment or disposal facilities

Source reduction, or waste prevention, is designing products to reduce the amount of

waste that will later need to be thrown away and also to make the resulting waste less toxic.

Recycling is the recovery of useful materials, such as paper, glass, plastic, and metals, from

the trash to use to make new products, reducing the amount of virgin raw materials needed.
Composting involves collecting organic waste, such as food scraps and yard trimmings,

and storing it under conditions designed to help it break down naturally. This resulting compost

can then be used as a natural fertilizer.

Effects of Poor Solid Waste Management

Due to improper disposal of solid waste particularly by waste management organizations,

the collected wastes gets heap up and become a problem for both the environment and also for the

public.

By dumping of huge garbage, drives biodegradable materials to decay and decompose

under abnormal, uncontrolled and unhygienic conditions. After a few days of decomposition, it

becomes a breeding ground for different types of disease-causing insects as well as infectious

organisms. A foul smell is produced and it also spoils the aesthetic value of the area.

The solid wastes collected from different industries include toxic metals, chemicals, and

other hazardous wastes. When these wastes are released into the environment, they can produce

biological and physicochemical problems to the environment, the chemicals may drain into the

soil and pollute the groundwater and also alter the productivity of the soils in that particular area.

In rare cases, the hazardous wastes may get mixed up with the ordinary garbage and other

combustible wastes causing the disposal process even harder and risky.
By burning the paper and other scraps along with the hazardous wastes, dioxins and

poisonous gasses are produced and released into the air which results in causing various diseases

including chronic disease, skin infections, cancer, etc.

Solid waste management is important because it safeguards public health, preserves the

environment, and conserves resources. It prevents the spread of diseases, reduces pollution, and

minimizes greenhouse gas emissions. By recycling and reusing materials, it reduces the demand

for raw resources and creates economic opportunities. Overall, effective waste management

ensures a cleaner, safer, and more sustainable future for communities worldwide.
References

https://www.routledge.com/Solid-Waste-Management-Chemical-Approaches-Volume-1/Chauhan-
Sevda/p/book/9781032039008#

https://www.learnz.org.nz/redvale181/bg-standard-f/the-5-r%27s-of-waste-
management#:~:text=As%20citizens%20of%20a%20society,recycle%2C%20recover%20and%20residual%
20management.

https://byjus.com/biology/solid-waste-management/

https://www.vedantu.com/biology/solid-waste-management

https://www.neliti.com/publications/411212/a-long-standing-problem-a-review-on-the-solid-waste-
management-in-the-
philippine#:~:text=The%20Philippines%20has%20a%20continuously,sanitary%20landfills%2C%20and%2
0improper%20disposal.

https://archive.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/web/html/

https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/hazardous-waste
REDUCE / REUSE / RECYCLE

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Orcia, Ruscelle Von S.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D


Introduction to The 3r’s Waste Management

Reduce, reuse and recycle is a motto used by environmentalists and is often called the "3Rs". It

was agreed upon at the G8 Sea Island Summit in June 2004 as a new G8 initiative which means

to reduce waste, minimise consumption and ensure the best overall approach is adopted for the

environment and human health. Such programmes when managed at national and/or

local levels can save money, energy and natural resources.

Reduce, reuse and recycle are part of the ‘waste hierarchy’ guidance tool which ranks waste

management options according to what is best for the environment and also

considers resource and energy consumption. It aims to extract from products the maximum

practical benefits and generate minimal waste. The priorities in the hierarchy are based

on sustainability.

Waste Management Hierarchy

Indicates an order of preference for action to reduce and manage waste, and is usually presented

diagrammatically in the form of a pyramid. The hierarchy captures the progression of a material

or product through successive stages of waste management, and represents the latter part of

the life-cycle for each product.

The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to

generate the minimum amount of waste. The proper application of the waste hierarchy can have

several benefits. It can help prevent emissions of greenhouse gases. Reduce pollutants, save

energy, conserve resources, create jobs and stimulate the development of green technologies.
REDUCE

Is to reduce or to lessen the waste you created in or outside your household. The most important

way to reduce waste is to reduce spending. The secret is only to buy the things we need in the

proper quantity. We wouldn't need to extract raw materials, create items from scratch, develop

packaging, use more resources for shipping, and then figure out how to get rid of them if we

never produced them in the first place.

● HOW TO BUY AND HOW TO USE IT

⮚ SHOPPING - waste start at the supermarket. By making a slight alteration to your

shopping list you can significantly reduce waste created in and around the room.

- Buy only what you need

- Buy products that can be reused

- Bring your own bag or buy products with less packaging

- Sell or give unwanted items

● THINK BEFORE YOU THROW

⮚ THROWING - some items that you would normally consider as garbage might be

of use to other purposes. So instead of throwing items away, reduce waste by

using them for other purposes.

- Use cardboard, newspaper, and plastic bags as packaging materials.


- Used small containers to store odds and ends.

- Use plastic bottles as watering for plants

- Paper bags can be used as shopping bags

REUSE

Is to utilize an object or thing for another purpose. The idea behind recycling is that the used

materials in our lives can be repurposed as resources rather than waste. If we take a close look at

the things we discard, we can learn to recognise them as resources that can be used to meet daily

needs and solve issues. You can start brainstorming and coming up with ideas once you've

decided to use waste for good. Reusing reduces costs, saves resources, and satisfies the creative

drive in people, but don’t confuse reuse from reduce, while reduce use to reuse materials it is

mainly on to cut back the amount of waste you generate contrary to reuse it is to find new ways

to use things that otherwise would have been thrown out.

● LEARN HOW TO REUSE

⮚ Find new use for old items. When it’s time to throw something out, think about

other possible ways to use it. Glass jars, for example, can become storage for your

crafting area or shop. Old bath towels can be cut up and used as wash rags. Plastic

pop bottles take on a new life as bird feeders. Make a woven basket or tray out of

old magazines. And the toothbrush you’re replacing is the perfect scrub brush for

hard-to-reach areas.

Example:

- You can use old towels and sheets torn into little pieces as dust rags.
- Old tires can be used in the play area and garden.

- Update computer instead of buying new pc.

- Reuse cardboard box as containers.

- Purchase drinks in reusable containers.

RECYCLE

Recycling is gathering and processing materials (such as bottles and cans) that would otherwise

be thrown away to transform them into something fresh and beneficial. Recycling is the last —

and most commonly used — of the 3 Rs. Recycling is changing discarded materials into new

products in order to avoid using more virgin resources. Recycling is essential for maintaining a

clean environment and local communities. We lessen our influence on nature by employing

recycled materials to create new products.

● HOW AND WHAT TO RECYCLE?

⮚ The third 'R' is about making sure you separate items that can be recycled,

meaning they can be used for a new purpose.

Materials that can be recycled include:

Glass & plastic paper & cardboard metal & aluminium batteries & components

⮚ Glass | Glass is broken down into fragments called "Cullet" not wider than 5 cm.

Glass fragments are separated by colour. Silica, which is melted down and shaped

into new goods, is used to make glass.


⮚ Plastics | Polyethylene terephthalate, high-density polyethene, polyvinyl chloride,

low-density polyethene, polypropylene, and polystyrene are the six chemicals that

makeup plastic. The physical characteristics of each plastic are determined by its

molecular structure, which makes some plastics easier to recycle than others.

Large carbon chains make up plastic; therefore, some types can be melted down

and reformed, others can be combined with new plastic, and yet others can only

be molded into different shapes for various applications.

⮚ Newspaper & Cardboards | is one of the easiest-to-recycle and most-recycled

materials. By shredding the papers and cardboards into pieces, water and

chemicals is then added then heated turning it into fibres. Some gets turned into

egg cartons, building insulation, paper plates, kitty litter, construction paper,

phone books, sheetrock and new newspaper.

● BENEFITS OF RECYCLING

▪ Reduces the need for land filling and incineration

▪ Lessens pollution

▪ Saves energy

▪ Decrease emission of greenhouse gasses that contribute to global

climate

▪ Conserve natural resources

▪ Sustain the environment for future generation

ARE THERE ANYMORE ‘R’s?


● Rethink can be added to the start of the list. It means we should think about the way

our actions impact the environment.

● Recover is sometimes added to the end of the list. It refers to the act of putting waste

products to use. For example, decomposing garbage produces methane gas, which can

be recovered and burnt to produce energy

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

The 3Rs is a sustainable and environmentally conscious method of transforming waste into

valuable products, preventing the unnecessary destruction of potentially valuable items. By

reprocessing materials like plastic, paper, glass, metal, tires, electronics, and textiles, we reduce

the demand for fresh raw materials, energy, and natural resources. Composting and reusing

biodegradable waste such as food scraps, kitchen refuse, and garden waste are integral parts of

recycling.

This approach significantly decreases the volume of waste generated, preserves vital

environmental resources, mitigates environmental pollution, and curtails greenhouse gas

emissions. Consequently, our ecosystem thrives despite increasing demands, ensuring its

preservation for future generations.

In addition to recycling, another eco-friendly practice is reuse, wherein products are creatively

repurposed, conserving resources and energy. This method alleviates the strain on industrial
production, leading to reduced industrial pollution. Simultaneously, both costs and requirements

for waste disposal decrease.

Apart from its environmental benefits, recycling proves to be a financially sound strategy for

businesses and consumers alike. It is more economical than constantly purchasing new items.

Reusing, in particular, stands out as an effective approach to conserve energy and reduce the

overall expenditure associated with the production of goods and materials. In summary, learning

about the 3Rs in waste management is crucial for environmental conservation, resource

preservation, energy conservation, economic benefits, and overall sustainability. It empowers

individuals, communities, and businesses to make informed choices that contribute to a healthier

planet for current and future generations.


