Soil Characteristics: EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)
Soil Characteristics: EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)
Soil Characteristics: EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)
By:
Professor:
A soil is the unconsolidated cover on Earth surface. It’s composed primarily of decomposed rock
materials and varying amount of water, gases and organic materials. It also provides the
structural support to plants used in agriculture and is also their source of water and nutrients.
Characteristics of a Soil
At a soil site, horizons in a soil profile are distinguished from one another by differences in their
structure, color, consistence, texture, and the amount of roots, rocks, and free carbonates they
contain. Laboratory or classroom analyses of bulk density, particle density, particle size
distribution, pH, and soil fertility also reveal the differences among horizons.
Structure
Soil structure is about how clumps of soil particles, called peds, are naturally shaped in the soil.
The way these peds are arranged tells us about the size and shape of the gaps where water, heat,
and air move, and where plant roots grow. There are different types of soil ped structures, like
granular, blocky, prismatic, columnar, or platy. When soil doesn't have any structure, we call it
Color
Soil color comes from the chemical coatings on soil particles, the amount of organic stuff in the
soil, and how wet it is. For instance, soil looks darker when there's organic matter in it. Minerals,
like iron, can make the soil look red or yellow on the surface. In dry places, soil can appear white
because of a coating of calcium carbonate. Also, the moisture in the soil affects its color. If the
soil has a lot of water, it usually looks darker. It depends on how well the soil drains and if it's
soaked with water for a long time. More moisture makes the soil darker in color.
Consistence
Consistence refers to how firm or solid the individual clumps of soil (peds) are and how easily
they break apart. We use words like loose, friable, firm, and extra-firm to describe soil
consistence. Soil with friable consistence is easier for roots, shovels, or plows to move through
Texture
Soil texture is about how the soil feels, and it's determined by the mix of sand, silt, and clay
particles in the soil. This texture affects how much water, heat, and nutrients the soil can hold.
- Silt particles are next in size and feel smooth or like flour.
- Clay particles are the smallest and feel sticky and hard to squeeze.
The exact amounts of these particles in a soil sample are measured in a lab or classroom, and this
An estimate of the roots in each layer of a soil profile shows how deep plants go to get what they
need from the soil, like nutrients and water. If there are a lot of roots in a layer, it means more
water and nutrients are being taken from the soil, and more organic material is going back into it.
This helps scientists figure out things like the soil's richness, how tightly packed it is, how well it
holds water, and how deep it goes. If a layer is very compact, it makes it hard for roots to grow,
Rocks
An estimate of the number of rocks in each horizon helps to understand the movement of water,
heat, and air through the soil, root growth, and the amount of soil material involved in chemical
and physical reactions. Soil particles greater than 2 mm in size are considered to be rocks.
Carbonates
Carbonates, like calcium carbonate, tend to accumulate in regions with minimal water-based
weathering. Their presence in soil can indicate a dry climate or the presence of parent material
rich in calcium, such as limestone. These carbonates often coat soil particles in soils that are
more alkaline (having a pH greater than 7), and these soils are often found in arid or semi-arid
climates. Carbonates are typically white in color and can be easily scratched with a fingernail.
In very dry climates, carbonates can form a hard, dense layer in the soil, similar to cement,
making it difficult for plant roots to penetrate. To test for the presence of carbonates, an acid, like
vinegar, is applied to the soil. If carbonates are present, a chemical reaction occurs between the
vinegar (an acid) and the carbonates (a base), resulting in the release of carbon dioxide gas. This
release of carbon dioxide causes the vinegar to bubble or effervesce. The more carbonates there
are, the more bubbling or effervescence occurs during the test. This test helps determine the
extent of carbonates in the soil, which can provide insights into the soil's history and
characteristics.
Bulk Density
Soil bulk density measures how tightly packed or dense the soil is and is calculated by the mass
of dry soil in a given volume (usually in g/cm³). This density depends on various factors,
including the soil's composition, the arrangement of soil clumps, the distribution of sand, silt,
and clay particles, the amount of empty spaces, and how closely the particles are packed
together. Soils made of mineral particles have different bulk densities than those made mostly of
organic material. Typically, soil bulk density ranges from 0.5 g/cm³ in porous soils to 2.0 g/cm³
Particle Density
The particle density of a soil sample is the mass of dry soil in a particular volume of the soil
when all of the air spaces have been removed. The type of minerals the soil particles are made of
affects the particle density. Soils consisting of pure quartz particles generally have a particle
density of 2.65 g/cm³. Soils consisting of particles made of minerals other than quartz will have a
different mass for the same volume of particles. By knowing both the particle density and the
bulk density, the porosity (the proportion of the soil volume that is pore space) can be calculated.
Porosity establishes the amount of air or water that can be stored or moved through the soil.
The proportion of each particle size group (sand, silt, or clay) in the soil is called the soil
particle-size distribution. Sand is the largest soil particle, silt is intermediate in size, and clay is
the smallest. The particle-size distribution of a soil sample determines its exact textural class
(which is "estimated" in the field by doing the Soil Texture Protocol). It also helps determine
how much water, heat, and nutrients the soil will hold, how fast water and heat will move
through the soil, and the structure and consistence of the soil. The amount of sand, silt, and clay
dried sample of soil is first dispersed so that none of the particles stick together, and then it is
suspended in water and allowed to settle. The largest particles (sand) settle out in minutes while
the smallest particles (clay) stay suspended for days. A hydrometer is used to measure the
specific gravity of the soil suspension after settling has proceeded for specific amounts of time.
pH
The pH of a soil horizon (how acidic or basic the soil is) is determined by the parent material
from which the soil is formed, the chemical nature of the rain or other water entering the soil,
land management practices, and the activities of organisms (plants, animals, and
The fertility of a soil is determined by the amount of nutrients it contains. Nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) are three of the most important nutrients needed by plants for
optimum plant growth. Each horizon in a soil profile can be tested for the presence of these
nutrients. The results of these measurements help to determine the suitability of a soil for
growing plants. Soil fertility can be related to water chemistry measurements carried out in the
Hydrology Investigation.
REFERENCE
https://www.kau.edu.sa/Files/0001553/Subjects/SOIL%20AND%20SOIL%20ENGINEERING
%20%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B6%D8%B1%D9%87%201.doc
WEATHERING
AND
EROSION
In the words of the renowned physicist Richard Feynman, “Nature is always doing something
interesting.” Indeed, the way rocks break down and landscapes change over time resembles a
never-ending story written by nature. Weathering and erosion are two interconnected and important
geological processes that shape the Earth's surface over time. To be more specific, weathering
refers to the gradual breakdown of rocks into smaller particles, a process caused by different
factors. Erosion, on the other hand, is the movement of these weathered materials, shaping
landscapes and leaving a mark on the Earth. This report delves into the intricacies of weathering
and erosion, understanding how they mold Earth's surface by breaking down rocks and moving
particles, while also highlighting their relevance to the field of Computer Engineering.
I. Weathering
Weathering is the process which rocks and minerals are broken down into smaller parts through
various natural forces like water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature. The
longer a rock is exposed to those elements, the more vulnerable it becomes to weathering. There
are two main types of weathering: mechanical (physical), and chemical weathering.
Mechanical weathering is the gradual breakdown of rocks and minerals by physical methods
that is caused by many processes. It’s the gradual breakdown of rocks into small pieces due to
strain and rupture. Mechanical weathering may be caused by pressure, temperature, freezing and
thawing cycle of water, plant or animal activity, and salt evaporation (Chris Johnson, 2017)
1
Mechanical weathering caused by pressure is when rocks undergo stress and break apart due
to the force exerted by surrounding materials. Meanwhile, temperature changes are when rocks
can expand and contract with extreme temperature fluctuations, leading to cracking and eventual
breakdown. The freezing and thawing cycle of water is another contributor to mechanical
weathering. Water entering rock cracks freezes, expands, and exerts pressure on the rocks. When
it thaws, the rocks may further crack and fragment. Furthermore, plant or animal activity is when
plant roots can grow into rock crevices, exerting pressure and causing rocks to break. Burrowing
animals further enhance this process. Lastly is salt evaporation. This is when the deposition of
salt in rock crevices followed by evaporation can exert pressure, contributing to the breakdown
Chemical weathering is the process where rocks break down through chemical reactions with
elements like water and acids, gradually transforming their composition. You can see the effects
of chemical weathering in various landscapes, such as the formation of caves, valleys, and
weathered rock surfaces. Additionally, changes in the color and composition of rocks over time
are visible indicators of chemical weathering. To put it simply, it's when things in the environment,
like rainwater or air, team up with the minerals in rocks to create a reaction that breaks down the
rock. It is sort of like how water slowly dissolves sugar. Over time, this chemical reaction weakens
the rock, making it crumble or change its appearance (National Geographic, 2015)
One prominent type of chemical weathering is solution, where acidic rainwater breaks down
rocks; for instance, limestone weathers when exposed to rainwater containing dissolved CO2.
Another type is hydrolysis, where acidic rain breaks down rocks into clay and soluble salts.
Additionally, oxidation is a process where rocks break down due to the combined effects of oxygen
2
and water, resulting in a rusty-colored surface on iron-rich rocks. Lastly, carbonation involves the
reaction of minerals in rocks with carbonic acid, which is formed when carbon dioxide dissolves
II. Erosion
Once the rocks are weathered, erosion comes into play. Erosion is the process of
transporting or moving weathered particles from one place to another, often helped by natural
forces like wind, water, or ice. It can be caused by frequent and intense rain, high river levels,
Water erosion is the most common erosion. This is when the rainfall moves small rocks or
particles off the land and into a stream or other body of water. Water's energy and force will
determine the rock's size or particle that it can move. It is very intriguing to know that streams
can help particles by size. The water, energy, and force are much higher in the mountains.
Ice erosions on the other hand, are very powerful. In fact, glaciers can move huge rocks
from one place to another. This is achieved as the movement of glaciers erodes by
abrasion/scouring and plucking, creeping along the rock surface. Through this process, pieces
Another agent of erosion is wind erosion. It is when the rock develops physical wear due
to wind. Wind erosion moves soil particles from one area to another making it more common
3
2.2.Factors Influencing Erosion
The weather, especially rain and wind, has a big say in erosion. How often and how hard it
rains, or if there's a strong wind, affects how rocks and soil get moved around.
Topography, the surface features' shape, also plays a role—areas like earthen
floodplains (area of land adjacent to a river) erode more easily than rocky channels. The
type of rock matters, too, with softer rocks eroding faster than harder ones.
Vegetation acts as a ‘mitigating force’, as plant roots anchor soil and rock particles,
reducing erosion during rainfall or wind events. Deserts, with sparse vegetation, often face
heightened erosion.
For instance, the Colorado River created the Grand Canyon over a long time because the
land it flows through was pushed up by tectonic activity (Berlin University, 2008)
Weathering and erosion are like partners in crime, working together to shape the Earth's
surface. Weathering breaks down rocks into smaller particles, creating loose debris. Then, erosion
steps in to remove and transport those debris, exposing new rock surfaces.
“Weathering is the mechanical and chemical hammer that breaks down and sculpts the rocks.
4
IV. Weathering and Erosion in the Field of Computer Engineering
The similarities between weathering and erosion take shape in the dynamic processes
Just like rocks can wear down over time, in computer engineering, weathering is like the
wear and tear on our devices and software. The constant use, heat, and other factors slowly make
them less efficient and reliable. In computers, erosion is about moving or taking away digital
pieces. This happens when data is transferred, communicated over networks, or moved between
different places in the digital world. It's like how erosion changes the shape of the land, but here
it's about how digital information moves around (Adrien Verhulst, 2023)
Conclusion
To conclude, rocks and landscapes changes over time due to erosion and weathering, While
weathering breaks rocks into smaller parts through natural forces like water, ice, acids, salts, plants,
animals, and temperature changes. erosion comes in to move these parts around, shaping the land
we know today. Weathering has two main types, which is the mechanical and chemical weathering.
Mechanical weathering involves rocks breaking into small pieces due to pressure, temperature
changes, freezing and thawing cycles of water, plant or animal activity, and salt evaporation.
Chemical weathering on the other hand, transforms rocks through reactions with water and acids,
altering their composition. Erosion then transports weathered particles using natural forces like
water, wind, and ice, influenced by climate, topography, vegetation, and tectonic activity.
5
In computer engineering, we can relate weathering to the wear and tear on devices, slowly
reducing efficiency. Meanwhile erosion could be associated to the movement or removal of digital
In essence, just like rocks and landscapes have a story to tell as they change, our own stories
develop as we go through life. "Nature is always doing something interesting." As we are part of
nature, each experience leaves its own mark on our lives, just like the way nature shapes things.
6
References
Adrien Verhulst, J.-M. N. (2023). Deep Weathering Effects. Science Direct, 40-49.
B. A., E. S. (n.d.). Learn How Rock Breaks Down With Chemical Weathering. Retrieved from
ThoughtCo: https://www.thoughtco.com/chemical-weathering-1440852
Berlin University. (2008). Erosion. Retrieved from Berlin University.
Chris Johnson, M. D. (2017). An Introduction to Geology. Retrieved from
https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geology/Book%3A_An_Introduction_to_Geology
_(Johnson_Affolter_Inkenbrandt_and_Mosher)/05%3A_Weathering_Erosion_and_Sedim
entary_Rocks/5.0S%3A_5.S%3A_Weathering_Erosion_and_Sedimentary_Rocks_(Sum
mary)
National Geographic. (2015). National Geographic. Retrieved from
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/weathering-
erosion#:~:text=Weathering%20is%20the%20mechanical%20and,cliffs%20braced%20ag
ainst%20violent%20seas.
National Geographic. (2023). Erosion. Retrieved from National Geographic Society:
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/weathering-erosion
Nycz. (2010). Processes of Change. Retrieved from University of Saskatchewan:
https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/
7
The Carbon Cycle
By:
Professor:
Carbon is essential to life. This is because it is able to form a huge variety of chains
of different lengths. It was once thought that the carbon-based molecules of life could only
be obtained from living things. They were thought to contain a ‘spark of life’. However, in
1828, urea was synthesized from inorganic reagents and the branches of organic and
Living things get almost all their carbon from carbon dioxide, either from the
plankton uses energy from the sun to split water into oxygen and hydrogen. The oxygen is
released to the atmosphere, fresh water and seas, and the hydrogen joins with carbon
Some of the carbohydrates are used, along with nitrogen, phosphorus and other
elements, to form the other monomer molecules of life. These include bases and sugars for
Living things that do not photosynthesize have to rely on consuming other living
things for their source of carbon molecules. Their digestive systems break carbohydrates
into monomers that they can use to build their own cellular structures. Respiration provides
the energy needed for these reactions. In respiration oxygen rejoins carbohydrates, to form
carbon dioxide and water again. The energy released in this reaction is made available for
the cells.
Fun Fact: The amount of carbon that the earth had at the start is still the same amount today.
What is The Carbon Cycle?
The Carbon Cycle is the process of Recycling and Reusing carbon atoms by
absorbing and releasing them. The carbon atoms in the atmosphere are absorbed by the
organisms on earth and then it is released back to the atmosphere over and over again.
Carbon is always on the move. Put simply, the carbon cycle is the transfer of carbon
atoms between different zones in, on, and around the planet. In other words, carbon atoms
take a cyclical pathway through Earth’s systems, into the atmosphere, and back—over and
over again.
The environment is one large, closed system. All its parts must work together and
regulate as a whole to continue to support life. A healthy balance of carbon is crucial for
both the atmosphere surrounding the planet and the life forms that call this planet home.
Carbon is an essential building block of life on Earth. It’s released through human
activity and natural processes alike. As carbon atoms are released, they make their way
1. Photosynthesis
With photosynthesis, plants intake carbon dioxide to produce energy and maintain
2. Cellular Respiration
During cellular respiration, organisms use oxygen to convert food and water into
Without a healthy balance of carbon, there would be no viable life on the planet.
Any imbalance in carbon levels would potentially render the earth inhospitable, and life as
the cycle. Too much carbon in any one area, however, puts the planet and its inhabitants at
risk. Carbon dioxide levels must remain stable through each phase of the cycle to maintain
an ideal global temperature—and plants and producer organisms can only absorb so much.
This imbalance has hazardous consequences. Too much carbon in the atmosphere
can cause an increase in surface temperature, making it more difficult for the planet’s
Much like the inside of a greenhouse, high carbon dioxide levels function like
gaseous insulation to trap heat that naturally radiates from the earth’s surface. Because that
Human intervention plays a crucial role in either supporting or disrupting the steps
of the carbon cycle. Elevated levels in the atmosphere (or trapped in the planet’s other
reservoirs) upset the planet’s equal balance of carbon. Unfortunately, because of human
This increase in emissions is largely due to our use of fossil fuels for energy—and
the removal of large forests that remove carbon from the atmosphere.
neutral world would mean restoring a healthy balance between carbon stores and carbon
emissions. Scientists are working hard to remove carbon from the atmosphere, and to
protect the carbon cycle by fighting to preserve ecosystems that naturally manage excess
To support healthy carbon levels, there are several things you can do to minimize
your impact on the carbon cycle. Businesses and consumers can rethink their routines and
https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/6/carbon
cycle.html#transcript
⮚ Nikki. (2023, February 15). The five steps of the Carbon Cycle | Kiwi Energy. Kiwi
Energy. https://kiwienergy.us/the-five-steps-of-the-carbon-cycle-and-why-theyre-
important/
⮚ Hannah. (2022, October 4). What is the Carbon Cycle & Why is it So Important? Crown
Oil. https://www.crownoil.co.uk/news/what-is-the-carbon-cycle-why-is-it-so-
important/#:~:text=The%20carbon%20cycle%20refers%20to,the%20Earth%20would%2
0be%20frozen.
NITROGEN
CYCLE
REA JEAN M. GORNEZ- BSCoE
SUBMITTED BY
PROFESSOR
We all know that the earth is finite, matter has to be reused and recycled over and over
again. So, the atoms that are in you, were once in the air, in soil, in water, and in rocks. These
atoms have also been used by countless other living things, from dinosaurs to plants, to human
beings. And do you know that, after they leave you, they will become part of other living things
or the environment. This recycling of matter is known as a nutrient cycle and there are several
different nutrient cycles for different elements, these elements are the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle,
phosphorus cycle, and others. However, we will focus on the nitrogen cycle, the process by which
The nitrogen cycle is a biogeochemical process through which nitrogen is converted into
many forms, consecutively passing from the atmosphere to the soil to organisms and back into the
atmosphere.
Our atmosphere is made up of 78% nitrogen. The nitrogen cycle is crucial for all life on
earth because nitrogen is needed to make some of the most important molecules for life, including
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), Ribonucleic acid (RNA), and proteins that are needed by all living
things. Without nitrogen, there would be, literally, no life. All plants will die and human beings
will dehydrate very quickly. However, we can’t breathe in nitrogen like oxygen, but we can absorb
We all know nitrogen gas exists in both organic and inorganic forms. Organic nitrogen
exists in living organisms, and it gets passed through the food chain by the consumption of other
living organisms. However, inorganic forms of nitrogen are found in abundance in the atmosphere.
This nitrogen is made available to plants by symbiotic bacteria which can convert the inert nitrogen
Nitrogen follows a cycle where it travels from the atmosphere to the soil to animals and
1. Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen follows a cycle where it travels from the atmosphere to the soil and in a cycle,
nitrogen in the atmosphere falls to the earth by precipitation such as rain or snow. So, once the
nitrogen gas is in the soil it finds its way to bacteria on the roots, which are known as Diazotrophs.
Azotobacter and Rhizobium also have a major role in this process. These bacteria consist
of a nitrogenase enzyme, which can combine gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonia
(NH3), or ammonium (NH4+). Ammonia is a nitrogen compound that can dissolve in water and
the nitrogen into nitrogen oxides, which are then used by plants.
b. Industrial nitrogen fixation, is a man-made alternative that aids in nitrogen fixation
by the use of ammonia. Ammonia is produced by the direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen.
c. Biological nitrogen fixation. We already know that nitrogen is not used directly in
the air by plants and animals, thus, bacteria like Rhizobium and blue-green algae transform the
unusable form of nitrogen into other compounds that are more readily usable. These nitrogen
Ammonia can be taken up by plants and used to make important biological molecules like
DNA and proteins. However, not all of the ammonia produced by nitrogen fixation gets assimilated
into plants. Too much ammonia can be toxic, and sometimes plants prefer to assimilate other
nitrogen compounds called nitrates. So, the next step is the conversion of ammonia into nitrates, a
2. Nitrification
In this process, the ammonia is converted into nitrate by the presence of bacteria in the soil.
Thus, it is done by nitrifying bacteria. These bacteria oxidize or add oxygen to ammonia in
chemical reactions that first convert the ammonia to nitrite (NO2-) and then to nitrate (NO3-).
Because oxygen is needed for these reactions, nitrification happens best in well-aerated soils.
Nitrites are formed by the oxidation of ammonia with the help of Nitrosomonas bacteria
species. Later, the produced nitrites are converted into nitrates by Nitrobacter. Like ammonia,
nitrate is a plant fertilizer because it can be assimilated and used to make key biomolecules (DNA,
2NO2– + O2 → 2NO3–
The equation can be read as follows: “Two molecules of ammonia (NH3) react with three
molecules of oxygen (O2) to produce two nitrite ions (NO2–), two hydrogen ions (H+), and two
water molecules (H2O).” In the first step, ammonia is oxidized to nitrite in the presence of
ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. The second step is the oxidation of nitrite to nitrate and oxygen in a
neutral environment.
3. Assimilation
Assimilation is the primary producer – plants take in the nitrogen compounds from the soil
with the help of their roots, which are available in the form of ammonia, nitrite ions, nitrate ions,
or ammonium ions and are used in the formation of the plant and animal proteins. Once nitrogen
is inside the plants and used to build our sweet biomolecules, it can pass to other living things
through food webs. When an animal eats the plant, the nitrogen-containing compounds in the plant
move to the animal. And if that animal gets eaten, nitrogen moves to its predator, and so on.
4. Ammonification
When plants or animals die, the nitrogen present in the organic matter is released back into
the soil. The decomposers, namely bacteria or fungi present in the soil, convert the organic matter
back into ammonium. This process of decomposition produces ammonia, which is further used for
But we are still missing one key part of our cycle. In order to have a complete cycle,
nitrogen gas needs to get back into the air. This is done by denitrifying bacteria and is called
denitrification.
5. Denitrification
The process in which nitrogen compounds make their way back into the atmosphere by
converting nitrate (NO3-) into gaseous nitrogen (N). This process of the nitrogen cycle is the final
stage and occurs in the absence of oxygen. Denitrification is carried out by the denitrifying
bacterial species- Clostridium and Pseudomonas, which will process nitrate to gain oxygen and
give out free nitrogen gas as a byproduct. It usually happens best in low-oxygen environments,
Also, marine ecosystems, have a process in the same manner as terrestrial ecosystems. The
only difference is that marine bacteria perform it. To conclude, let me share with you the
importance of the Nitrogen Cycle, these are they help plants to synthesize chlorophyll from the
nitrogen compounds. Also, its unique chemical bonding properties allow it to create structures
such as DNA and RNA nucleotides, and the amino acids from which proteins are built. Without
nitrogen, these molecules would not be able to exist. However, we should be mindful that with too
much use of nitrogen, plants can suffer harmful effects, and nitrates can also be directly toxic to
humans, they can increase cancer risks and interfere with blood chemistry, leaving blood unable
BYJU'S (2023), Nitrogen Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle Explained - Definition, Stages and Importance
(byjus.com)
Gabe Buckley (2021), Nitrogen Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle - Definition, Steps and Importance |
Biology Dictionary
BioMAn Biology (2023), The Nitrogen Cycle, (116) The Nitrogen Cycle! - YouTube
PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE
By:
Professor:
The phosphorus cycle involves the movement of phosphorus through the Earth's systems,
crucial for life's essential functions. Unlike some other cycles, it doesn't involve the atmosphere
much because phosphorus is usually in solid form. Over time, phosphorus becomes less available
to plants in ecosystems due to various factors. Human activities, like mining and fertilizer use,
have disrupted this cycle, and transporting food from farms to cities also leads to phosphorus loss.
Weathering: Weathering processes release phosphorus from rocks and minerals, allowing
Plant Uptake: Plants absorb phosphate ions from the soil, incorporating them into their
layers through geological processes, which may resurface through tectonic activities.