REFERENCES

https://www.slideshare.net/rebina/reduce-reuse-and-recycle-3r

https://www.naturalhomebrands.com/blogs/news/the-importance-of-the-three-r-s

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_hierarchy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_management

https://www.env.go.jp/recycle/3r/en/outline.html#:~:text=The%203R%20Initiative%20aim

s%20to,as%20a%20new%20G8%20initiative.

https://www.solarschools.net/knowledge-bank/sustainability/reduce-reuse-

recycle#:~:text=The%203%20'R's%20%E2%80%93%20Reduce%2C,used%20for%20a

%20new%20purpose.

https://school.careers360.com/reduce-reuse-recycle-essay-essy
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Reduce,_reuse,_recycle

https://roguedisposal.com/resources/education/recycling/exploring-the-three-rs-of-waste-

management-reduce-reuse-

recycle#:~:text=Reduce%20means%20to%20cut%20back,playground%20equipment%20

and%20recycling%20bins).

https://www.recyclenow.com/how-to-recycle/paper-recycling
Chemical Safety: Introduction

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Regencia, Darwin D.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D


Chemical Safety: Introduction

Chemical Safety is achieved by undertaking all activities involving chemicals in such a

way as to ensure the safety of human health and the environment. It covers all chemicals, natural

and manufactured, and the full range of exposure situations from the natural presence of chemicals

in the environment to their extraction or synthesis, industrial production, transport use and

disposal.

Chemical safety has many scientific and technical components. Among these are

toxicology, ecotoxicology and the process of chemical risk assessment which requires a detailed

knowledge of exposure and of biological effects.

Through the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), WHO works to

establish the scientific basis for the sound management of chemicals, and to strengthen national

capabilities and capacities for chemical safety.

Chemicals are part of our daily life. All living and inanimate matter is made up of chemicals

and virtually every manufactured product involves the use of chemicals. Many chemicals can,

when properly used, significantly contribute to the improvement of our quality of life, health and

well-being. But other chemicals are highly hazardous and can negatively affect our health and

environment when improperly managed.

The production and use of chemicals continues to grow worldwide, particularly in

developing countries. This is likely to result in greater negative effect on health if sound chemicals

management is not ensured. Multisectoral action is urgently needed to protect human health from

the harmful effects of improperly managed chemicals.


Sustaining many of our activities, preventing and controlling diseases, and increasing

agricultural productivity. However, one can not ignore that these chemicals may, especially if not

properly used, endanger our health and poison our environment.

An estimation of one thousand new chemicals enter the market every year, and about

100000 chemical substances are used on a global scale. These chemicals are mostly found as

mixtures in commercial products. One to two million such products or trade names are available.

More substances and rising production mean more storage, transport, handling, use and

disposal of chemicals. The whole lifecycle of a chemical should be considered when assessing its

dangers and benefits.

Most chemical accidents have a limited effect. Occasionally there is a disaster like the

one in Bhopal, India, in 1984, with thousands of deaths and many people permanently disabled.

Not only the worker handling chemicals is at risk. We may be exposed to chemical risks

in our homes through misuse or by accidents. The environment may be affected, chemicals may

pollute the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat. They may have entered into

forests and lakes, destroying wildlife and changing the ecosystems.

Chemicals are not all of equal concern. The assessment of health risks of chemical

substances is a continuous process where information of the chemical hazards and exposure

patterns are made available through a variety of sources.


No chemical substance can cause adverse effects without first entering the body

or coming to contact with it.There are four main ways, that is routes of exposure, for chemical

substances to enter the human body:

 Inhalation (breathing in)

 Absorption (through the skin or eyes)

 Ingestion (eating, swallowing)

 Transfer across the placenta of a pregnant woman to the unborn baby

Innovations in chemistry have helped improve our quality of life for centuries in a variety

of ways. Products of chemistry support agriculture by helping people to produce and raise healthy

crops and livestock. Through chemistry, food can be preserved and packaged safely and

efficiently. Chemistry has also given us products that can help prevent or control the spread of

diseases, clean our homes effectively and sanitize medical equipment.

Thanks to innovations in chemistry, automobiles can be manufactured to be light weight

and more fuel efficient; building materials can be made to be more durable and resilient; and

electronics like cell phones, computers and televisions have enhanced functionality to meet the

technology needs of today’s consumers.

While chemistry can provide numerous benefits

to society, we must still safely and

responsibly manage how chemicals are used.

And to do that, we need to consider the scientific

information available.
To determine a chemical substance’s safety, researchers and experts primarily rely on two key

categories of information:

 The potency, or hazardous nature of the chemical; and

 The degree of our exposure to the chemical.

The mere presence of a chemical ingredient in a product does not automatically mean it will

cause harm. Any substance—even water—can be toxic if too much is ingested or absorbed into

the body. The extent to which a specific substance may have harmful effects depends on a variety

of factors, including how much of the substance a person is exposed to, the route of exposure, and

the length of time they are exposed.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES

Substitution

 Replace the hazardous chemical with another less dangerous one

Engineering control

 Enclosed process

 Ventilation

Reducing exposure

 The number of exposed workers

 Reducing the length of time and/or frequency of exposure


Monitoring

 Working environment

 Medical monitoring of workers

Hazard communication

 Labelling of chemicals

 Chemical Safety Data Sheets

Training

 Use of chemicals

 Emergency situation

 First aid training

 Provisions and legislation in concern

Disposal of Chemicals: Carefully, follow instructions on disposal of waste chemicals. You will

be instructed to dispose of chemicals into designated waste containers. Check labels of all waste

containers. If no specific instructions given, you will do the following: a. You will dispose of

liquids and solutions by pouring them down the sink one at a time accompanied by running water.

Never mix chemicals in the sink; avoid unexpected reactions. b. Solid chemicals, insoluble

material, and filter paper are to be disposed of into the trash bin (not in the sink).
REFERENCES

https://www.who.int/health-topics/chemical-safety#tab=tab_1

https://www.who.int/health-topics/chemical-safety#tab=tab_2

https://www.chemicalsafetyfacts.org/health-and-safety/understanding-chemical-safety/

https://training.itcilo.org/actrav_cdrom2/en/osh/kemi/ctm1.htm
Z

PESTICIDES

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Sabolleros, Miguel J.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D


PESTICIDES

Pesticides are chemical or biological substances designed to control, repel, destroy, or

mitigate pests such as insects, fungi, weeds, and rodents that can threaten crops, public health, or

ecosystems.

Pesticides have been used for crop protection for centuries, but their modern development

accelerated with the introduction of synthetic chemicals in the mid-twentieth century. They play a

crucial role in agriculture by safeguarding plants from various threats and improving crop yields.

While they have considerably increased agricultural production and disease vector control, there

are worries about their impact on the environment, non-target species, and human health. Among

the primary issues linked with pesticide use are the possibility of pesticide residues in food,

environmental contamination, and the development of pesticide-resistant pests.

Types of Pesticides

These substances come in various forms, including herbicides, insecticides, fungicides,

rodenticides, bactericides and larvicides.

● Herbicides is primarily used in agriculture & known as weedkiller and are

chemicals used to manipulate or control undesirable vegetation.

● Insecticides are chemicals used to control insects by killing them or preventing

them from engaging in undesirable or destructive behaviors.

● Fungicides are chemicals that kill or prevent the growth of fungi and their spores.

● Rodenticides are chemicals that kill rodents, including mice and rats.
● Bactericides are chemical (such as bleach) or physical (such as heat) substances

that kill bacteria, whether pathogenic or not.

● Larvicides are chemicals applied to breeding habitats to kill mosquito larvae.

Usage of Pesticides

Agricultural Applications

Pesticides are indispensable in agricultural production. Agricultural applications

of pesticides involve the use of chemical or biological agents to manage and mitigate pest-

related issues in farming. This includes the protection of crops from insects, diseases, and

weeds, ultimately enhancing agricultural productivity and crop yields. They have been used

by farmers to control weeds and insects, and their remarkable increases in agricultural

products. Therefore, pesticides play a critical role in reducing diseases and increasing crop

yields worldwide.

Non-agricultural Applications

Non-agricultural applications of pesticides refer to the utilization of pesticides in

contexts other than agriculture. Pesticides are also commonly applied in non-agricultural

settings to maintain residential and commercial landscaping/turf, prevent structural damage

to buildings, eradicate disease vectors, and maintaining open spaces in utility and road

right-of-ways. This can encompass pest control in residential settings, industrial facilities,

public health efforts (e.g., controlling disease-carrying insects), and maintaining

landscapes and green spaces.


Importance in Pest Control

Pesticides play a vital role in pest control by suppressing or eradicating harmful

organisms that can negatively impact human activities, ecosystems, and health. They help

in safeguarding crops, preventing disease transmission, preserving structures, and

maintaining overall quality of life by managing pest populations effectively.

Environmental Impact

Pesticides are harmful substances that are deliberately released into the environment.

Although each pesticide is designed to kill a specific bug, a considerable percentage of pesticides

end up somewhere other than their intended target. Pesticides quickly contaminate the air, ground,

and water when they flow off from fields, escape storage tanks, are not properly discarded, and

are sprayed aerially.

● Effects on Non-Target Species

Effects on non-target species pertain to the unintended harm or disruption

caused by pesticides to organisms or wildlife that were not the intended target of

the pesticide application. This may include harm to beneficial insects, birds, or

other non-pest species. Animals may be poisoned by pesticide residues that remain

on food after spraying. An application of pesticides in an area can eliminate food

sources that certain types of animals need, causing the animals to relocate, change

their diet, or starve. Poisoning from pesticides can even make its way up the food

chain; for example, birds can be harmed when they eat insects and worms that have

consumed pesticides.
● Water Pollution

Water pollution resulting from pesticide use refers to the contamination

of aquatic ecosystems, such as rivers, lakes, and groundwater, due to the runoff of

pesticides from fields or other application sites. This can harm aquatic life and

affect water quality. Fish and other aquatic biota may be harmed by pesticide-

contaminated water. Application of herbicides to bodies of water can cause plants

to die, diminishing the water’s oxygen and suffocating the fish. Repeated exposure

of some pesticides can cause physiological and behavioral changes in fish that

reduce populations, such as abandonment of nests, decreased immunity to disease,

and increased failure to avoid predators.