Erosion and Runoff: Weathered phosphorus-rich materials are transported through
The phosphorus cycle primarily operates within terrestrial and aquatic systems, with the
Understanding the ecological importance of the phosphorus cycle is crucial for ecosystem
Mining: Phosphorus mining for fertilizer production can lead to environmental issues.
Wastewater Discharge: Human sewage and wastewater release phosphorus into aquatic
systems.
These activities have significant consequences for the environment, altering phosphorus
Environmental Consequences
Nutrient Pollution: Excess phosphorus in water bodies leads to nutrient pollution, causing
Algal Blooms: Algal blooms disrupt aquatic ecosystems and can produce harmful toxins.
Dead Zones: Oxygen-depleted dead zones in water bodies harm aquatic life.
Efforts to mitigate the environmental impact of human activities on the phosphorus cycle include:
These practices are essential for maintaining the health of ecosystems while sustaining agricultural
production.
The phosphorus cycle is significant in chemistry for engineers because it plays a crucial role in
nutrient cycling, water treatment, environmental impact assessment, chemical reactions, material
science, and energy storage. Engineers need to understand the phosphorus cycle to address various
The phosphorus cycle doesn't really have any direct relevance to computer engineering. Computer
engineering is all about designing and creating computer systems, hardware, and software. The
phosphorus cycle, on the other hand, is more about how phosphorus moves through the
environment, mostly in the context of biology and ecology. In computer engineering, we don't
typically deal with these environmental cycles. However, there can be instances where computer
engineering and technology are used to monitor and manage environmental data, including things
like biogeochemical cycles, but that's not the main focus of the field.
In the context of engineering, which includes fields like civil, electrical, and mechanical
engineering, the phosphorus cycle isn't directly involved. Engineers are primarily concerned with
designing, constructing, and maintaining various systems and infrastructure but aren't directly
dealing with ecological or environmental cycles like the phosphorus cycle. However, knowledge
of ecological cycles and environmental factors can be useful in certain engineering projects related
biogeochemical processes might come in handy. In such cases, collaboration between engineers
Phosphorous and phosphorus are closely related terms, but they refer to slightly different things:
related to phosphorus. For example, you might say "phosphorous compounds" to refer to
Phosphorus: Phosphorus is a chemical element with the symbol "P" on the periodic table.
It is a non-metal element that is essential for life and is commonly found in nature.
molecule that stores and transfers energy within cells), and various other biological
Conclusion
The phosphorus cycle is essential for life's functions, mainly operating within terrestrial and
aquatic systems. Human activities like agriculture and mining disrupt this cycle, leading to
environmental problems. Efforts to mitigate these impacts include reducing fertilizer use,
promoting sustainable agriculture, and enforcing regulations. Engineers need to understand the
phosphorus cycle as it has implications in various fields. Overall, recognizing its significance and
implementing sustainable practices is crucial for ecosystem health and engineering applications.
Reference
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20material.
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20organisms.&text=Over%20time%2C%20rain%20and%20weathering,inorganic%20phosphate
%20from%20the%20soil.
https://sapling.ai/mixup/phosphorous_phosphorus#:~:text=phosphorous%3A%20(adjective)%20
containing%20or,occurs%20in%20several%20allotropic%20forms.
https://byjus.com/biology/phosphorus-cycle/
https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.geeksforgeeks.org/phosphorus-cycle/amp/
ROCK FORMATION
By:
Professor:
Rock, in geology, naturally occurring and coherent aggregate of one or more minerals. Such
aggregates constitute the basic unit of which the solid Earth is composed and typically form
A rock formation is an isolated, scenic, or spectacular surface rock outcrop. Rock formations are
usually the result of weathering and erosion sculpting the existing rock. Rock formation can also
refer to specific sedimentary strata or other rock units in stratigraphic and petrologic studies. Rocks
are commonly divided into three major classes according to the processes that resulted in their
formation. These classes are (1) igneous rocks, which have solidified from molten material called
magma; (2) sedimentary rocks, those consisting of fragments derived from pre-existing rocks or
of materials precipitated from solutions; and (3) metamorphic rocks, which have been derived from
either igneous or sedimentary rocks under conditions that caused changes in mineralogical
composition, texture, and internal structure. These three classes, in turn, are subdivided into
numerous groups and types on the basis of various factors, the most important of which are
ROCK CYCLE
The rock cycle is a process that explains the basic relationships among igneous, metamorphic, and
sedimentary rocks. The process depends on temperature, pressure, time, and changes in environmental
The rock cycle is predictable and provides insight into the probable locations of energy sources. For
At first glance, weathering and erosion break lower the igneous rock into pebbles, sand, and dirt, creating
sediment, which builds up in basins around the Earth’s surface. As successive layers of sediment settle on
top of each other, the sediment close to the bottom is compressed, hardens, and forms sedimentary rock.
The rock cycle also gives scientists and engineers an idea of where energy sources (mainly fossil fuels,
which are found only in sedimentary rock) and building materials such as marble or granite may be located.
We will see throughout the course how this cycle plays into just about every aspect of geology. Through
the continuous process, older rocks are transformed into new rocks by means of erosion, depositions,
pressure, melting, and cooling. It is an endless process by which rocks are formed, destroyed, and formed
again. That is why the rock cycle is considered a cyclic process. Rocks have a broad range of uses that make
them significantly important to human life. For instance, rocks are used in construction, for manufacturing
substances making medicine, and for the production of gas. Rocks are also extremely vital to scientists as
they provide clues about the Earth’s history. The cycle has no beginning and no end. Rocks deep within the
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ROCKS
Igneous rocks form when magma (molten rock) cools and crystallizes, either at volcanoes on the
surface of the Earth or while the melted rock is still inside the crust. All magma develops
underground, in the lower crust or upper mantle, because of the intense heat there. Igneous rocks
can have many different compositions, depending on the magma they cool from. They can also
look different based on their cooling conditions. For example, two rocks from identical magma
can become either rhyolite or granite, depending on whether they cool quickly or slowly. The two
main categories of igneous rocks are extrusive and intrusive. Extrusive rocks are formed on the
surface of the Earth from lava, which is magma that has emerged from underground. Intrusive
rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the crust of the planet
Sedimentary rocks are formed on or near the Earth’s surface, in contrast to metamorphic and
igneous rocks, which are formed deep within the Earth. The most important geological processes
that lead to the creation of sedimentary rocks are erosion, weathering, dissolution, precipitation,
and lithification. Erosion and weathering include the effects of wind and rain, which slowly break
down large rocks into smaller ones. Erosion and weathering transform boulders and even
weathering. With this process, water that is slightly acidic slowly wears away stone. These three
processes create the raw materials for new, sedimentary rocks. Precipitation and lithification are
processes that build new rocks or minerals. Precipitation is the formation of rocks and minerals
from chemicals that precipitate from water. For example, as a lake dries up over many thousands
of years, it leaves behind mineral deposits; this is what happened in California’s Death Valley.
Finally, lithification is the process by which clay, sand, and other sediments on the bottom of the
ocean or other bodies of water are slowly compacted into rocks from the weight of overlying
sediments.
Metamorphic rocks the term “metamorphosis” is most often used in reference to the process of a
caterpillar changing into a butterfly. However, the word “metamorphosis” is a broad term that
indicates a change from one thing to another. Even rocks, a seemingly constant substance, can
change into a new type of rock. Rocks that undergo a change to form a new rock are referred to as
metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks are very specific. The existing rock must be exposed to
high heat, high pressure, or to a hot, mineral-rich fluid. Usually, all three of these circumstances
are met. These conditions are most often found either deep in Earth’s crust or at plate boundaries
where tectonic plates collide. In order to create metamorphic rock, it is vital that the existing rock
remains solid and does not melt. If there is too much heat or pressure, the rock will melt and
become magma. This will result in the formation of an igneous rock, not a metamorphic rock.
Although metamorphic rocks typically form deep in the planet’s crust, they are often exposed on
the surface of the Earth. This happens due to geologic uplift and the erosion of the rock and soil
above them. At the surface, metamorphic rocks will be exposed to weathering processes and may
break down into sediment. These sediments could then be compressed to form sedimentary rocks,
OF WORK?
Physical properties of rocks are of interest and utility in many fields of work, including geology,
scale of investigation ranges from the molecular and crystalline up to terrestrial studies of the Earth
and other planetary bodies. Geologists are interested in the radioactive age dating of rocks to
predictions using premonitory physical or chemical changes; crystallographers study the synthesis
of minerals with special optical or physical properties; exploration geophysicists investigate the
variation of physical properties of subsurface rocks to make possible detection of natural resources
such as oil and gas, geothermal energy, and ores of metals; geotechnical engineers examine the
nature and behavior of the materials on, in, or of which such structures as buildings, dams, tunnels,
bridges, and underground storage vaults are to be constructed; solid-state physicists study the
magnetic, electrical, and mechanical properties of materials for electronic devices, computer
response measured on well logs or in the processes of deep drilling at elevated temperature and
pressure.
REFERENCES:
● Klein, C., & Carmichael, R. S. (1998, October 27). Rock | Definition, Characteristics,
https://www.britannica.com/science/rock-geology
● Van Den Burg, E. (2021, September 27). Exactly why is the rock cycle important?
important/#:~:text=The%20rock%20cycle%20also%20gives%20scientists%20and%20en
gineers,such%20as%20marble%20or%20granite%20may%20be%20located.
rock/
rocks/
THE BIOSPHERE
By:
MALIBIRAN, HARRY J.
Professor:
The Biosphere
The biosphere includes all life on our planet. It is not only all the things that are living, but
also the remains of organisms that have died and not yet decomposed. It also includes the regions
of the other parts of the Earth system (atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere) occupied by living
organisms. For hundreds of years, people have recognized connections between living things and
the climate (for example, cutting down the trees of a forest can change the temperature of the
immediate area). Still, although the term “biosphere” was first coined in the 1920s by Russian
scientist Vladimir I. Vernadsky, focused studies of the biosphere’s interactions with the rest of the
planet were not underway until the 1960s and later decades.
In the 1960s, scientists began actively exploring how biological processes, both natural and those
due to humans, affect Earth’s atmosphere. For instance, in just a short amount of time, the length
of a season, plants change the world. When it is spring and summer in the Northern Hemisphere,
more plants are around to photosynthesize and extract carbon from the atmosphere, decreasing the
amount of carbon dioxide by about 3% by the time fall arrives. When many of the Northern
Hemisphere plants drop leaves and become dormant in the autumn and winter, there is less
photosynthesis occurring, leading to more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in late winter and
early spring.
The biosphere Is made up of the parts of Earth where life exists. The biosphere extends from the
deepest root systems of trees, to the dark environment of ocean trenches, to lush rainforests and
high mountaintops.
Scientists describe Earth in terms of spheres. The solid surface layer of Earth is the lithosphere.
The atmosphere is the layer of air that stretches above the lithosphere. The Earth’s water—on the
Since life exists on the ground, in the air, and in the water, the biosphere overlaps all these spheres.
Although the biosphere measures about 20 kilometers (12 miles) from top to bottom, almost all
life exists between about 500 meters (1,640 feet) below the ocean’s surface to about six kilometers
The biosphere has existed for about 3.5 billion years. The biosphere’s earliest life-forms, called
prokaryotes, survived without oxygen. Ancient prokaryotes included single-celled organisms such
Some prokaryotes developed a unique chemical process. They were able to use sunlight to make
simple sugars and oxygen out of water and carbon dioxide, a process called photosynthesis. These
photosynthetic organisms were so plentiful that they changed the biosphere. Over a long period of
time, the atmosphere developed a mix of oxygen and other gases that could sustain new forms of
life.
The addition of oxygen to the biosphere allowed more complex life-forms to evolve. Millions of
different plants and other photosynthetic species developed. Animals, which consume plants (and
other animals) evolved. Bacteria and other organisms evolved to decompose, or break down, dead
The biosphere benefits from this food web. The remains of dead plants and animals release
nutrients into the soil and ocean. These nutrients are reabsorbed by growing plants. This exchange
of food and energy makes the biosphere a self-supporting and self-regulating system.
The biosphere is sometimes thought of as one large ecosystem—a complex community of living
and nonliving things functioning as a single unit. More often, however, the biosphere is described
As part of the biosphere, humans account for just 0.01% of Earth’s biomass. Even at that small
scale, our impacts on the overall Earth system can be quite large, whether or not we expect them
to be. For example, since 1750, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased
from a relatively stable 280 parts per million to over 420 parts per million in 2022. That’s an
increase of nearly 50%, which seems dramatic. But it didn’t happen all at once. As humans began
extracting and using more and more fossil fuels, carbon dioxide amounts in the atmosphere began
to slowly increase, causing the uphill appearance of the Keeling Curve. Each year, the extra carbon
dioxide added into the atmosphere accumulates, so that for every year and every decade, the total
2.Hydrosphere: This encompasses all of Earth’s water, including oceans, rivers, lakes,
groundwater, and even water vapor in the atmosphere. It’s essential for life as we know it.
3.Lithosphere: The solid, rocky part of Earth’s surface, including the continents and ocean floors.
4.Biosphere: This is the layer of life on Earth, where living organisms, including plants, animals,
and microorganisms, exist. It’s the sum of all ecosystems and their interactions.
These components interact and influence each other, creating a dynamic and interconnected system
The biosphere, often described as the “thin layer of life,” is a realm teeming with incredible
diversity, complexity, and interdependence. It encompasses all living organisms on our planet,
from the tiniest microorganisms to the grandest trees, and from the depths of the oceans to the
peaks of mountains. In this essay, we will explore the profound importance of the biosphere and
One of the most fundamental aspects of the biosphere is its role in sustaining life itself. It is the
cradle of existence, providing the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat. The
biosphere offers the very foundation of life, creating an environment where living organisms can
thrive and evolve. Without the biosphere, life on Earth, as we know it, would cease to exist.
In addition to sustaining life, the biosphere plays a critical role in maintaining ecological balance.
It is a complex web of interactions between different species and ecosystems. These interactions
regulate populations, nutrient cycles, and energy flow, ensuring that no single species overruns or
disrupts the delicate balance of the ecosystem. When this balance is disturbed, it can have far-
reaching consequences, leading to issues like overpopulation of certain species or the depletion of
essential resources.
Furthermore, the biosphere provides an array of invaluable ecosystem services. It purifies water,
regulates climate, and supports agriculture through processes like pollination and soil fertility.
These services are essential for human well-being and the sustainability of agriculture, which is
the biosphere helps us unravel the processes of life, ecology, and evolution. This knowledge
In conclusion, the biosphere is not merely a physical entity but a living, breathing entity that
sustains life, maintains ecological balance, and offers countless benefits to humanity. Its
importance cannot be overstated, as it serves as the foundation upon which our existence is built.
Recognizing the significance of the biosphere is the first step toward ensuring its conservation and
the well-being of both current and future generations. It is our collective duty to protect and
preserve this invaluable resource, for the biosphere’s health is intimately linked with our own.
REFERENCES
https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0,5&q=thebiosphere&btnG=#d=gs_qabs&t=1
698801518091&u=#p=vuciaAIVVPMJ
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/biosphere/
https://www.britannica.com/science/biosphere
https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/how-climate-works/biosphere
Food Chain and Food Web
By:
Jonfred M. Maxino
Professor:
A food chain refers to the order of events in an ecosystem, where one living organism eats
another organism, and later that organism is consumed by another larger organism. The flow of
nutrients and energy from one organism to another at different trophic levels forms a food chain.
The food chain also explains the feeding pattern or relationship between living organisms.
A trophic level refers to the sequential stages in a food chain, starting with producers at the bottom,
followed by primary, secondary and tertiary consumers. Every level in a food chain is known as a
trophic level.
Sun----->Grass----->Zebra---->Lion
Food chains show how all living things get their energy from food, and how nutrients are
Sun----->Grass----->Grasshopper----->Mouse----->Snake----->Hawk
Trophic Levels of a Food Chain
All living creatures within a food chain are broken down into different groups, or trophic
levels, those help ecologists understand their specific role in the ecosystem. Here's a closer look at
Producers: Producers make up the first trophic level of an ecosystem. They earn their name via
their ability to produce their own food. They do not depend upon any other creature for their
energy. Most producers utilize the Sun's energy in a process called photosynthesis to create their
own energy and nutrients. Plants are producers. So are algae, phytoplankton, and some types of
bacteria.
Consumers: The next trophic level focuses on the species that eat the producers. There are three
types of consumers.
Herbivores: Herbivores are primary consumers that eat only plants. They may eat any or all parts
of the plant such as leaves, branches, fruit, berries, nuts, grass, flowers, roots, or pollen. Deer,
rabbits, horses, cows, sheep, and insects are a few examples of herbivores.
Carnivores: Carnivores eat only animals. Cats, hawks, sharks, frogs, owls, and spiders are just a
There are various levels of consumers that work their way on up the food chain. For
example, primary consumers are the herbivores that eat only plants, while secondary consumers
are the creatures that eat secondary consumers. In the example above, the mouse would be a
secondary consumer. Tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers - on our example that was the
snake.
Finally, the food chain ends at the apex predator - the animal who resides at the top of the
food chain. In the example above, that was the hawk. Lions, bobcats, mountain lions, and great
white sharks are more examples of apex predators within their ecosystems.
Decomposers: The last level of the food chain is made up by the decomposers. These are the
bacteria and fungi that eat decaying matter - dead plants and animals and turn them into nutrient-
rich soil. These are the nutrients that plants then use to produce their own food - thus, starting a
Simply put, a food web describes all of the food chains in a given ecosystem. Rather than
forming a straight line that goes from the sun to the plants to the animals that eat them, food webs
show the interconnectedness of all of the living creatures in an ecosystem. A food web is made up
of many interconnected and overlapping food chains. They are created to describe species
The diversity of organisms in an ecosystem determines the complexity of food webs. Two
Length of the Food Chain: The diversity of organisms and their food habits in an ecosystem
determine the length of the food chain. More diverse organisms and their food habits make the
Alternatives at different trophic levels: The number of alternatives at different trophic levels of
a food chain increases the complexity of food webs. An increase in the number of alternatives also
increases the interlocking pattern of the food web. For example, the presence of a wide variety of
organisms in the deep sea and oceans makes these aquatic food webs more complex.
Types of Food Web:
The food web shows the relationship between species in an ecosystem. These
interrelationships vary based on energy flow and dynamics of species populations. Food webs are
These food webs are also known as topological food webs. They indicate a feeding
relationship. These food webs indicate only the presence or absence of a trophic interaction. They
do not show the strength of the interaction or changes taking place in the trophic relationships.
Hence, these food webs are also known as static food webs.
These food webs indicate information about the strength of feeding interactions. They
indicate the quantity of energy flow from one species to another. The strength of relationship
These food webs show the influence of one group of species over the other. They represent
Food Chains and Food Webs both show the direction of the flow of energy and nutrients in
the ecosystem. The food chain is a linear representation of organisms along the trophic level, while
the food web is multiple interconnected food chains. It makes us understand the interaction among
the species and the way they are interdependent. Overall, it gives an impression of the workings
The food chain and food web help to understand the feeding relationship between
organisms in an ecosystem.
Food chains and food webs provide a clear understanding of the nutrient cycling and energy
flow in an ecosystem.
Food chains help to check the population size of different organisms in an ecosystem.
availability will be higher for the carnivores which feed on them. Similarly, if there is a
reduction in the deer population, some carnivores would starve and die. As a consequence,
Food webs help to understand the natural stability of an ecosystem. If one species gets
Food chains and food webs help to understand the natural balance of the population of each
species in an ecosystem.
References:
https://byjus.com/biology/overview-of-food-chain/
https://www.treehugger.com/difference-between-food-chains-and-webs-4011388
https://www.turito.com/learn/biology/food-chain-and-food-web-grade-9
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/food-chains-and-food-webs/
Negros Oriental State University
College of Engineering and Architecture
Main Campus 2, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City
Submitted by:
Submitted to:
Introduction:
Energy flow in ecosystems refers to the movement and transformation of energy within a
biological community. It involves the transfer of energy from one organism to another through
feeding relationships. This process is crucial for the survival and functioning of all living
Understanding energy transfer in ecosystems is vital in the field of chemistry for several reasons:
1. Thermodynamics: This helps chemists study how energy is converted and utilized in
biological systems.
3. Nutrient Cycles: Energy flow is intimately linked with nutrient cycles, which involve the
movement of elements like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus through the environment.
Definition of Energy:
Energy is the capacity to do work or produce an effect. In the context of physics and chemistry, it
is a fundamental concept that underlies all physical processes. Energy comes in various forms,
2. Potential Energy: This is stored energy that is associated with an object's position or state.
3. Chemical Energy: This form of energy is stored within the bonds of chemical compounds.
4. Thermal (Heat) Energy: It is the energy associated with the random motion of particles
within a substance.
electromagnetic waves, including visible light, radio waves, microwaves, and more.
The laws of thermodynamics are fundamental principles governing the behavior of energy in
1. First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation of Energy): This law states that energy
the context of ecosystems, it means that the total energy within a closed system remains constant.
Negros Oriental State University
College of Engineering and Architecture
Main Campus 2, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City
transformations are not perfectly efficient, and some energy is lost as waste heat.
These laws are pertinent to the study of energy flow in ecosystems because they provide a
framework for understanding the efficiency and limitations of energy transfer processes within
biological systems.
Trophic levels represent different positions in a food chain or food web within an ecosystem.
They categorize organisms based on their feeding relationships and energy source. There are
1. Producers (Autotroph): These are organisms that can produce their own food
2. Primary Consumers (Herbivores): These are organisms that consume producers directly for
energy.
4. Tertiary Consumers (Top Predators): These are organisms that feed on secondary
consumers and they are at the highest trophic level in a typical food chain.
Negros Oriental State University
College of Engineering and Architecture
Main Campus 2, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City
Energy moves through trophic levels via feeding, but not all acquired energy is passed on. Much
is lost due to metabolism and heat production, a concept known as ecological efficiency. For
instance, a primary consumer only retains a fraction of the energy from consuming a producer
for its growth, reproduction, and maintenance. This results in an energy pyramid, with each level
holding less available energy than the one below, due to losses in heat and metabolic processes,
An energy pyramid is a graphical representation that shows the flow of energy through different
trophic levels in an ecosystem. It illustrates the distribution of energy, biomass, or the number of
organisms at each trophic level. The pyramid shape arises from the fact that energy is lost as it
moves up the food chain, resulting in a decrease in available energy at higher trophic levels.
Ecological efficiency refers to the proportion of energy that is transferred from one trophic level
to the next. It quantifies how effectively energy is passed along the food chain. Understanding
1. Ecosystem Stability: It helps assess the stability and resilience of ecosystems. Higher
3. Conservation Efforts: It guides conservation efforts by identifying key species and trophic
interactions that are vital for maintaining ecosystem health and function.
4. Predicting Impacts of Environmental Changes: Knowing how energy flows through trophic
levels helps predict the effects of environmental changes, such as habitat loss or climate change,
on ecosystems.
Negros Oriental State University
College of Engineering and Architecture
Main Campus 2, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City
References:
Admin. (2022a, July 8). Trophic level Diagram - Ecological Pyramids. BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/biology/trophic-level-diagram/
Admin. (2022b, September 1). Energy flow in Ecosystem- Food Chain,Food Web and Energy
Pyramids. BYJUS. https://byjus.com/biology/energy-flow-in-ecosystem/
Bio, S. (2023, June 11). Ecological Efficiency - Definition, factors, calculation, applications.
Microbiology Note – Online Biology Notes.
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tions/
Blog archives. (n.d.). Science News.
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Energy flow in an ecosystem. (n.d.).
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/energy-flow-ecosystm/
energy pyramid. (n.d.). Britannica Kids.
https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/energy-pyramid/611153#:~:text=An%20energ
y%20pyramid%20is%20a,units%20of%20kilocalories%20(kcal).
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https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_Pittsburgh/Environmental_Science_(Whi
ttinghill)/15%3A_Community_and_Ecosystem_Ecology/15.05%3A_Energy_Flow_Thro
ugh_Ecosystems
Libretexts. (2023, October 31). 46.2D: Ecological Pyramids. Biology LibreTexts.
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_Ge
neral_Biology_(Boundless)/46%3A_Ecosystems/46.02%3A_Energy_Flow_through_Eco
systems/46.2D%3A_Ecological_Pyramids
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2023, September 27). Trophic level | Definition,
Examples, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/science/trophic-level
Types of energy - Knowledge Bank - solar schools. (n.d.).