● Soil Contamination

Soil contamination occurs when pesticides used in agriculture or other

applications leach into the soil, potentially leading to long-term harm to soil quality,

beneficial microorganisms, and the overall health of the land. Soil quality is higher

without chemicals and this allows for higher water retention, necessary for plants

to grow.

● Impact on Biodiversity

The impact on biodiversity resulting from pesticide use refers to the

potential harm or disruption to the variety of plant and animal species within a given

ecosystem due to pesticide applications. Excessive use and misuse of pesticides

result in contamination of surrounding soil and water sources, causing loss of


biodiversity, destroying beneficial insect populations that act as natural enemies of

pests and reducing the nutritional value of food. This can affect the balance of

species and ecosystems.

Human Health Concerns

Pesticides are potentially hazardous to other creatures, including humans, and must be

handled and disposed of responsibly. They are among the top causes of self-poisoning death, with

the burden falling disproportionately on low- and middle-income countries.

● Pesticide Residues in Food - Pesticide residues in food refer to the small amounts

of pesticides that may remain on or in food products after they have been treated

with pesticides during the production process. The presence of such residues can

raise concerns about food safety and potential health risks for consumers.

● Occupational Exposure - Occupational exposure to pesticides occurs when

individuals who work in agriculture, pest control, or related industries come into

direct contact with pesticides during their job tasks. This can include exposure

through handling, application, or maintenance of pesticide-treated areas.


● Acute and Chronic Health Effects - Acute health effects are immediate and

short-term health problems that can result from exposure to pesticides, such as

poisoning or allergic reactions. Chronic health effects, on the other hand, are long-

term health issues that may develop over time due to repeated or prolonged

exposure to pesticides, including conditions like cancer, neurological disorders,

or reproductive problems.

Regulation and Safety Measures

Regulation and safety measures in using pesticides are crucial to protect human health

and the environment. Governments typically have strict regulations in place to ensure that

pesticides are used safely and effectively. These regulations often require pesticide applicators to

be trained and certified, prescribe specific application methods, and establish allowable pesticide

residue levels in food. Safety measures include the use of protective clothing, respiratory gear, and

the implementation of buffer zones to minimize pesticide drift. Here are some tips for safer pest

control:

● The most effective way to reduce risks posed by pesticides is to use non-chemical

control methods to reduce or eliminate pest problems. Around the home, such measures

include:
o removing sources of food and water (such as leaky pipes); and

o destroying pest shelters and breeding sites (such as litter and plant debris).

● If you decide you must use pesticides, always read the label first and follow the

directions to the letter, including all precautions and restrictions.

● Don't use products for pests that are not indicated on the label and don't use more

pesticide than directed by the label. Don't think that twice the amount will do twice the

job.

● Use protective measures when handling pesticides as directed by the label, such as

wearing impermeable gloves, long pants, and long-sleeve shirts. Change clothes and

wash your hands immediately after applying pesticides.

Alternatives to Pesticides

The importance of seeking alternatives to traditional pesticides lies in reducing health

and environmental risks. These alternatives promote sustainable agriculture, protect biodiversity,

and prevent pesticide resistance, ensuring a safer and more balanced approach to pest control.

● Biological Control – Biological Control is the use of living organisms to suppress pest

populations, making them less damaging than they would otherwise be. Organic farming

is an agricultural practice that emphasizes the use of natural and sustainable methods to

grow crops and raise livestock. It avoids the use of synthetic chemical pesticides and
fertilizers, focusing on organic and environmentally friendly techniques to promote soil

health and biodiversity.

● Organic Farming - Organic farming is an agricultural practice that emphasizes the use

of natural and sustainable methods to grow crops and raise livestock. It avoids the use

of synthetic chemical pesticides and fertilizers, focusing on organic and environmentally

friendly techniques to promote soil health and biodiversity.

● Genetic Engineering - Genetic engineering, also known as genetic modification, is a

biotechnological method that involves altering the genetic makeup of organisms,

including crops. In agriculture, it is used to create genetically modified organisms

(GMOs) with specific traits, such as resistance to pests or tolerance to certain

environmental conditions.

● Sustainable Agriculture - Sustainable agriculture is an approach to farming that seeks

to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations

to meet their own needs. It involves practices that are environmentally responsible,

economically viable, and socially equitable, aiming to promote long-term ecological and

agricultural sustainability.

Significance of Pesticides

Chemistry for Engineers

Pesticides hold great significance in the realm of chemistry for engineers.

Engineers are instrumental in developing the chemical formulations of pesticides, ensuring

their effectiveness and safety. They play a pivotal role in designing analytical techniques
and instruments for detecting pesticide residues, contributing to the precision and reliability

of environmental and food safety assessments. Moreover, engineers are at the forefront of

mitigating the environmental impact of pesticides, devising innovative solutions to reduce

contamination, improve application precision, and develop eco-friendly alternatives. They

also design safety equipment and practices to safeguard workers who handle pesticides,

and engineer compliance systems to meet regulatory standards, making pesticides a key

intersection between chemistry and engineering disciplines, addressing both efficacy and

environmental responsibility.

The interdisciplinary nature of pesticides bridges the gap between chemical

knowledge and engineering expertise, allowing for the development of safer and more

effective pest management solutions.

Computer Engineers

Pesticides may not have direct significance to computer engineers, as their field

typically focuses on computer hardware, software, and systems. However, indirectly,

computer engineers might contribute to the development of technology and data analysis

tools used in agriculture and pest management. These technologies can help optimize

pesticide use, monitor crop health, and analyze data related to pest control, which can

benefit the agricultural sector and those involved in pesticide application and regulation.

Conclusion

Pesticides have played a vital role in agriculture and pest control for centuries,

significantly improving crop yields and public health. However, their modern development has

raised concerns about their environmental impact and human health risks. Various types of
pesticides are used in agricultural and non-agricultural applications, with potential consequences

for non-target species, water and soil quality, and biodiversity.

These chemicals can also pose risks to human health through pesticide residues in food

and occupational exposure, resulting in acute and chronic health effects. To mitigate these risks,

pesticide regulation and safety precautions strategies have been implemented.

Alternatives to pesticides, such as biological control, organic farming, genetic

engineering, and sustainable agriculture, offer more environmentally friendly approaches to pest

management. Pesticides are of significant importance to chemistry for engineers, who are crucial

in their formulation, safety, and environmental impact reduction. The interdisciplinary nature of

pesticides highlights the role of engineers in ensuring safer and more effective pest control

solutions while advancing the field of chemistry for practical and sustainable applications.

Additionally, although computer engineers typically focus on computer technology, they can

indirectly contribute to agriculture by developing tools for optimized pesticide use and data

analysis, benefiting the agricultural sector.

References:

Admin. (2023, May 25). Pesticides - definition, types, uses, and harmful

effects. BYJUS. https://byjus.com/chemistry/pesticides/


Approaches to the biological control of insect pests. (n.d.). CT.gov -

Connecticut’s Official State Website.

https://portal.ct.gov/CAES/Fact-Sheets/Entomology/Approaches-

to-the-Biological-Control-of-Insect-

Pests#:~:text=Summary-,Biological%20control%20is%20the%20u

se%20of%20living%20organisms%20to%20suppress,predators%2

C%20parasitoids%2C%20and%20pathogens.

Claydon, S. (2022, May 27). Pesticides in our Environment - Pesticide Action

Network UK. Pesticide Action Network UK. https://www.pan-uk.org/our-

environment/

Genetic engineering. (n.d.). Beyond Pesticides.

https://www.beyondpesticides.org/resources/genetic-engineering/overview

Mahmood, I., Imadi, S. R., Shazadi, K., Gul, A., & Hakeem, K. R. (2016). Effects of

pesticides on environment. In Springer eBooks (pp. 253–269).

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-27455-3_13

Pesticides & human health. (n.d.). Californians for Pesticide

Reform. https://www.pesticidereform.org/pesticides-

human-health/

Stehle, S., Bline, A., Bub, S., Petschick, L. L., Wolfram, J., & Schulz, R.

(2019). Aquatic pesticide exposure in the U.S. as a result of non-

agricultural uses. Environment International, 133, 105234.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105234
Tudi, M., Ruan, H. D., Wang, L., Lyu, J., Sadler, R., Connell, D., Chu, C.,

& Phung, D. (2021). Agriculture development, pesticide application

and its impact on the environment. International Journal of

Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(3), 1112.

https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031112
CARCINOGENS

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Sapuan, Cyril Josh P.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D


What is a carcinogen?

Carcinogens are agents in the environment capable of contributing to cancer growth.

Carcinogens can be categorized into two different types: activation-dependent and activation-

independent, and each nature impacts their level and type of influence when it comes to

promoting cancer growth. Activation-dependent carcinogens require metabolic activation or

modification to induce cancer, while activation-independents ones do not.

A carcinogen is anything that causes cancer. Carcinogens may be environmental elements such

as chemicals, metals or gases, or substances that encounter the body through eating, drinking, or

smoking. Some infections as well as certain medical procedures and treatments are also

considered carcinogenic.

Some well-known carcinogens include:

• Tabacco smoke

• Radiation

• Sunlight

• Alcohol

National, international, and federal organizations and research groups help to label chemicals and

substances as carcinogens. Among others, these include the International Agency for Research

on Cancer (IARC) and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ National Toxicology

Program (NTP).
How do carcinogens cause cancer?

Cancer is caused by mutations (changes) in the DNA of cells. Carcinogens may lead to these

changes in different ways:

• Some carcinogens cause the mutations directly.

• Other carcinogens cause cells to change in some way, such as dividing faster than they

normally would, which over time increases the chances of a mutation happening.

The likelihood that exposure to a carcinogen leads to cancer is affected by several factors, such

as:

• How much exposure the person has had and for how long.