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Wikipedia contributors. (2023a, April 20). Ecological efficiency. Wikipedia.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_efficiency#:~:text=Ecological%20efficiency
%20describes%20the%20efficiency,and%20assimilation%20in%20an%20ecosystem.
Wikipedia contributors. (2023b, October 26). Trophic level. Wikipedia.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_level
Toxic Chemicals
In the
Environment
Subject: Chemistry
Course: BS CoE
Section: TA
Instructor
Submitted by:
Zyren C. Mendoza
Submitted to:
Agricultural Runoff: Pesticides and fertilizers used in agricultures can contaminate soil
and water.
Household Products: Cleaning agents, paints and personal care products often contain
harmful chemicals.
Improper Waste Disposal: Hazardous waste, if not managed properly, can seep into
Impact in Ecosystems
Water Pollution: Chemicals like mercury, lead and pesticides contaminate water,
Air Pollution: Airborne toxins contribute to air pollution, affecting both flora and
fauna.
Soil Contamination: Chemicals degrade soil quality, impacting plant growth and food
crops.
biodiversity.
and bronchitis.
Waterborne Diseases: Contaminated water sources can lead to diseases like cholera
and dysentery.
Cancer Risk: Long term exposure to certain chemicals increases the risk of cancer.
Neurological Disorders: Some toxins can affect the nervous system, leading to
Research and Innovation: Invest in research for alternative, non toxic chemicals and
Green Technologies: Encourage the adoption of renewable energy sources and eco-
Conclusions: Toxic chemicals in the environment demand urgent attention and collective efforts.
can mitigate the adverse effects to these chemicals, ensuring a healthier environment for current
Kamrin MA. Pesticide Profiles – Toxicity, Environmental Impact and Fate. Boca Raton, FL:
https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climatechange/services/management-toxic-
substances.html
Air Pollution
By:
Professor:
Air pollution can be defined as an alteration of air quality that can be characterized by
measurements of chemical, biological or physical pollutants in the air. It refers to the introduction
of substances into the atmosphere that have harmful effects on humans, other living organisms,
and the environment. These substances can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or
gases. Therefore, air pollution means the undesirable presence of impurities or the abnormal rise
in the proportion of some constituents of the atmosphere. Air pollution refers to the presence of
harmful substances in the air we breathe. When their concentration reaches a critical level, they
Local
This concerns the quality of ambient air within a radius of a few kilometres.
Regional
Pollution like acid rain, photochemical reactions and degradation of water quality at distances of
Global
Depletion of the ozone layer and global warming caused by the emission of greenhouse gases,
• Natural Processes: Dust storms, forest fires, and volcanic eruptions release particles and gases
• Human Activities: These activities include driving cars, trucks and buses; burning coal, oil,
• Biomass Burning: Emissions from burning wood, crop residues, and other organic materials.
• Vehicular Emissions: Cars, trucks, and other vehicles release pollutants like carbon monoxide,
• Industrial Processes: Factories, power plants, and construction sites emit various pollutants.
• Mining and Agriculture: Dust and chemicals from mining and agricultural activities contribute
to air pollution.
• Stationary Sources: These have fixed locations, such as power plant smokestacks, construction
• Mobile Sources: Vehicles, aircraft, ships, and trains emit pollutants while moving.
Pollutants.
o Natural Pollutants
These are pollutants that occur naturally without any direct human influence. Natural pollutants
Volcanic Eruptions: When volcanoes erupt, they release gases and particles into the
Dust Storms: Natural dust storms can carry particles and pollutants over long distances.
Biological Processes: Natural decay of organic matter (like leaves or dead animals) can
o Anthropogenic Pollutants
These pollutants result from *human activities* and have a significant impact on the environment.
Primary Pollutants- Released directly from sources in harmful forms. Common primary
pollutants include:
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Emitted from industrial processes and vehicle
exhaust.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Formed during combustion and contribute to smog and acid rain.
Sulfur Dioxides (SO₂): Released from burning fossil fuels containing sulfur.
atmospheric compounds. For example, ground-level ozone forms when oxides of nitrogen
Air pollution is caused by the presence in the atmosphere of toxic substances, mainly produced by
human activities, even though sometimes it can result from natural phenomena such as volcanic
eruptions, dust storms and wildfires, also depleting the air quality.
Anthropogenic air pollution sources are:
1. Combustion of fossil fuels, like coal and oil for electricity and road transport, producing air
2. Emissions from industries and factories, releasing large amount of carbon monoxide,
3. Agricultural activities, due to the use of pesticides, insecticides, and fertilizers that emit harmful
chemicals
It is impossible to describe the whole extent of potential and actual damage caused by all forms
o Health Impact
Pollutants can cause respiratory diseases, cardiovascular problems, and even cancer. Our
continual exposure to air pollutants is responsible for the deterioration of human health. Air
pollution is indeed a significant risk factor for human health conditions, causing allergies,
o Environmental Consequences
Damage to ecosystems, soil, water bodies, and vegetation. Air pollution has a major impact on
the process of plant evolution by preventing photosynthesis in many cases, with serious
consequences for the purification of the air we breathe. It also contributes to the formation of
acid rain, atmospheric precipitations in the form of rain, frost, snow or fog, which are released
during the combustion of fossil fuels and transformed by contact with water steam in the
atmosphere.
o Global Warming
On top of that, air pollution is a major contributor to global warming and climate change. In fact,
the abundance of carbon dioxide in the air is one of the causes of the greenhouse effect.
Normally, the presence of greenhouse gases should be beneficial for the planet because they
absorb the infra-red radiation produced by the surface of the earth. But the excessive
concentration of these gases in the atmosphere is the cause of the recent climate change.
While improved technology and policies have reduced outdoor air pollution in some industrialized
pollution's chemistry is crucial for mitigating its effects on our health and environment.
There are ways to prevent, control and eventually reduce air pollution:
The most basic solution for air pollution is to move away from fossil fuels, replacing them with
Producing clean energy is crucial. But equally important is to reduce our consumption of energy
Shifting to electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles, and promoting shared mobility (i.e carpooling,
4. Green building
From planning to demolition, green building aims to create environmentally responsible and
pollution.
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/air-quality-in-europe-2022.
Air Pollution Facts, Causes and the Effects of Pollutants in the Air - NRDC.
https://www.nrdc.org/stories/air-pollution-everything-you-need-know.
https://cdn.who.int/media/images/default-source/air-pollution/air-pollution-mix-of-outdoor-and-
indoor-air-pollution.tmb-1024v.jpeg?sfvrsn=b5fbc279_18%201024w
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/air-pollution/.
Prevention of Air Pollution - How Can Air Pollution be Prevented? (With ....
https://byjus.com/chemistry/prevention-of-air-pollution/.
https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/research/activity/environmental-
health/areas/atmospheric/index.aspx.
https://www.vedantu.com/chemistry/air-pollution.
EPS 131 - Chemistry of Engineers (TA)
WATER POLLUTION:
SOURCES
there are three major types of it, which are air pollution, water pollution and land pollution. The
focus of this report is water pollution, with its meaning, its causes, where water pollution comes
from and a few of its examples that came from different sources and websites.
invisible chemicals, a wide range of pollutants end up in our planet's lakes, rivers, streams,
groundwater, and eventually the oceans. Water pollution—along with drought, inefficiency, and
Safeguarding water supplies is important because even though nearly 70 percent of the
world is covered by water, only 2.5 percent of it is fresh. And just one percent of freshwater is
As we all know, water is our universal solvent, which is said to be easy to contaminate
since water can dissolve anything. Water pollution degenerates the quality of water, and
sometimes can be harmful to human health and in the environment. Not only in those two but
There are four major sources of water pollution, and these are Agriculture, Sewage and
forgot to mention that in the early 1800s, scientists discovered which elements were most
essential to plant growth: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Now, in agriculture, many
farmers use chemical fertilizers with nitrates and phosphates because they greatly increase crop
yields.
Without pesticides, some crops could not be grown on a large scale, so our diets would
not be as diverse. According to Dr. Durham, without pesticides, fruits and vegetables would be
stunted, riddled with injuries and contaminated with microbes, contributing to food waste
(BestFoodFacts, 2020).
But with this large dependency of pesticides and fertilizers, this has become a problem.
Chemicals have disturbed the environment, often infecting the surroundings and water, while
being harmful to animals and other species that farmers do not intend to target. Chemical use
may also pose a health hazard to people, especially through contaminated water supplies.
According to NRDC, in the United States, agricultural pollution is the top source of
contamination in rivers and streams. Every time it rains, fertilizers, pesticides, and animal waste
from farms and livestock operations wash nutrients and pathogens—such as bacterias and
viruses—into our waterways. Nutrient pollution, caused by excess nitrogen and phosphorus in
water or air, is the number-one threat to water quality worldwide and can cause algal blooms, a
toxic soup of blue-green algae that can be harmful to people and wildlife.
Houses, on the other hand, releases wastewater that eventually makes its way to the
ocean, mixing with the seawater and affecting the quality of liquid and marine life. Along with
Used water is wastewater. It comes from our sinks, showers, and toilets and from
commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities (think metals, solvents, and toxic sludge). The
term also includes stormwater runoff, which occurs when rainfall carries road salts, oil, grease,
chemicals, and debris from impermeable surfaces into our waterways (NRDC, 2023).
Reef Resilience cited that pathogens from human waste spread diseases to people through
contaminated drinking water, food grown in contaminated soils, seafood harvested from
contaminated waters, and bathing and recreating in polluted waters. Exposure to pathogens can
also lead to infections in the ears, eyes, or chest and topical ailments, such as rashes and skin
infections.
In Oil Pollution, according to Robinson, nearly half of the estimated 1 million tons of oil
that makes its way into marine environments each year comes not from tanker spills but from
land-based sources such as factories, farms, and cities. Oil makes drinking water unsafe and a
substantial amount of oil released into oceans or river water pollution, will destroy marine life
and the ecosystems that support them. Oil reduces the oxygen supply within the water
environment. Oil is also naturally released from under the ocean floor through fractures known
as seeps.
However, the largest and most damaging pollution events usually involve spills of
petroleum or heavy bunker fuel from disabled tankers or drill platforms at sea, from barges or
ships on major inland waterways, or from blowouts of wells or broken pipelines on land
(Freedman, 1995).
An example of oil pollution is the CNN news where according to them, the MT Princess
Empress sank off Oriental Mindoro southwest of the capital Manila on February 28, discharging
its cargo of industrial fuel oil into the waters around the province, where authorities have
declared a state of calamity for nine towns and banned swimming and fishing as they battle one
Jennifer Cruz, mayor of the coastal town of Pola, which has been heavily affected by the
spill, told CNN affiliate CNN Philippines on Thursday that more than 50 residents had fallen ill,
“In the span of nine days, it’s getting worse. The stench from the oil is getting stronger as
the weather is also getting hotter,” Cruz told CNN Philippines. “More people are also getting
sick. I also was not able to visit one of the affected areas because I started feeling unwell due to
the smell.”
what is naturally released by the environment. It’s generated by uranium mining, nuclear power
plants, and the production and testing of military weapons, as well as by universities and
hospitals that use radioactive materials for research and medicine. Accidentally released or
improperly disposed of contaminants threaten groundwater, surface water, and marine resources
(NRDC, 2023).
containing radioactive materials from the damaged Fukushima nuclear plant into the sea. Though
the Japanese government claims potential health risks and damage to marine life to be minimal
as the wastewater has been treated, close monitoring is required to ensure there are no
Now that we are done addressing the sources of this kind of pollution and, to help prevent
and can find a solution to this problem, we need to address where this pollution is coming from.
First, we have this kind of pollution which we call point source pollution. Which means
the pollutant comes from a single source and that directly contaminates the water. It is stated that
in this kind of pollution, we can directly know or pinpoint the pollution’s origin. For example,
large farms that raise livestock, such as cows, pigs and chickens, are sources of point source
pollution.