• How the exposure happened (for example, through the skin vs. inhalation)

• Age and genetic predisposition to certain cancers

Who decides if something is a carcinogen?

In the United States, the National Toxicology Program (NTP) evaluates research and publishes

lists of known and possible carcinogens. The International Agency for Research on Cancer

(IARC) also evaluates research and publishes its findings.

In general, both agencies rely on laboratory tests and epidemiology research (studies in people)

to determine if a substance is a carcinogen.

The most recent NTP report lists 63 carcinogenic substances. The report also lists 193 substances

that may cause cancer. The most recent IARC research lists 122 substances known to cause

cancer, 93 substances that probably cause cancer and 319 substances that may cause cancer.
What are types of carcinogens?

The IARC has three categories of carcinogens:

Physical carcinogens, like ultraviolet rays from the sun and ionizing radiation from sources like

radon in homes or X-rays and other medical imaging tests.

Chemical carcinogens, like asbestos, tobacco smoke, beverages containing alcohol, aflatoxin (a

fungus that contaminates food) and arsenic that appears naturally in the air, water, and soil.

Biological carcinogens, such as infections from certain viruses, bacteria or parasites.

Examples of carcinogens.

Tobacco: The leading cause of cancer and death from cancer is tobacco. Smoking tobacco

(cigarettes, cigars, and pipes) may cause lung, larynx, mouth, esophagus, throat, bladder, kidney,

liver, stomach, pancreas, colorectal and cervical cancers, as well as acute leukemia. Any amount

of tobacco use is considered risky but quitting—even among people who have been diagnosed

with cancer—may reduce the risk of death.

Alcohol: The more alcohol someone drinks, the higher the risk of certain cancers, such as head

and neck cancer, esophageal cancer, liver cancer, breast cancer and colorectal cancer. The U.S.

government’s “2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans” publication recommends up to one

drink per day for women and up to two drinks per day for men to keep the cancer risk from

rising.
Sunlight: UV radiation from sunlight, as well as from tanning beds, damages skin and may lead

to skin cancer. Wearing a wide-brim hat, covering up with clothing, applying sunscreen, and

limiting time spent in the sun may reduce the risk.

Radon: This is a colorless, odorless gas. You may be exposed to radon when you’re inside

buildings like businesses, schools or even your own home. Radon is the second leading cause

of lung cancer.

Formaldehyde: Studies suggest people exposed to high levels of formaldehyde in the workplace

have an increased risk of acute myeloid leukemia and rare cancers in their nasal cavities and

sinuses.

Asbestos: Asbestos once was a common form of insulation. You may be exposed to asbestos if

you spend time in buildings constructed before 1989, when the U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA) banned all new uses of asbestos. Asbestos is linked to malignant

(cancerous) mesothelioma, lung cancer, laryngeal cancer and ovarian cancer.

Processed meat: Meat that’s been transformed by salting, curing or smoking is linked

to colorectal cancer. There’s been speculation that certain foods or minerals are implicated in

cancer risk, such as the black char on grilled meat, acrylamide in French fries and other foods,

fluoride, and artificial sweeteners.

Medical procedures and treatments

Certain medical procedures and treatments are known carcinogens.

For example, X-rays, positron emission tomography (PET) scans, computed tomography (CT)

scans and radiation therapy all carry some cancer risk due to the radiation that has the potential

to damage cells. Typically, the levels are low enough to not present a significant risk.
Hormone therapy to treat menopause may also increase the risk of certain cancers, such as breast

and endometrial cancer. The hormone estrogen, contained in these therapies, is a known

carcinogen. In the case of both tests and treatments, oftentimes the benefits may outweigh the

cancer risks.

Environmental and occupational carcinogens

Carcinogens may be present in the environment where people live or work. While environmental

and occupational safety regulations exist to keep people safe from these carcinogens, those who

work or live near certain industries may still face increased risks of cancer.

How to avoid exposure to carcinogens

Unfortunately, you can’t avoid all carcinogens. But you can avoid some known carcinogens by:

• Not using tobacco.

• Avoiding beverages containing alcohol.

• Getting vaccinated against viruses that are considered carcinogens.

• Protecting your skin from the sun and other sources of ultraviolet radiation.

Limiting exposure to carcinogens when possible is important for lowering the risk of cancer—

quitting tobacco use or limiting alcohol consumption are some examples. Vaccines and

treatments may reduce the risk of cancer from infectious carcinogens, such as human

papillomavirus (HPV). Environmental and occupational safety regulations also help workers and

communities avoid dangerous exposure to carcinogens.


However, some carcinogens may be unavoidable. Ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun are

carcinogenic, but it’s not possible or even healthy to always avoid the sun. Because it may take

many years to study the effects of a given substance on the body, other carcinogens may not yet

be known. Experts are always studying possible carcinogens in the lab and population studies.
REFERENCES

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogen

https://www.cancercenter.com/risk-factors/carcinogens

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/25081-carcinogens
FOOD ADDITIVES

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Sarias, Mike Ivan Angelo P.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D


What is Food Additive?

Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance

taste, appearance, or other sensory qualities. Some additives have been used for

centuries as part of an effort to preserve food, for example vinegar (pickling), salt

(salting), smoke (smoking), sugar (crystallization), etc. This allows for longer-lasting

foods such as bacon, sweets or wines. With the advent of ultra-processed foods in the

second half of the twentieth century, many additives have been introduced, of both

natural and artificial origin. Food additives also include substances that may be

introduced to food indirectly (called "indirect additives") in the manufacturing process,

through packaging, or during storage or transport.

What is the purpose of using FOOD ADDITIVES?

Food additives are substances intentionally added to food products during

manufacturing to enhance their flavor, appearance, texture, shelf life, nutritional

content, and safety. They can be natural or synthetic and serve various roles in

processed foods. They are essential in the food industry for preservation, flavor

enhancement, color enhancement, texture improvement, nutrient fortification,

antioxidant protection, sweetness, pH adjustment, anti-caking agents, thickening

agents, emulsification, anti-foaming agents, and anti-microbial agents.

The 4 General Categories of Food Additives

 Nutritional additives

 Processing agents

 Preservatives

 Sensory agents
Nutritional Additives

Nutritional additives are used to restore nutrients lost during production,

fortify or enrich foods to correct dietary deficiencies, or add nutrients to food

substitutes. Fortification began in 1924 with iodine added to table salt for goitre

prevention. Vitamins are commonly added to foods to enrich their nutritional value,

such as vitamins A and D in dairy and cereal products, B vitamins in flour, cereals,

baked goods, and pasta, and vitamin C in fruit beverages, cereals, dairy products, and

confectioneries. Other additives include essential fatty acids, minerals, and dietary

fiber.

Processing Agents

Processing agents, also known as food processing aids, are substances or

materials added to foods to aid in processing or maintain desired product consistency.

They serve specific roles during manufacturing or processing, such as anticaking,

bleaching, cooling, clarifying, conditioning, emulsifying, leaving, moisture control,

pH control, and stabilizing and thickening. Emulsifiers maintain a uniform

dispersion of liquids by forming and stabilizing oil-in-water emulsions, while

stabilizers and thickeners increase the viscosity of the final product. They prevent the

coalescence of oil droplets, promote the separation of oil and aqueous phases, inhibit

ice or sugar crystal formation, and can encapsulate flavor compounds. Cooling agents

protect food products from enzymatic reactions that promote deterioration during

processing and storage by binding to minerals like calcium and magnesium.


Preservatives

Preservatives are substances added to various products to prevent spoilage,

deterioration, and microorganism growth. In food, they extend shelf life by inhibiting

microbial activity, reducing spoilage risk, and maintaining product safety.

Preservatives also act as antioxidants, protecting fats and oils from oxidation,

preventing rancidity, and extending shelf life. They play crucial functions in food

products, ensuring they maintain their intended characteristics and prevent potential

health risks.

Food preservatives are classified into two main groups: antioxidants and

antimicrobials. Antioxidants and antimicrobials are distinct substances with distinct

roles and functions. Antioxidants are compounds that delay or prevent the

deterioration of foods by oxidative mechanisms. Antimicrobial agents inhibit the

growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms in food. Antioxidants are crucial

for human health by reducing oxidative stress, while antimicrobials are used in

various industries to maintain product quality and safety.

Common preservatives used in food products include:

1. Organic acids like acetic, citric, sorbic, and benzoic acid, which inhibit

microbial growth.

2. Sodium nitrite is used in processed meats to prevent Clostridium botulinum

bacteria growth.

3. Sulfur dioxide is used in dried fruits and wine to prevent discoloration.

4. Sodium benzoate is effective against yeasts, molds, and certain bacteria.

5. Potassium sorbate is used in fruit juices and jams.

6. Calcium propionate is used in bread and bakery products to prevent mold

growth and extend shelf life.


7. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) prevents oxidation of fruits and vegetables.

8. Tocopherols (Vitamine E) protect the freshness of oils and fats in food

products.

Sensory Agents

Sensory agents improve the sensory properties of food products like food

colour, flavour sweetener etc.

There are 3 categories under the sensory agents:

 Colorants (Natural and Synthetic colorants)

 Flavourings

 Sweeteners

Colorants

Colour is a crucial sensory characteristic in food, influencing the perception

of taste and quality. Food processing can cause degradation of natural pigments in raw

materials. Some formulated products require colouring agents, which are natural or

synthetic. Natural colorants come from plant, animal, and mineral sources, while

synthetic colorants are primarily petroleum-based chemical compounds.

 Natural colorants

Natural colorants, derived from plant tissues, pose challenges in the

food industry like inconsistent color intensities, instability, supply variability,

reactivity, and secondary flavors. They are insoluble in water and require an

emulsifier for even distribution, making them essential for food product

quality.
 Synthetic colorants

Synthetic colorants are water-soluble powders, pastes, granules, or

solutions, available in various forms. Lakes, formulated with aluminum

hydroxide, contain 10-40% of the dye and are insoluble in water and organic

solvents. Their stability is influenced by light, heat, pH, and reducing agents.

Different countries have chemically synthesized and approved colorants,

designated by specific numbering systems.

Flavourings

Food flavor is a result of the chemical senses of taste and smell stimulated by

specific food molecules. Taste reception occurs in taste buds and olfactory cells in the

nasal cavity. Flavor additives, including natural and synthetic compounds, provide the

flavor impact of a food. Natural flavourings come from plants, spices, herbs, animals,

or microbial fermentations, while artificial flavourings are mixtures of synthetic

compounds. Flavor enhancers, originating in Asia, supplement or enhance natural

flavors.

Sweeteners

Sucrose is the standard sweetener, providing energy in the form of

carbohydrates. Other nutritive sweeteners include glucose, fructose, corn syrup, high-

fructose corn syrup, and sugar alcohols. Chemically synthesizing sweeteners began in

the late 1800s with saccharin's discovery. Nonnutritive sweeteners, with greater

sweetening power than sucrose, are used in low-calorie products like baked goods,

confectioneries, dairy products, desserts, preserves, soft drinks, and tabletop


sweeteners. They are also used as a carbohydrate replacement for diabetes mellitus

and in chewing gum and candies to minimize tooth decay risk.

The Pros and Cons of Using Food Additives

Pros

The advantages of using food additives include: Increase product shelf life,

increase nutritional value, flavor addition, texture preservation, large quantity

production, prevent food poisoning, may aid in, weight loss, help companies stay

afloat, and marketing strategy.

Cons

The disanvantages of using food additives include: Pose health hazards, distort

food components, cause food poisoning, cause price increases, may cause allergic

complications, may cause digestive problems, and may promote obesity and diabetes.
References

World Health Organization. (2018). Food additives.

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/food-additives

WIKIPEDIA. (2023). Food additives

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_additive#cite_note-FDAoverview-1

Food and Drug Administration. (2018). Food Ingredient & Packaging Terms.

https://www.fda.gov/food/food-ingredients-packaging/food-ingredient-

packaging-terms

Adhikari S. (2021). Additives and Preservatives Used in Food Processing and

Preservation,and Their Health Implication

https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119792130.ch2

Davidson M. & Singh P. (2023). Food additive

https://www.britannica.com/topic/food-additive/Sweeteners

Food n Health. (2022). 16 Pros And Cons Of Food Additives

https://foodnhealth.org/16-pros-and-cons-of-food-additives/
HEAVY METALS

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Taroy, Charlize T.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D


Heavy Metal

The term “heavy metal” refers to a metallic chemical element with a high density that is

toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Their high density gives them useful properties in

construction and manufacturing, but has been associated with toxicity.

Characteristics of Heavy Metals

Lustre: the surface of heavy metals have a gentle sheen or shiny usually with reflected light.

Ductility: heavy metals can undergo changes in their physical form without breaking.

Malleability: the shape of heavy metals can be easily distorted under compression.

Conductivity: heavy metals can effectively conduct heat and electricity.

Properties of Heavy metals

• have high densities

• toxic in nature and

• nondegradable

• they occur near the bottom of the periodic table

Sources of heavy metals

Through natural phenomena or anthropogenic origin, we can obtained these heavy metals.

These sources can be natural phenomena such as weathering and volcanic eruptions, that can

contribute to the formation of heavy metal pollution or it can be through anthropogenic origin or

change of nature caused by people such as Industrial Waste, Mining and Smelting processes,
Agricultural use of metals like machines, then those processing plants like nuclear power plant,

and Burning of fossil fuel.

COMMON HEAVY METALS

There are 9 common heavy metals:

1.Mercury

SOURCES:

•Burning fossil fuel

• Medical and municipal waste

EFFECTS TO HEALTH

Symptoms of mercury poisoning are primarily neurological, often impacting development.

Complications include brain damage, kidney damage, and circulatory failure.

2. Cadmium

SOURCES:

• Mining and smelting

• Phosphate fertilizers

• Smoking

EFFECTS TO HEALTH

Complications include coughing, anemia, irreversible kidney damage, and an increased risk of

cancer.

3. Arsenic
SOURCES:

• Smelting

• Burning coal

EFFECTS TO HEALTH

Complications include pigmentation, skin lesions, and an increased risk of cancer.

4. Chromium

SOURCES:

• Combustion

• Metal processing

EFFECTS TO HEALTH

Complications lead to fatal problems in a variety of different organ systems.

5. Thallium

SOURCES:

• Mining

• Metal processing

EFFECTS TO HEALTH

Complications have been associated with psychotic behaviour, and issues with skin, bones, and

organs.

6. Lead

SOURCES:
• Products containing lead such as paints, dishware, ceramic items, jewelry and etc.

EFFECTS TO HEALTH

Exposure to lead causes symptoms such as pain, anaemia, and organ damage.

7. Copper

SOURCES:

• Mining

• Fungicides and pesticides

EFFECTS TO HEALTH

Complications can lead to organ failure, brain damage, and death.

8. Nickel

SOURCES:

• Domestic wastewater, these are wastewater from home such as toilets, bathrooms and

kitchens.

• Mining and smelting

EFFECTS TO HEALTH

Complications include death and an increased risk of cancer.,

9. Zinc

SOURCES:

• Mining and smelting


• Steel production

EFFECTS TO HEALTH

Zinc toxicity include nausea, vomiting, and fatigue. Complications include dyspnoea (laboured

breathing) and gastrointestinal problems.

IMPORTANCE OF HEAVY METALS

Moving forward, heavy metals have important biochemical and physiological functions in living

organisms. Especially, Copper and zinc in particular are very useful in the body. Copper and Zinc

are essential to maintain the metabolism of the human body, copper alongside with iron to form

red blood cells which help to maintain healthy bones and nerve and zinc aids the immune system.

However, if overconsumed it can lead to poisoning.

Copper is used alongside iron to form red blood cells. It helps to maintain healthy bones, nerves,

and immune function.

Zinc aids the immune system, metabolism function, wound healing, and DNA synthesis

Heavy metals are dangerous because they tend to bioaccumulate. It is when an organism absorbs

a substance faster than it can be lost or eliminated by catabolism and excretion.

Bioaccumulation means an increase in the concentration of a chemical in a biological organism

over time, compared to the chemical’s concentration in the environment.


And also, Heavy metals is important in Computer engineering as students needs to know about

heavy metals because some of these metals are used in the manufacturing and assembly of

electronics components, such as capacitors and semiconductors.

Furthermore, understanding the properties and potential hazards associated with heavy metals can

help computer engineers develop safer and more sustainable electronics products. It can also

enable them to make informed decisions about reducing exposure to these metals during

manufacturing, recycling, and waste disposal processes.

REFERENCES:

https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/environmental-science/pollution/heavy-metals/

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1573428505800201

https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/environmental-science/pollution/heavy-metals/
Radioactive Wastes

EPS 131(TA) Chemistry for Engineers

By:

Matt Angelo C. Taruc

BS in Computer Engineering

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela Ph.D


WHAT IS RADIOACTIVE WASTE?

Radioactive waste is a byproduct from nuclear reactors, fuel processing plants, hospitals

and research facilities. It is also generated while decommissioning and dismantling nuclear

reactors and other nuclear facilities. Radioactive waste includes elements and compounds that

produce or absorb ionizing radiation and any material that interacts with such elements and

compounds. There are two broad classifications of radioactive waste: high-level or low-level

waste. Radioactive waste is filled with persistent unstable elements or radionuclides, which emit

ionizing radiation as they decay.

Most radioactive waste comes from nuclear electricity production and military activities. However,

it is also generated in hospitals from the use of radioactive material to diagnose and treat the sick

and sterilize medical products, in universities in conducting vital research in biology, chemistry

and engineering, and in agriculture, where nuclear applications have helped produce crops that are

more drought and disease resistant, as well as crops with shorter growing periods or increased

yield – a practice that has been especially beneficial for some developing countries. As with all

radioactive sources, radioactive waste is potentially hazardous to health. Therefore, it must be

managed in a safe way to protect people and the environment. Good waste management begins

before the waste is generated: the starting point for all activities that produce radioactive waste is

to avoid or reduce waste generation at its source. Minimizing primary waste generation also

minimizes the quantity of waste requiring disposal. Various types of radioactive waste exist and

proper disposal will depend on the properties of the waste.


WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES?

Radioactive wastes are created wherever radioactive materials are used. By far the greatest

source of radioactive wastes is the nuclear fuel cycle. The mining, milling and the preparation of

fuels for reactors and weapons produce wastes containing natural radioisotopes; and fuel

irradiation and subsequent processing produce waste rich in fission products. Additional wastes

are produced by irradiation of nonfuel materials in and around reactors.

NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY

This refers to the radioactivity of materials found in nature. These materials are present in

uranium and thorium ores, nature’s nuclear fuels. Wastes from mining or milling and fuel

fabrication therefore contain this natural radioactivity, which consists primarily of the natural

radioscopes of uranium, thorium, radon (a gas) and radium.

FISSION PRODUCTS

Are produced during the irradiation of nuclear fuels in reactors are by far the largest source

of radioactive wastes in terms of contained radioactivity. When each uranium atom fissions, it

breaks into two major fragments appropriately called fission products. Fission products are

radioactive; they undergo one or more steps of radioactive decay before reaching a stable, harmless

condition. Valuable fuel material remains in the irradiated nuclear fuel is, therefore, and

inescapable part of the nuclear industry. The processing creates highly radioactive wastes

consisting not only of fission products but also some activated reactor materials, chemicals, and

corrosion products.
ACTIVATION PRODUCTS

Are produced during the irradiation of nonfuel materials located near the fuel in nuclear

reactors. Structural materials are activated (made radioactive) by the absorption of neutrons, as are

impurities in the coolant and often the coolant itself. Traces of iron, nickel, and other corrosions

products, for example, are carried along with the coolant in some types of reactors and irradiated

as they pass through the reactor.