In the report of National Ocean Service, another way that some factories and sewage
treatment plants handle waste material is by mixing it with urban runoff in a combined sewer
system. Runoff refers to storm water that flows over surfaces like driveways and lawns. As the
water crosses these surfaces, it picks up chemicals and pollutants. This untreated, polluted water
When it rains excessively, a combined sewer system may not be able handle the volume
of water, and some of the combined runoff and raw sewage will overflow from the system,
discharging directly into the nearest water body without being treated. This combined sewer
overflow (CSO) is considered point source pollution, and can cause severe damage to human
While point source pollution originates from a specific place, it can affect miles of
Nonpoint source pollution is the leading cause of water pollution in U.S. waters, but it’s
The United States Environmental Protection Agency claimed that nonpoint source
pollution generally results from land runoff, precipitation, atmospheric deposition, drainage,
seepage or hydrologic modification. Nonpoint source pollution, unlike pollution from industrial
and sewage treatment plants, comes from many diffuse sources. Nonpoint source pollution is
caused by rainfall or snow melt moving over and through the ground. As the runoff moves, it
picks up and carries away natural and human-made pollutants, finally depositing them into lakes,
originates in one country but can cause damage in another country’s environment, by crossing
borders through pathways like water or air. The problems of transboundary pollution include
issues like the acidification of soils and lakes through acid rain, transboundary air pollution
(known variably as smog, haze, or smoke), and downstream river or ocean pollution due to
upstream activities. Contamination can result from a disaster—like an oil spill—or the slow,
Before this report has come to an end, there are an additional two sources of water
pollution which are, Industrial waste and Marine Dumping and Plastic Pollution in the sea.
From the word Industrial, its waste comes from Industrial sites, like coal ash from
thermal power plants and blast furnaces and steel melting slag from iron and steel mills. It is said
that industrial waste is one of the biggest sources of water contamination. Many industrial sites
produce waste in the form of toxic chemicals and pollutants, and some don’t have proper waste
management systems in place. Sometimes, industrial waste is dumped into nearby freshwater
systems.
This statement comes from Robinson as well, where she stated that the toxic chemicals
leached from this waste can make the water unsafe for human consumption, and they can also
cause the temperature in freshwater systems to change, making them dangerous for marine life.
Finally, industrial waste can cause “dead zones,” which are areas of water that contain so little
matter from vessels, aircraft, platforms or other man-made structures, as well as the deliberate
disposal of these vessels or platforms themselves. Marine dumping can destroy or degrade
important habitats for aquatic species and cause coastal erosion and salutation, which affect the
health and productivity of the marine environment (Safe Drinking Water Foundation, 2002).
An example of how and why Marine Dumping is very dangerous to marine life, is stated
by the website called Safe Drinking Water Foundation, where they said that plastic bags are
mistakenly ingested by sea turtles as jellyfish, a common food item. For example, the world’s
largest living turtle, the leatherback, is found off our Atlantic and Pacific coasts. You wouldn’t
think much could get in this giant’s way. However, common plastic debris is causing
leatherbacks terrible trouble. They mistake plastic bags, balloons or containers for jellyfish —
their favorite food. Once swallowed, the plastic clogs the turtles’ intestines, causing them to die.
Trying to connect this topic to the E-waste problem, where it can also damage the
component or even the machine itself, if it rains, those chemicals in it will flow together with the
Oil Pollution:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/oil-pollution
Transboundary Pollution:
https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199756223/obo-9780199756223-0290
.xml#:~:text=Transboundary%20pollution%20is%20defined%20legally,pathways%20like%20water%20o
r%20air.
Marine Dumping:
https://www.safewater.org/fact-sheets-1/2017/1/23/marine-dumping
Residents hit by dizziness and fever as oil spill blankets coast of Philippine island:
https://edition.cnn.com/2023/03/09/asia/philippines-oil-spill-residents-tourism-impact-intl-hnk/index.html
Point Source:
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_pollution/03pointsource.html#:~:text=The%20U.S.%20E
nvironmental%20Protection%20Agency%20(EPA)%20defines%20point%20source%20pollution,commo
n%20types%20of%20point%20sources.
“Water Pollutants: Types of Water Pollutants and their Effects on Water Quality, People,
________________________________________________
________________________________________
Presented by:
_________________________
2023
Class Report: Water Pollutants
Introduction
Water is one of the most vital resources for all life on Earth, and it is essential for sustaining
ecosystems, human health, and economic development. However, the quality of our water
resources is under constant threat due to various pollutants. In this report, we will discuss the
different types of water pollutants, including pathogens, organic materials, inorganic compounds,
Water pollutants are substances or contaminants that, when introduced into natural water bodies
such as rivers, lakes, oceans, or groundwater, can degrade water quality and harm the
It's important to note that the definition of uncontaminated water may vary depending on its
intended use. For drinking water, the standards are typically more stringent than those for
recreational water or industrial processes. Local environmental agencies and health authorities
often set specific guidelines for determining the safety and quality of water in a given area.
Types of Water Pollutants
Pathogens
Pathogens are microorganisms that can cause diseases in humans and animals. They are a
significant concern in water pollution because contaminated water can transmit diseases to
individuals who consume or come into contact with it. Let's dive deeper into this with a real-life
example:
Imagine a scenario in a rural area where a community relies on a nearby river as their primary
source of drinking water. Unbeknownst to them, this river is contaminated with pathogens.
Among the pathogens present in the water are bacteria like coliform and E. coli, which often
As the community continues to use this water source for drinking, cooking, and bathing, the
concentration of these waterborne pathogens begins to increase due to a lack of proper sewage
treatment and sanitation practices. The combination of warm weather and the slow flow of the
Over time, several community members start experiencing gastrointestinal illnesses, diarrhea,
and other waterborne diseases. Some individuals, especially those with weaker immune systems,
may face severe health complications. As the local healthcare facility starts to see a surge in
cases, health authorities investigate the issue and find that the contaminated water is the source
of the outbreak.
In this real-life example, the increased population of waterborne pathogens, particularly coliform
and E. coli, has led to a serious health crisis within the community. This scenario underscores the
critical importance of ensuring clean and safe water sources, adequate sanitation infrastructure,
and proper waste management to prevent the proliferation of pathogens and protect public health.
Organic Materials
Organic materials in water are substances composed of carbon-containing molecules. They can
pose significant environmental and health risks when present in water sources. Let's delve deeper
In the late 20th century, methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) gained popularity as an additive to
gasoline to enhance combustion efficiency and reduce air pollution. However, this compound's
solubility in water made it a potential environmental hazard. Leakage from underground gasoline
storage tanks, accidents, or improper disposal led to the contamination of groundwater with
MTBE.
Consider a case in a suburban area where a gas station's underground fuel tank developed a small
leak, allowing MTBE to seep into the surrounding soil and eventually infiltrate the groundwater.
Over time, this contaminated groundwater began to spread, affecting private wells used by
As residents continued to consume water from their contaminated wells, they unknowingly
ingested MTBE and other organic materials. MTBE exposure has been associated with various
health issues, including an increased risk of tumors, leukemia, and thyroid problems. It was also
known for its unpleasant taste and odor, making the water unpalatable.
Local authorities initiated water quality testing and investigations after residents reported a rise
in health problems and unpleasant-tasting water. They discovered the presence of MTBE and
other organic contaminants in the well water, prompting immediate action to address the issue.
This involved providing alternative sources of clean water to affected households and
In this real-life example, the presence of organic materials, specifically MTBE, in the water
supply resulted in significant health concerns and necessitated costly and time-consuming efforts
to mitigate the contamination and provide safe drinking water to affected residents. It
safeguard water sources from organic pollutants and protect public health.
Inorganic Compounds
Inorganic compounds in water, such as heavy metals like copper, arsenic, barium, mercury, and
zinc, pose a serious threat to the environment and human health. Let's elaborate on this and
wastewater from factories or corroded copper pipes enters water bodies, it can exceed
safe levels. In real life, a copper mining operation might release excessive amounts of
copper into a nearby river, leading to contamination that harms aquatic life.
groundwater due to geological factors. In regions like Bangladesh and parts of India,
people have suffered from arsenic poisoning by consuming water from contaminated
3. Barium compounds are used in drilling fluids for oil and gas extraction. When these
fluids are not properly managed, barium can find its way into nearby water sources. For
instance, if an oil well has a blowout, barium-containing drilling fluids can contaminate
coal-fired power plants. Once in the water, it can be converted into methylmercury, which
bioaccumulates in fish. In real life, the consumption of mercury-contaminated fish has led
processes. Runoff from construction sites, industrial facilities, or urban areas can carry
zinc into rivers and streams. In the Chesapeake Bay, for example, high zinc
concentrations have been linked to urban and industrial runoff, affecting aquatic
ecosystems.
These real-life examples highlight the widespread issue of heavy metal contamination in water,
demonstrating the critical need for strict environmental regulations and responsible waste
disposal practices to mitigate the health and environmental risks associated with inorganic
compounds in water.
Macroscopic Pollutants
Macroscopic pollutants are large, visible objects that can be easily spotted in water, and one of
the most prominent examples of such pollutants is plastic waste. Let's elaborate on this concept
environmental threat. One of the most famous instances of plastic pollution is the "Great
Pacific Garbage Patch." This enormous collection of floating plastic debris, which is
comparable in size to France, is located in the North Pacific Ocean. It is a result of years
of illegal dumping, ocean currents, and the accumulation of plastic waste. This pollution
not only harms marine life but also poses a challenge for cleanup efforts.
2. Pieces of Metal: Abandoned or lost metal objects, such as car parts or industrial
equipment, can end up in water bodies. For example, a sunken ship with metal
components can release pieces of metal into the ocean, posing navigational hazards and
3. Wood: Logs or wood debris from deforestation, construction, or natural disasters can be
carried by rivers and end up in oceans. These large pieces of wood can disrupt shipping
4. Shipping Containers and Shipwrecks: Accidental cargo spills and shipwrecks can result
in shipping containers or parts of ships sinking to the ocean floor. These macroscopic
pollutants not only pose a danger to maritime traffic but can also affect marine life and
underwater habitats.
These real-life examples illustrate the visible and tangible nature of macroscopic pollutants in
water. Plastic waste, in particular, has gained global attention due to its widespread presence and
harmful impacts on marine ecosystems. Efforts to reduce the generation of plastic waste and
Environmental Impact
The presence of these water pollutants has severe environmental consequences. Contaminated
water can harm aquatic ecosystems and the organisms within them. Pathogens can lead to the
spread of diseases, causing harm to both aquatic life and humans. Organic and inorganic
pollutants can result in long-term health issues and even mortality for species relying on polluted
water sources. Macroscopic pollutants can disrupt ecosystems, harm marine life, and contribute
It is crucial to address water pollution and take action to protect our water resources. Efforts to
3. Regulations and policies: Implementing and enforcing strict regulations to control the
4. Public awareness: Educating the public about the importance of water conservation and
pollution prevention.
In conclusion, water pollution poses a significant threat to our environment, human health, and
and governments to work together to address and mitigate water pollution. Only through
collective efforts can we safeguard our precious water resources and protect the health and
Water pollutants - Lists, effects, examples, solved questions. (2019, December 2).
Toppr-guides.
https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/environmental-chemistry/water-pollutants/
Iowa PBS. (2015, April 28). Types of Pollutants that affect Water Quality [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yEci6iDkXYw
R. A. 9299 Republic of the Philippines June 25, 2004
Title
EUTROPHICATION
By:
Professor:
the ecosystem such as increased production of algae and aquatic plants, depletion of fish
species, general degradation of water quality and other effects that reduce and preclude use”.
nitrogen, total phosphorus, biological or chemical oxygen demand and Secchi depth are the
Mechanism of Eutrophication
Eutrophication most ordinarily arises from the oversupply of nutrients, most ordinarily as
nitrogen or phosphorus, which results in overgrowth of plants and algae in aquatic ecosystems.
After such organisms die, bacterial degradation of their biomass leads to oxygen consumption,
The primary limiting factor for eutrophication is phosphate. The presence of phosphorus
normally helps in excessive plant growth and decay. It also favors simple algae and plankton
and causes a severe reduction in water quality. Phosphorus may be a necessary nutrient for
plants to measure and is that the limiting factor for plant growth in many freshwater ecosystems.
Cultural Eutrophication: It is the process that increases the rate of natural eutrophication.