MISCELLANEOUS SOURCE OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES

Are the more than establishments making or using nuclear products in the United States.

The radioactivity of this great variety of wastes originates in one of the ways we have just discussed

– from naturally occurring radioisotopes, fission products. These may be in many forms, including,

chemicals, solids collected in evaporators, resins, and contaminated equipment and materials.

Laboratories in hospitals, universities, and private industry procedure waste solutions

contaminated gloves and clothing, and broken glassware. Even when sealed radioisotopes devise

are used, there eventually is need for disposal when the radioactivity has decayed below useful

levels.

TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES

The main consideration for defining and categorizing waste is long term safety of disposal.

Waste is classified according to its potential hazard, and this determines the containment and

isolation required. Within the nuclear energy sector, a rough categorization divides nuclear waste

into low level, intermediate level and high-level wastes. This categorization varies slightly from

country to country, but in principle the main criteria for determining the type of waste are derived

from radioactive content and half-life, i.e., the time taken for the waste to lose half of its
radioactivity. Low and intermediate level wastes arise mainly from routine facility maintenance

and operations. Low level waste can be contaminated clothing such as protective shoe covers, floor

sweepings, paper and plastic. Intermediate level waste can be, for example, reactor water treatment

residues and filters used for purifying a reactor’s cooling water. The radioactivity ranges from just

above nature’s background level to more elevated radioactivity in certain cases, such as parts from

inside the reactor vessel in a nuclear power plant. Low and intermediate level wastes comprise

97% of the volume but only 8% of the radioactivity of all radioactive waste. High level waste

consists mostly of spent fuel from reactors. Some countries also reprocess spent fuel, which gives

rise to additional types of high-level waste. All of this high-level waste and spent fuel, when

declared as waste, poses a sufficiently high enough radiological risk that a high degree of isolation

from the biosphere is required for a long period of time. Because of the radioactivity and heat

generated, this waste has to be shielded and cooled. Whatever the type of the radioactive waste,

all of it has to be disposed of in a safe manner.

Radiation is a fact of life. Light and heat radiations are produced by the sun. Earth itself is

radioactive. Even our bodies contain radioactive material.

THINGS TO KNOW ABOUT RADIOACTIVE WASTES GENERATION

•All electricity generation forms produce waste. The most important waste from a nuclear power

plant is radioactive nuclear waste.

• Radioactive waste is also produced by military activities and beneficial practices in medicine,

research and industry.

• The world has over half a century’s experience in managing radioactive waste – the

characteristics of the waste are well known and therefore it can be safely managed.
• The main objective of waste management is to protect people and the environment, now and in

the future.

• As a term, nuclear waste management refers to practices and techniques used for all activities

(administrative and operational) involving the handling, pretreatment, treatment, conditioning,

transport, storage and disposal of radioactive waste.

• Only trained personnel are allowed to manage radioactive waste.

• There are over 440 nuclear power plant units in the world today producing three types of waste

that are roughly categorized as low, intermediate and high level wastes.

• The criteria defining these three main types of waste are derived from the waste’s radioactive

content and half-life, i.e. the time taken to lose half of the radioactivity.

• The disposal of low and intermediate level wastes is well established in several countries. Long

term safety determines the measures needed to protect people and environment.

• A number of countries have made good progress towards implementing geological disposal of

spent fuel, in particular Finland, France and Sweden.

• The mechanisms for collecting money in advance to cover waste management costs exist and

have been successfully implemented.

REFERENCE:

Fox, C. H. (1965). Radioactive wastes. Google Books.


https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=xtds5xGVi_0C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_
ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
ENVIRONMENTAL

HAZARDS

Tolentin, Cherhe Ann C.

BSCOE 1

EPS 131 TA: CHEMISTRY

ENGR. Marinela C. Bansuela Ph. D.


In today's environment of rapid evolution, environmental hazards have become a pressing

concern that affects every living being on our planet. These risks, ranging from pollution brought

on by humanity to natural disasters, gravely threaten our ecosystems, biodiversity, and general

well-being. As the global population and economy continue to expand, the impacts of these

hazards become more pronounced and in need of urgent action. This report digs down into the

various environmental hazards our society faces, analyzing causes and consequences and potential

solutions.

Now what are environmental hazards? Environmental hazards refers to the condition that may

cause harm or danger to human health or the environment itself. These hazards can be natural or

human-made that often result in negative consequences for the society, ecosystem and

individuals. Environmental hazards have the potential to cause harm to the environment, disrupt

ecological balance, and impact human communities by causing health problems, property

damage, or economic losses. Managing and mitigating these hazards are essential to ensuring

environmental sustainability and human well-being. These are threats to people and also a result

of the interaction between natural systems, technological systems and human systems.

These hazards can be classified into several categories based on their impact and origin.

a. Natural Hazards

Geological Hazards: earthquakes, landslides, and tsunamis.

Meteorological Hazards: hurricanes, tornadoes, heat waves and cold waves

Hydrological Hazards: floods, droughts, mudslides, and tsunamis

Biological Hazards: pandemics, epidemics, and diseases.

Chemical Hazards: volcanic eruptions, wildfires, and air pollution.


TYPES OF NATURAL HAZARDS

a. geological hazards

- are disasters originating from solid earth. these refer to earthquakes, landslides,

and tsunamis.

- earthquakes are movements of tectonic plates that slide past each others fault

zones a pressure is build up over a long period of time because of the friction that

slows them down and when the time comes, a force of movement finally

overcomes the friction resulting a sudden break of the crust in the form of

seismic waves.

- tsunamis are results of an earthquake that happened below or near the ocean floor.

b. meteorological hazards

- occur as a result of processes in the atmosphere.

- this includes extreme temperature, hurricanes, tornadoes, heat waves and cold

waves

- Hurricanes form over warm ocean waters when moist air rises from the surface,

creating a low-pressure system. As the air continues to rise and cool, water vapor

condenses to form clouds and releases latent heat, fueling the storm's growth. If

the conditions are favorable, with warm sea surface temperatures and low wind

shear, the storm can intensify and develop into a hurricane.

c. hydrological hazards

- extreme events associated with water

- floods, droughts
- floods are the result of excessive rainfall overwhelming the capacity of rivers,

lakes, or drainage systems to handle the increased water flow.

d. biological hazards

- are organic substances that present a threat to the health of people and other living

organisms.

- these are viruses, fungi and diseases that lead to epidemics and pandemics.

- examples of biological hazards are pathogenic microorganisms and allergens

- Pathogenic Microorganisms: Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites that can

cause diseases in humans. Examples include Salmonella bacteria, Influenza virus,

and Malaria parasites.

- Allergens: Substances that can induce allergic reactions in some individuals.

Common biological allergens include pollen, mold spores, and animal

dander(shedded tiny flakes from skin)

e. chemical hazards

- hazardous chemical that can be a solid, liquid or gas. It can be a pure substance,

consisting of one ingredient, or a mixture of substances.

- Toxic Substances: Chemicals that can cause harm or illness when ingested,

inhaled, or come into contact with the skin. Examples include lead, and certain

pesticides.

(physicochemical)

- it's examples are corrosion, the effects of wildfires and air pollution into a

human’s health
b. Human-Induced Hazards

Pollution: air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, and noise pollution.

Waste: hazardous waste, electronic waste, and plastic pollution.

Climate Change: global warming, sea level rise, and extreme weather events caused by

human activities like burning fossil fuels.

Deforestation: destruction of forests leading to loss of biodiversity and disruption of

ecosystems.

Nuclear Accidents: accidents at nuclear power plants leading to radioactive

contamination.

- nuclear accidents

air and water pollution

- one common air pollutant is NITROGEN OXIDE.group of pollutants produced

as a result of road traffic and other fossil fuel combustion processes.

- studies indicate that long-term exposure to NO2 may decrease lung function and

increase the risk of respiratory symptoms such as acute bronchitis and cough and

phlegm.

- water pollutants are caused by Radioactive waste released from facilities that

create nuclear energy can be extremely harmful to the environment and must be

disposed of properly.

- uranium, the element used in the creation of nuclear energy, is a highly toxic

chemical and when inhaled can cause lung cancer.


- waste

- hazardous waste and electronic waste.

- plastics are example of hazardous waste it take hundreds of years for plastic to

break down, leading to persistent contamination in oceans, soil, and ecosystems

when it is not disposed properly.

- climate change

- global warming which is caused by different human activities such as

deforestation and burning of fossil fuels

- Greenhouse gases trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, creating the natural

greenhouse effect that keeps our planet warm enough to support life. However,

human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels, have significantly

increased the concentration of these gasses resulting into more heat being trapped,

contributing to a rise in global temperatures

c. Technological Hazards

Industrial Accidents: chemical spills, explosions, and leaks in factories or industrial

facilities.

Hazardous Materials: improper storage, transportation, or disposal of hazardous

substances.

Infrastructure Failures: dam failures, levee breaches, and power outages.

- industrial accidents
- chemical spills, explosions, and leaks in factories or industrial facilities.

- improper storage or disposal of hazardous material.

- Infrastructure Failures

- dam failures, levee breaches, and power outages.

- Levees are typically constructed along rivers, lakes, or coastlines to confine water

within specified areas. When water levels rise above the height of the levee, it can

lead to over-topping. The pressure from the excess water can weaken the

structure, potentially causing a breach.

d. Social Hazards

Poverty: lack of access to basic resources, leading to environmental degradation and

health issues.

Overpopulation: strain on natural resources and ecosystems due to a growing population.

Conflict: wars and social unrest leading to environmental damage and displacement of

communities.

Natural hazards turn into a natural disaster when a catastrophic event causes a great deal of

damage and surpasses people's capacity for recovery and response. These hazards are often

unpredictable and can occur due to geological, meteorological, hydrological, or other natural

processes. Because hazards are threats of harm mainly to human systems, human activities play a

large role in how severe a hazard is. New Orleans and Honolulu, Hawaii built their cities in coastal
areas. These cities face the threat of rising sea levels. Natural hazards include earthquakes, volcanic

eruptions, wildfires, tsunamis, storms and typhoons. The Philippines is an example of a vulnerable

country which experienced numerous natural disasters ranging from earthquakes, tropical

typhoons and flooding. Every year, the Philippines is visited by an average of 20 typhoons taking

a toll on not only infrastructures but also human life. The government, in collaboration with various

organizations, implements DRRM to ensure the safety and resilience of the communities in the

face of disasters. DRRM stands for Disaster Risk Reduction and Management, a program

implemented in the country to address its vulnerability to natural disasters. DRRM initiatives are

essential to minimize the impact of these disasters, enhance preparedness, and protect the lives and

properties of the people.

In contrast to natural disasters brought on by natural risks, man-made disasters involve human

intent, recklessness, or incompetence. Human-induced hazards are hazards that result from human

activities. These hazards are caused by various actions and decisions made by individuals,

communities, or organizations. Natural disasters have the potential to increase the consequences

of first human-caused disasters by resulting in secondary ones. Transportation systems, water and

other technological infrastructure, industrial facilities, and electricity are all susceptible to natural

disasters, and their construction may not always be strong enough to withstand the effects of the

present or future. Climate change is one of the hazards we humans have created. It is a serious

topic that has been talked about for decades. According to Rebecca Lindsey and Luann Dahlman

(2023), the earth’s temperature has risen by an average of 0.14° fahrenheit (0.08° celsius) per

decade since 1880, or about 2° F in total. The rate of warming since 1981 is more than twice as

fast: 0.32° F (0.18° C) per decade. This occurrence is made by us-humans, hence we should be the
one to solve it. Man-made hazards pose a significant threat to our environment, society, and well-

being. As we reflect on the devastating consequences of our actions, it becomes imperative to take

responsibility and work collectively to mitigate these hazards.

Our world is quickly evolving, technology has become an integral part of our daily lives,

revolutionizing the way we communicate, work, and live. However, this cannot be done without

its drawbacks. The rise of technology has also ushered in a new era of hazards, collectively known

as technological hazards, which encompass a wide range of risks arising from the use,

development, or malfunction of various technological devices and systems. These hazards include

nuclear accidents, improper storage and power outages. A well known example of a nuclear

accident occurred in Fukushima in 2011. More than 2 300 death has been recorded after that tragic

incident. The mentioned catastrophe generated a massive tsunami, with waves reaching heights of

up to 15 meters (49 feet). The tsunami waves inundated the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power

plant complex, knocking out the power supply and disabling the cooling systems of three reactors.

As the fuel rods overheated, they produced hydrogen gas. In the absence of proper venting, the

hydrogen gas built up inside the reactor buildings. In a desperate attempt to release the pressure

and prevent further damage, explosions caused by the ignition of hydrogen gas occurred in the

buildings housing reactors 1, 2, and 3. These explosions further damaged the reactor structures and

released radioactive materials into the environment. The Fukushima disaster is considered the most

severe nuclear disaster since the Chernobyl disaster in 1986. It raised concerns about nuclear safety

worldwide, leading many countries to review their nuclear energy policies and improve safety

standards.
A social hazard refers to any situation, condition, or factor within society that poses a threat to

the well-being, safety, or stability of individuals or communities. Unlike natural or technological

hazards, social hazards are rooted in human behavior, social structures, and cultural norms. These

hazards can have diverse origins and may lead to various social, economic, or political aspects.

Poverty, overpopulation and conflict or war are great factors of social hazards Poverty is a

significant social hazard that affects millions of people worldwide. It can lead to lack of access to

basic necessities such as food, clean water, education, and healthcare, resulting in poor living

conditions, malnutrition, and limited opportunities for social mobility. 50% of Filipino families,

or around 13.2 million homes, self-reported as poor, according to a poll conducted from July 22 to

July 26. The number was higher than the expected 11.3 million families (43%), which was noted

in March. The government had established a program called 4 PS. The program aims to break the

cycle of poverty by keeping children aged 0-18 healthy and in school, so they can have a better

future. In relation to that, overpopulation also plays a big role in a country's state of economy.The

Philippines 2023 population is estimated at 117,337,368 people at mid-year. Its population is

equivalent to 1.46% of the total world population. the Philippines ranks number 13 in the list of

countries (and dependencies) by population. Conflict and wars have been integral parts of human

history, shaping societies and nations in profound ways. Conflicts arise from a variety of sources,

including political, economic, social, and cultural factors. Political disagreements, resource

scarcity, religious differences, and power struggles often fuel conflicts between individuals,

communities, or nations. Additionally, historical grievances and territorial disputes contribute to

the complexity of conflicts. Countries such as Afghanistan, Central African Republic, Ethiopia,

Libya, Mali, Somalia, South Sudan, and Syria are all currently experiencing civil wars, resulting
in significant casualties and displacement. Drug wars are another form of conflict that can result

in significant violence and unrest.

In conclusion, environmental hazards pose a significant threat to our planet's delicate balance,

impacting not only the natural world but also the lives and well-being of millions of people. As

we face the challenges of climate change, pollution, deforestation, and loss of biodiversity, it is

crucial that we recognize our collective responsibility to safeguard the environment. Social hazards

not only divide communities but also stifle progress and hinder the potential of individuals. To

confront these challenges, we must collectively dismantle the barriers that perpetuate social

hazards. By fostering inclusivity, promoting education, and advocating for social reforms, we can

pave the way for a more equitable and compassionate society. Let us stand united against social

hazards, working hand in hand to create a world where every person is valued, respected, and given

the opportunity to thrive. Through raising awareness, implementing sustainable practices, and

advocating for policies that prioritize environmental protection, we can mitigate the hazards we

face. Let us stand together in the pursuit of a greener, cleaner future, ensuring that the beauty of

our planet is preserved for generations to come.

References

International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (D. Liverman, 2001)
Encyclopedia of Social Measurement (Cutter, 2005)

Environment and Society in a Changing World (Petra T.,Zimerer, Brian King , et. al.)

Climate Change: Global Temperature (Lindsey, and Dahlman 2023)

Philstar (2023)

World Nuclear Association (2016)


CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Torres, Theodore P.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D


What is Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)?
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a strategy undertaken by companies to not just grow

profits, but also to take an active and positive social role in the world around them. The term is

also associated with the related term corporate citizenship. CSR is an approach that espouses the

notion that a company can do good in the world and make a difference to improve social order.

It’s a topic that can engage the board of directors in an organization, as CSR reflects company

culture and business practices. Social responsibility is a broad topic; it includes human aspects,

such as having ethical labor practices both internally and as part of a larger supply chain.

Categories of Corporate Social Responsibility


CSR is generally categorized in four ways: environmental responsibility, ethical/human rights

responsibility, philanthropic responsibility and economic responsibility.

• Environmental Responsibility
Environmental responsibility refers to the organization’s commitment to sustainability and

environmentally friendly operations. Every year, more companies are prioritizing sustainable

practices, pledging to consider their environmental impact at every stage of business. This can

mean reducing the company’s carbon footprint or greenhouse gas emissions, opting for sustainable

resources by avoiding single-use plastics and keeping environmental aspects at the heart of all

operations. However, this environmental responsibility can extend past the company’s promise to

sustainable development. If protecting the environment is a part of your corporate mission, you

can honor that by encouraging employees to take action.


EXAMPLE:

Sustainable Manufacturing Practices: Implementing eco-friendly manufacturing processes and

technologies to reduce the environmental impact of chemical production. This can include using

renewable energy sources, minimizing waste generation, and reducing emissions.

• Nestlé Cleanup

To uphold their company value of protecting the planet with environmentally friendly practices,

Nestlé Switzerland organized a volunteer week event centered around corporate environmental

responsibility. Their cleanup week coincided with World Cleanup Day, and it gave their employees

hands-on experience in helping to protect their local environment and support communities. More

than 100 employees participated across Switzerland over four days, with six Nestlé sites involved.

Thanks to this effort, Nestlé collected 110+ kilograms of trash and contributed to other

environmental benefits.

• Ethical/Human Rights Social Responsibility


Ethical responsibility refers to a company’s commitment to operate their business in an ethical

manner that upholds human rights principles, such as fair treatment of all stakeholders, fair trade

practices and equal pay. To champion ethical responsibility, many businesses will speak up in the

name of human rights injustices such as child labor, racial or gender discrimination and the fight

for a higher minimum wage. Much like with responsibility to the environment, there are ways to

endorse ethics at your company by involving employees in the process.

EXAMPLE:

Glovo Volunteer Week

Equal access to essential goods for everyone is one of the main pillars of Glovo’s commitment to

serve the community. They set out to build a volunteer program that would engage employees in
providing resources to those in need within the communities where they are located. By organizing

a global volunteer week initiative at local food banks, they supported an ethical cause that aligns

with their core business in seven countries and nine cities.

• Philanthropic Corporate Responsibility


Philanthropic responsibility refers to a corporation’s aims, goals and objectives for actively

bettering society as a whole. One huge aspect of corporate philanthropy is donating money from

company earnings to worthy causes within the local community — often in the form of a trust or

foundation. These kinds of philanthropic efforts speak volumes to your public image as a business

leader, which is crucial in today’s world. There are several ways in which businesses can

incorporate CSR in the form of philanthropy while engaging employees, including giving schemes

with the potential for donation matching.

EXAMPLE:

NatWest Giving Tuesday campaign

For Giving Tuesday, NatWest Group employees were invited to give their voice, time and money

to good causes. Alongside volunteer initiatives, they were invited to donate money to one of 11

partner nonprofits.

Through this initiative, the bank raised 425,000 pounds in donations during Giving Tuesday, with

an added 150,000 pounds in donation matching.