Because of clearing of land and building of towns and cities, land runoff is accelerated and
more nutrients like phosphates and nitrate are supplied to lakes and rivers, then to coastal
Paleolimnologists now signifies that global climate change, or change in geology, and other
external factors are critical in regulating the natural productivity of lakes. The natural action
Lakes and rivers: When algae die, it generally decomposes. Therefore the nutrients in it are
converted into inorganic form by microorganisms. This decomposition process takes in a lot
of oxygen, which reduces the concentration of dissolved oxygen. The depleted oxygen levels
successively may cause fish kills and a variety of other effects reducing biodiversity.
to freshwater systems where phosphorus is usually the limiting nutrient, nitrogen is more
Terrestrial Ecosystems
Eutrophication has an adverse effect on the terrestrial ecosystem. Increased nitrates in soil are
frequently undesirable for plants. Many terrestrial plant species are endangered as a result of
soil eutrophication. Meadows, forests, and bogs have usually low nutrient content and slowly
ecosystems believe the microbial organic process to convert N2 into other forms like nitrates.
However, there’s a limit to what proportion nitrogen are often utilized. Ecosystems that receives
more amount of nitrogen than the plants’ needs are nitrogen-saturated. Hence, saturated
terrestrial ecosystems are able to contribute to both inorganic and organic nitrogen to coastal,
freshwater, and marine eutrophication, where nitrogen is additionally typically a limiting
nutrient.
Ecological Effects
Eutrophication became a pollution problem since the mid-20th century in both European and
North American lakes and reservoirs. In general, there are particularly three ecological impacts
which are troublesome: decreased biodiversity, changes in species composition and dominance,
increase (called an algal bloom) due to rise in nutrients. Algal blooms stop the daylight from
reaching to the bottom-dwelling organisms and cause wide swings within the amount of
dissolved oxygen within the water. If we study eutrophic conditions, we will see that
dissolved oxygen rises a lot during the day, and also reduced after dark by the respiring algae
and by microorganisms that prey on the increasing mass of dead algae. As soon as dissolved
oxygen levels reduce to hypoxic levels, fish and other marine animals suffocate. As a result,
creatures like fish, shrimp, and particularly immobile bottom dwellers die out.
Toxicity: Some algal blooms are also known as “harmful algal blooms”, are toxic to plants
and animals. It results from eutrophication. Toxic compounds can make their high organic
phenomenon, leading to animal mortality. Dead algae release neuro- and hepatotoxins which
invade and out-compete original inhabitant species. This process causes shifts within the
Eutrophication poses a drag not only to ecosystems but to humans also. Reducing
Shellfish in estuaries: One proposed solution to prevent and reverse eutrophication in estuaries
is to revive shellfish populations, like oysters and mussels. Oyster reefs helps in removing
nitrogen from the water column and filter suspended solids. Thus, subsequently reducing the
Seaweed farming: It helps to adapt to global climate change. Seaweed, like kelp, also absorbs
phosphorus and nitrogen. It is thus useful to get rid of excessive nutrients from polluted parts
of the ocean. Some cultivated seaweeds have really high productivity and will absorb large
eutrophication.
Minimizing nonpoint pollution: Nonpoint pollution is that the most difficult source of
nutrients to manage. The subsequent steps are recommended to attenuate the quantity of
Riparian buffer zones: Studies show that intercepting non-point pollution between the
source and therefore the water may be a successful means of prevention. Riparian buffer
zones are interfaces between a flowing body of water and land and are created near waterways
Prevention policy: New policies and laws to regulate the discharge and treatment of sewage
have led to potential nutrient reductions to surrounding ecosystems. But it’s generally agreed
that a policy, regulating the agricultural use of fertilizer along with animal waste must be
imposed.
Organic farming: According to a study it is found that organic farming “significantly reduce
Usually, it is the phosphorus cycle, to realize a desired ecological response within the
ecosystem. Phosphate is one of the major cause of algal growth, mainly cyanobacteria, so once
EXCESS NUTRIENTS: First, farmers apply fertilizer to the soil. Then, excess nutrients
ALGAE BLOOM: Next, the fertilizer rich in nitrate and phosphate sparks the
OXYGEN DEPLETION: When algae form, it blocks sunlight from entering water and
DEAD ZONES: Finally, water that is completely depleted of oxygen becomes a dead
https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/environmental-chemistry/eutrophication/
https://earthhow.com/eutrophication-causes-process-examples/
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
By:
Professor:
The term solid waste management mainly refers to the complete process of collecting,
treating and disposing of solid wastes. Solid waste can be domestic, agricultural or even industrial
wastes. ‘Waste’ is generally identified as goods or material that are perceived to be mostly
valueless. However, objects that are perceived to be waste based on consumers’ object valuation
can be redefined to create value. This requires a multitude of efforts using different strategies in
waste prevention and management. In the waste management process, the wastes are collected
from different sources and are disposed of. This process includes collection, transportation,
treatment, analysis and disposal of waste. It needs to be monitored so that strict regulations and
Solid waste management is considered a pressing global issue calling for an immediate
response from the government and its people. The Philippines has a continuously rising amount of
waste and is expected to further increase in the succeeding years. As reviewed, associated problems
with solid waste management in the country include an increasing amount of solid waste, weak
law implementation, scarcity of sanitary landfills, and improper disposal. The ultimate solution
existing in the country is the RA 9003 or the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000
which highlights the practices of segregation, proper disposal, and waste diversion.
then throw away, such as product packaging, grass clippings, furniture, clothing,
bottles, food scraps, newspapers, appliances, paint, and batteries. This comes from
- Municipal solid waste can further be divided into biodegradable, recyclable and
vegetable peel and mostly wet kitchen waste. Recyclable waste includes plastic and
- Hazardous wastes are wastes or products that have the potential to harm humans or
- Common methods for disposing of hazardous wastes are land disposal and
technologies are available for minimizing recycling and treating the wastes.
Industrial/Commercial Waste.
Reduce
Reuse
Recycle
Reduce (Waste Prevention):
successful method of reducing waste generation. Backyard composting, double sided copying of
papers, purchasing durable, long- lasting environmentally friendly goods; products and packaging
that are free of toxics, redesigning products to use less raw material production and transport
packaging reduction by industries are the normal practices used and have yielded substantial
environmental benefits.
Source reduction prevents emissions of many greenhouse gases, reduces pollutants the
need saves energy, conserves resources, and reduces wastes for new landfills and combustors. It
reduces the generation of waste and is generally preferred method of waste management that goes
Reuse:
Reuse is the process, which involves reusing items by repairing them, donating them to
charity and community groups, or selling them. Reusing products is an alternative to recycling
because the item does not need to be reprocessed for its use again. Using durable glassware, steel
using cloth napkins or towels, reusing bottles, reusing boxes, purchasing refillable pens and pencils
are suggested.
Recycling:
product. For example, recycling plastic bottles to make buckets. This helps to reduce the need for
landfill and more costly forms of disposal. Recycling also reduces the need for extracting (mining,
quarrying and logging), refining and processing raw materials all of which create substantial air
Landfills are engineered areas where waste is placed into the land. Landfills usually have
Energy Recovery from Waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into
Transfer Stations are facilities where municipal solid waste is unloaded from collection
vehicles and briefly held while it is reloaded onto larger, long-distance transport vehicles for
waste that will later need to be thrown away and also to make the resulting waste less toxic.
Recycling is the recovery of useful materials, such as paper, glass, plastic, and metals, from
the trash to use to make new products, reducing the amount of virgin raw materials needed.
Composting involves collecting organic waste, such as food scraps and yard trimmings,
and storing it under conditions designed to help it break down naturally. This resulting compost
the collected wastes gets heap up and become a problem for both the environment and also for the
public.
under abnormal, uncontrolled and unhygienic conditions. After a few days of decomposition, it
becomes a breeding ground for different types of disease-causing insects as well as infectious
organisms. A foul smell is produced and it also spoils the aesthetic value of the area.
The solid wastes collected from different industries include toxic metals, chemicals, and
other hazardous wastes. When these wastes are released into the environment, they can produce
biological and physicochemical problems to the environment, the chemicals may drain into the
soil and pollute the groundwater and also alter the productivity of the soils in that particular area.
In rare cases, the hazardous wastes may get mixed up with the ordinary garbage and other
combustible wastes causing the disposal process even harder and risky.
By burning the paper and other scraps along with the hazardous wastes, dioxins and
poisonous gasses are produced and released into the air which results in causing various diseases
Solid waste management is important because it safeguards public health, preserves the
environment, and conserves resources. It prevents the spread of diseases, reduces pollution, and
minimizes greenhouse gas emissions. By recycling and reusing materials, it reduces the demand
for raw resources and creates economic opportunities. Overall, effective waste management
ensures a cleaner, safer, and more sustainable future for communities worldwide.
References
https://www.routledge.com/Solid-Waste-Management-Chemical-Approaches-Volume-1/Chauhan-
Sevda/p/book/9781032039008#
https://www.learnz.org.nz/redvale181/bg-standard-f/the-5-r%27s-of-waste-
management#:~:text=As%20citizens%20of%20a%20society,recycle%2C%20recover%20and%20residual%
20management.
https://byjus.com/biology/solid-waste-management/
https://www.vedantu.com/biology/solid-waste-management
https://www.neliti.com/publications/411212/a-long-standing-problem-a-review-on-the-solid-waste-
management-in-the-
philippine#:~:text=The%20Philippines%20has%20a%20continuously,sanitary%20landfills%2C%20and%2
0improper%20disposal.
https://archive.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/web/html/
https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/hazardous-waste
REDUCE / REUSE / RECYCLE
By:
Professor:
Reduce, reuse and recycle is a motto used by environmentalists and is often called the "3Rs". It
was agreed upon at the G8 Sea Island Summit in June 2004 as a new G8 initiative which means
to reduce waste, minimise consumption and ensure the best overall approach is adopted for the
environment and human health. Such programmes when managed at national and/or
Reduce, reuse and recycle are part of the ‘waste hierarchy’ guidance tool which ranks waste
management options according to what is best for the environment and also
considers resource and energy consumption. It aims to extract from products the maximum
practical benefits and generate minimal waste. The priorities in the hierarchy are based
on sustainability.
Indicates an order of preference for action to reduce and manage waste, and is usually presented
diagrammatically in the form of a pyramid. The hierarchy captures the progression of a material
or product through successive stages of waste management, and represents the latter part of
The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to
generate the minimum amount of waste. The proper application of the waste hierarchy can have
several benefits. It can help prevent emissions of greenhouse gases. Reduce pollutants, save
energy, conserve resources, create jobs and stimulate the development of green technologies.
REDUCE
Is to reduce or to lessen the waste you created in or outside your household. The most important
way to reduce waste is to reduce spending. The secret is only to buy the things we need in the
proper quantity. We wouldn't need to extract raw materials, create items from scratch, develop
packaging, use more resources for shipping, and then figure out how to get rid of them if we
shopping list you can significantly reduce waste created in and around the room.
⮚ THROWING - some items that you would normally consider as garbage might be
REUSE
Is to utilize an object or thing for another purpose. The idea behind recycling is that the used
materials in our lives can be repurposed as resources rather than waste. If we take a close look at
the things we discard, we can learn to recognise them as resources that can be used to meet daily
needs and solve issues. You can start brainstorming and coming up with ideas once you've
decided to use waste for good. Reusing reduces costs, saves resources, and satisfies the creative
drive in people, but don’t confuse reuse from reduce, while reduce use to reuse materials it is
mainly on to cut back the amount of waste you generate contrary to reuse it is to find new ways
⮚ Find new use for old items. When it’s time to throw something out, think about
other possible ways to use it. Glass jars, for example, can become storage for your
crafting area or shop. Old bath towels can be cut up and used as wash rags. Plastic
pop bottles take on a new life as bird feeders. Make a woven basket or tray out of
old magazines. And the toothbrush you’re replacing is the perfect scrub brush for
hard-to-reach areas.
Example:
- You can use old towels and sheets torn into little pieces as dust rags.
- Old tires can be used in the play area and garden.
RECYCLE
Recycling is gathering and processing materials (such as bottles and cans) that would otherwise
be thrown away to transform them into something fresh and beneficial. Recycling is the last —
and most commonly used — of the 3 Rs. Recycling is changing discarded materials into new
products in order to avoid using more virgin resources. Recycling is essential for maintaining a
clean environment and local communities. We lessen our influence on nature by employing
⮚ The third 'R' is about making sure you separate items that can be recycled,
Glass & plastic paper & cardboard metal & aluminium batteries & components
⮚ Glass | Glass is broken down into fragments called "Cullet" not wider than 5 cm.
Glass fragments are separated by colour. Silica, which is melted down and shaped
low-density polyethene, polypropylene, and polystyrene are the six chemicals that
makeup plastic. The physical characteristics of each plastic are determined by its
molecular structure, which makes some plastics easier to recycle than others.