• Economic Corporate Responsibility


Economic responsibility refers to the practice of making financial decisions based on a

commitment to doing good. Some common examples of economic responsibility include investing
in alternative energy sources, putting more money into education programs and funding local

charities as a way of bolstering their mission. To uphold economic responsibility, business leaders

are challenged to think past operational cost savings and instead put their obligation to corporate

citizenship at the heart of all financial decisions.

Regardless of the type of CSR, consider how you’ll measure your program’s performance and

impact.

EXAMPLE:

In the chemical industry, economic corporate responsibility takes various forms, all aimed at

contributing to economic growth and stability. One fundamental aspect is job creation, as chemical

companies invest in facilities and operations that generate employment opportunities, thereby

bolstering local economies. These companies also allocate significant resources to research and

innovation, resulting in the development of cutting-edge products and technologies that have wide-

reaching economic implications across various industries.

Companies also engage in community investment, offering financial support, grants, and

partnerships with non-profits to address economic challenges, such as funding education and

workforce development programs. Moreover, chemical companies actively participate in

international trade, exporting their products to global markets, which stimulates economic growth

and contributes to the country’s export earnings.

Benefits of Corporate Social Responsibility


Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is no longer a nice-to-have; it’s a need-to-have. Businesses,

small or large, are expected to lead the way in creating a progressive CSR program that gives back

to people and the planet.

Benefits:
1. CRS initiatives strive to have a positive impact on the world through

2. Direct benefits to society, nature and the community in which a business operations.

3. Internal benefits through the initiatives.

4. Members of society may be more likely to choose to transact with companies that are

attempting to make a more conscious positive impact beyond the scope of its business.

Some additional reasons businesses pursue corporate social responsibility:

Brand Recognition

Companies looking to get an edge and outperform the market, enacting CSR strategies tends to

positively impact how investors feel about an organization and how they view the worth of the

company.

Investor Relations

A company engages more in CSR, they are more likely to receive favorable brand recognition.

Employment Engagement

This type of activity is more likely to lead to lawsuits, litigation, or legal proceeds where the

company may be negatively impacted financially and be captured in headline news.

Risk Mitigation

Works are more likely to stick around a company that they believe in. This in turn reduces

employee turnover, disgruntled workers, and the total cost of a new employee.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in the context of Computer Engineering involves

incorporating ethical and socially responsible practices into the design, development, and

deployment of technology. Benefits include enhancing a company’s reputation, attracting socially


conscious customers, and contributing to positive social and environmental impacts through

technology solutions. Examples include sustainable design practices, ethical use of data, and

promoting digital inclusivity.

CSR in Computer Engineering


Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA)

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Villamora, Kristine Kay S.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D


Executive Summary

Occupational Safety and Health is an integral part of a workplace. In this accord, the

Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act) of 1970 was established by US Congress and

signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 29, 1970. One of the agencies that OSH

act of 1970 created is the Occupational Safety and Health Administration whose primary mission

is to ensure the welfare of both working men and women. They inspect, outreach, educate, and

assist both labor and the management for bilateral benefits. The policies that were introduced by

OSH act of 1970 was later then established as well in the other states including the Philippines

which has Occupational Safety and Health Center. In computer engineering, OSHA’s standards

are more on electrical safety and machine guarding. Above all the agency’s efforts in assuring that

so far as possible, every working man and woman in the nation have safe and healthful working

conditions and to preserve human resources, it still has its greatest weakness, the absence of private

right of action or PRA which enables people to sue under the aforesaid law.

Objectives:

After going through this lesson, fellow learners are expected to:

● understand the importance of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration in

general;

● find out the role of Occupational Safety and Health Administration in Computer

Engineering; and

● recognize the limitations of Occupational Safety and Health Act and the administration

itself.
Introduction

Workers are important persons of a state. They carry a pivotal role as they contribute to the growth

of the economy. Subsequently, it is crucial to maintain the employment rate of a state as it is

generally considered to positively affect a country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the higher it

gets the healthier is the labor market of the country. In this accord, it is essential to consider the

safety and health of the employees in their workplace. In this report, we will revolve around this

topic.

Main Body of the Report

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

Safety is one of the most considered aspects in a work environment. There are various

organizations and agencies established for the workers’ welfare and rights and one of them is the

Occupational Safety and Health Administration or OSHA. According to the U.S. Department of

Labor, OSHA is an agency of the United States Department of Labor, created under the

Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act) of 1970 by Congress and signed into law by

President Richard Nixon on December 29, 1970.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) ensures the safe and healthful

working conditions for working men and women by setting and enforcing standards and by

providing training, outreach, education, and assistance. It is the policy of the agency to provide a

safe and healthful work environment for all permanent, temporary, and contract employees. OSHA

is not only committed to ensuring a safe and healthful work environment for others, but is equally
committed to the safety and health of its employees. The development, implementation, and

evaluation of this Safety and Health Management System (SHMS) shall be a cooperative effort

between labor and management in order to prevent injuries, illnesses, and death from work-related

causes and minimize losses of material resources (U.S. Department of Labor, 2020).

OSHA in Computer Engineering

OSHA sets the safety standards in computer engineering. The aforementioned agency

addresses issues such as electrical safety, ergonomics, hazardous materials, and machine guarding

(U.S. Department of Labor, 2020). They also conduct inspections of computer engineering

workplaces to identify any potential hazards or violations of safety standards. Inspections can be

conducted randomly or in response to complaints or reported incidents. OSHA conducts

enforcement of standards. If OSHA finds violations of safety standards, they may issue citations

and penalties to ensure compliance. They can also require employers to correct safety hazards and

provide training to employees.

Furthermore, OSHA provides resources, guidelines, and training programs to educate

employers and employees on safe work practices in computer engineering. This helps raise

awareness about potential hazards and promotes a culture of safety in the industry. The agency

collaborates with employers, industry professionals, and trade associations to develop best

practices and guidelines for safe work environments in computer engineering. They also offer

consultation services to assist employers in identifying and addressing potential hazards

proactively.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration Standards in Computer Engineering


There are several standards and regulations according to the given manual of the U.S.

Department of Labor regarding Occupational Safety and Health that apply to computer

engineering and related industries. Some of the key standards include:

1. Electrical Safety (29 CFR 1910 Subpart S): This standard addresses the safe use of

electricity in the workplace, including requirements for electrical equipment, wiring, and

protection against electrical hazards.

2. Machine Guarding (29 CFR 1910 Subpart O): This standard outlines requirements for

guarding machines and equipment to prevent amputations, injuries, and other accidents. It

includes specifications for designing and installing machine guards.

3. Hazard Communication (29 CFR 1910.1200): Also known as the "HazCom" standard, this

regulation ensures employees are informed about and trained on the hazards of chemicals

used in the workplace. It requires chemical manufacturers and importers to provide safety

data sheets (SDS) and labels with hazard information.

4. Ergonomics (29 CFR 1910 Subpart Ergonomics): Although there is no specific standard

for ergonomics in computer engineering, OSHA has guidelines addressing ergonomic

hazards in various industries. These guidelines provide recommendations for preventing

musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) related to computer workstation design, including

proper seating, keyboard and mouse placement, and display positioning.

5. Respiratory Protection (29 CFR 1910.134): If computer engineering work involves

exposure to airborne contaminants, OSHA's respiratory protection standard applies. It

requires the use of respiratory protective equipment, training on proper usage, and

evaluation of respiratory hazards in the workplace.


6. Personal Protective Equipment (29 CFR 1910 Subpart I): OSHA's general requirements

for personal protective equipment (PPE) apply to computer engineering work whenever

hazards cannot be adequately controlled by other means. This includes the use of eye

protection, hearing protection, gloves, and other protective gear as necessary.

Limitations of OSHA

The first and most fundamental weakness in the OSH Act’s enforcement regime is that it

does not provide a private right of action (PRA), the ability for a private individual to sue under

the law. OSHA itself is the only entity or party empowered to investigate or enforce potential

violations of the OSH Act or OSHA’s standards.

Other weaknesses of OSHA include:

● reliance on modest fines; and

● limited protection for whistleblowers.

OSHA in Philippines

Occupational Safety and Health Center

The OSHA version of the Philippines is the Occupational Safety and Health Center

(OSHC) which was established through Executive Order No. 307, signed by the late President

Corazon C. Aquino on November 4, 1987. The aforementioned is under the Department of Labor

and Employment or DOLE of the Republic of the Philippines.


The management is headed by the Executive Director who oversees the planning,

implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of OSHC’s operations. As of 2023, the head of OSHC

is OIC-Executive Director Jose Maria S. Batino.

The services of the OSHC cover the preventive aspects of occupational safety and health

in both public and private workplaces. As the authority on OSH, the OSHC fulfills its mission

through research, training, information dissemination, and technical services. The OSHC has a

staff of specialists in various fields of OSH and draws on national and foreign expertise when

needed.

References

BOOK (PUBLISHED)

Glickman, H. (1990). Occupational Safety and Health. In The World Book Encycopledia (1990th

ed., Vol. 14, pp. 653–654). essay, World Book, Inc.

ARTICLES

About OSHA: Occupational Safety and Health Administration. About OSHA | Occupational

Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.). https://www.osha.gov/aboutosha

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017, April 21). National Institute for Occupational

Safety and Health Fact Sheet (2003-116). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2003-
116/default.html#:~:text=NIOSH%20is%20part%20of%20the,and%20Health%20Admin

istration%20(OSHA).

The Job Safety Law of 1970: Its passage was perilous. DOL. (n.d.).

https://www.dol.gov/general/aboutdol/history/osha

The OSHC story. Occupational Safety and Health Center. (n.d.). https://oshc.dole.gov.ph/about-

us/

Weaknesses in Osh Act enforcement mechanisms limit prevention of Bossware’s harms. Center

for Democracy and Technology. (2021, August 30). https://cdt.org/insights/weaknesses-

in-osh-act-enforcement-mechanisms-limit-prevention-of-bosswares-harms/

BOOKS (ONLINE)

Department of Labor. (2020). OSHA Field Safety and Health Manual.

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