Large carbon chains make up plastic; therefore, some types can be melted down
and reformed, others can be combined with new plastic, and yet others can only
materials. By shredding the papers and cardboards into pieces, water and
chemicals is then added then heated turning it into fibres. Some gets turned into
egg cartons, building insulation, paper plates, kitty litter, construction paper,
● BENEFITS OF RECYCLING
▪ Lessens pollution
▪ Saves energy
climate
● Recover is sometimes added to the end of the list. It refers to the act of putting waste
products to use. For example, decomposing garbage produces methane gas, which can
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?
The 3Rs is a sustainable and environmentally conscious method of transforming waste into
reprocessing materials like plastic, paper, glass, metal, tires, electronics, and textiles, we reduce
the demand for fresh raw materials, energy, and natural resources. Composting and reusing
biodegradable waste such as food scraps, kitchen refuse, and garden waste are integral parts of
recycling.
This approach significantly decreases the volume of waste generated, preserves vital
emissions. Consequently, our ecosystem thrives despite increasing demands, ensuring its
In addition to recycling, another eco-friendly practice is reuse, wherein products are creatively
repurposed, conserving resources and energy. This method alleviates the strain on industrial
production, leading to reduced industrial pollution. Simultaneously, both costs and requirements
Apart from its environmental benefits, recycling proves to be a financially sound strategy for
businesses and consumers alike. It is more economical than constantly purchasing new items.
Reusing, in particular, stands out as an effective approach to conserve energy and reduce the
overall expenditure associated with the production of goods and materials. In summary, learning
about the 3Rs in waste management is crucial for environmental conservation, resource
individuals, communities, and businesses to make informed choices that contribute to a healthier
https://www.slideshare.net/rebina/reduce-reuse-and-recycle-3r
https://www.naturalhomebrands.com/blogs/news/the-importance-of-the-three-r-s
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_hierarchy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_management
https://www.env.go.jp/recycle/3r/en/outline.html#:~:text=The%203R%20Initiative%20aim
s%20to,as%20a%20new%20G8%20initiative.
https://www.solarschools.net/knowledge-bank/sustainability/reduce-reuse-
recycle#:~:text=The%203%20'R's%20%E2%80%93%20Reduce%2C,used%20for%20a
%20new%20purpose.
https://school.careers360.com/reduce-reuse-recycle-essay-essy
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Reduce,_reuse,_recycle
https://roguedisposal.com/resources/education/recycling/exploring-the-three-rs-of-waste-
management-reduce-reuse-
recycle#:~:text=Reduce%20means%20to%20cut%20back,playground%20equipment%20
and%20recycling%20bins).
https://www.recyclenow.com/how-to-recycle/paper-recycling
Chemical Safety: Introduction
By:
Regencia, Darwin D.
Professor:
way as to ensure the safety of human health and the environment. It covers all chemicals, natural
and manufactured, and the full range of exposure situations from the natural presence of chemicals
in the environment to their extraction or synthesis, industrial production, transport use and
disposal.
Chemical safety has many scientific and technical components. Among these are
toxicology, ecotoxicology and the process of chemical risk assessment which requires a detailed
establish the scientific basis for the sound management of chemicals, and to strengthen national
Chemicals are part of our daily life. All living and inanimate matter is made up of chemicals
and virtually every manufactured product involves the use of chemicals. Many chemicals can,
when properly used, significantly contribute to the improvement of our quality of life, health and
well-being. But other chemicals are highly hazardous and can negatively affect our health and
developing countries. This is likely to result in greater negative effect on health if sound chemicals
management is not ensured. Multisectoral action is urgently needed to protect human health from
agricultural productivity. However, one can not ignore that these chemicals may, especially if not
An estimation of one thousand new chemicals enter the market every year, and about
100000 chemical substances are used on a global scale. These chemicals are mostly found as
mixtures in commercial products. One to two million such products or trade names are available.
More substances and rising production mean more storage, transport, handling, use and
disposal of chemicals. The whole lifecycle of a chemical should be considered when assessing its
Most chemical accidents have a limited effect. Occasionally there is a disaster like the
one in Bhopal, India, in 1984, with thousands of deaths and many people permanently disabled.
Not only the worker handling chemicals is at risk. We may be exposed to chemical risks
in our homes through misuse or by accidents. The environment may be affected, chemicals may
pollute the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat. They may have entered into
Chemicals are not all of equal concern. The assessment of health risks of chemical
substances is a continuous process where information of the chemical hazards and exposure
or coming to contact with it.There are four main ways, that is routes of exposure, for chemical
Innovations in chemistry have helped improve our quality of life for centuries in a variety
of ways. Products of chemistry support agriculture by helping people to produce and raise healthy
crops and livestock. Through chemistry, food can be preserved and packaged safely and
efficiently. Chemistry has also given us products that can help prevent or control the spread of
and more fuel efficient; building materials can be made to be more durable and resilient; and
electronics like cell phones, computers and televisions have enhanced functionality to meet the
information available.
To determine a chemical substance’s safety, researchers and experts primarily rely on two key
categories of information:
The mere presence of a chemical ingredient in a product does not automatically mean it will
cause harm. Any substance—even water—can be toxic if too much is ingested or absorbed into
the body. The extent to which a specific substance may have harmful effects depends on a variety
of factors, including how much of the substance a person is exposed to, the route of exposure, and
PREVENTIVE MEASURES
Substitution
Engineering control
Enclosed process
Ventilation
Reducing exposure
Working environment
Hazard communication
Labelling of chemicals
Training
Use of chemicals
Emergency situation
Disposal of Chemicals: Carefully, follow instructions on disposal of waste chemicals. You will
be instructed to dispose of chemicals into designated waste containers. Check labels of all waste
containers. If no specific instructions given, you will do the following: a. You will dispose of
liquids and solutions by pouring them down the sink one at a time accompanied by running water.
Never mix chemicals in the sink; avoid unexpected reactions. b. Solid chemicals, insoluble
material, and filter paper are to be disposed of into the trash bin (not in the sink).
REFERENCES
https://www.who.int/health-topics/chemical-safety#tab=tab_1
https://www.who.int/health-topics/chemical-safety#tab=tab_2
https://www.chemicalsafetyfacts.org/health-and-safety/understanding-chemical-safety/
https://training.itcilo.org/actrav_cdrom2/en/osh/kemi/ctm1.htm
Z
PESTICIDES
By:
Sabolleros, Miguel J.
Professor:
mitigate pests such as insects, fungi, weeds, and rodents that can threaten crops, public health, or
ecosystems.
Pesticides have been used for crop protection for centuries, but their modern development
accelerated with the introduction of synthetic chemicals in the mid-twentieth century. They play a
crucial role in agriculture by safeguarding plants from various threats and improving crop yields.
While they have considerably increased agricultural production and disease vector control, there
are worries about their impact on the environment, non-target species, and human health. Among
the primary issues linked with pesticide use are the possibility of pesticide residues in food,
Types of Pesticides
● Fungicides are chemicals that kill or prevent the growth of fungi and their spores.
● Rodenticides are chemicals that kill rodents, including mice and rats.
● Bactericides are chemical (such as bleach) or physical (such as heat) substances
Usage of Pesticides
Agricultural Applications
of pesticides involve the use of chemical or biological agents to manage and mitigate pest-
related issues in farming. This includes the protection of crops from insects, diseases, and
weeds, ultimately enhancing agricultural productivity and crop yields. They have been used
by farmers to control weeds and insects, and their remarkable increases in agricultural
products. Therefore, pesticides play a critical role in reducing diseases and increasing crop
yields worldwide.
Non-agricultural Applications
contexts other than agriculture. Pesticides are also commonly applied in non-agricultural
to buildings, eradicate disease vectors, and maintaining open spaces in utility and road
right-of-ways. This can encompass pest control in residential settings, industrial facilities,
organisms that can negatively impact human activities, ecosystems, and health. They help
Environmental Impact
Pesticides are harmful substances that are deliberately released into the environment.
Although each pesticide is designed to kill a specific bug, a considerable percentage of pesticides
end up somewhere other than their intended target. Pesticides quickly contaminate the air, ground,
and water when they flow off from fields, escape storage tanks, are not properly discarded, and
caused by pesticides to organisms or wildlife that were not the intended target of
the pesticide application. This may include harm to beneficial insects, birds, or
other non-pest species. Animals may be poisoned by pesticide residues that remain
sources that certain types of animals need, causing the animals to relocate, change
their diet, or starve. Poisoning from pesticides can even make its way up the food
chain; for example, birds can be harmed when they eat insects and worms that have
consumed pesticides.
● Water Pollution
of aquatic ecosystems, such as rivers, lakes, and groundwater, due to the runoff of
pesticides from fields or other application sites. This can harm aquatic life and
affect water quality. Fish and other aquatic biota may be harmed by pesticide-
to die, diminishing the water’s oxygen and suffocating the fish. Repeated exposure
of some pesticides can cause physiological and behavioral changes in fish that
● Soil Contamination
applications leach into the soil, potentially leading to long-term harm to soil quality,
beneficial microorganisms, and the overall health of the land. Soil quality is higher
without chemicals and this allows for higher water retention, necessary for plants
to grow.
● Impact on Biodiversity
potential harm or disruption to the variety of plant and animal species within a given
pests and reducing the nutritional value of food. This can affect the balance of
Pesticides are potentially hazardous to other creatures, including humans, and must be
handled and disposed of responsibly. They are among the top causes of self-poisoning death, with
● Pesticide Residues in Food - Pesticide residues in food refer to the small amounts
of pesticides that may remain on or in food products after they have been treated
with pesticides during the production process. The presence of such residues can
raise concerns about food safety and potential health risks for consumers.
individuals who work in agriculture, pest control, or related industries come into
direct contact with pesticides during their job tasks. This can include exposure
short-term health problems that can result from exposure to pesticides, such as
poisoning or allergic reactions. Chronic health effects, on the other hand, are long-
term health issues that may develop over time due to repeated or prolonged
or reproductive problems.
Regulation and safety measures in using pesticides are crucial to protect human health
and the environment. Governments typically have strict regulations in place to ensure that
pesticides are used safely and effectively. These regulations often require pesticide applicators to
be trained and certified, prescribe specific application methods, and establish allowable pesticide
residue levels in food. Safety measures include the use of protective clothing, respiratory gear, and
the implementation of buffer zones to minimize pesticide drift. Here are some tips for safer pest
control:
● The most effective way to reduce risks posed by pesticides is to use non-chemical
control methods to reduce or eliminate pest problems. Around the home, such measures
include:
o removing sources of food and water (such as leaky pipes); and
o destroying pest shelters and breeding sites (such as litter and plant debris).
● If you decide you must use pesticides, always read the label first and follow the
● Don't use products for pests that are not indicated on the label and don't use more
pesticide than directed by the label. Don't think that twice the amount will do twice the
job.
● Use protective measures when handling pesticides as directed by the label, such as
wearing impermeable gloves, long pants, and long-sleeve shirts. Change clothes and
Alternatives to Pesticides
and environmental risks. These alternatives promote sustainable agriculture, protect biodiversity,
and prevent pesticide resistance, ensuring a safer and more balanced approach to pest control.
● Biological Control – Biological Control is the use of living organisms to suppress pest
populations, making them less damaging than they would otherwise be. Organic farming
is an agricultural practice that emphasizes the use of natural and sustainable methods to
grow crops and raise livestock. It avoids the use of synthetic chemical pesticides and
fertilizers, focusing on organic and environmentally friendly techniques to promote soil
● Organic Farming - Organic farming is an agricultural practice that emphasizes the use
of natural and sustainable methods to grow crops and raise livestock. It avoids the use
environmental conditions.
to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs. It involves practices that are environmentally responsible,
economically viable, and socially equitable, aiming to promote long-term ecological and
agricultural sustainability.
Significance of Pesticides
their effectiveness and safety. They play a pivotal role in designing analytical techniques
and instruments for detecting pesticide residues, contributing to the precision and reliability
of environmental and food safety assessments. Moreover, engineers are at the forefront of
also design safety equipment and practices to safeguard workers who handle pesticides,
and engineer compliance systems to meet regulatory standards, making pesticides a key
intersection between chemistry and engineering disciplines, addressing both efficacy and
environmental responsibility.
knowledge and engineering expertise, allowing for the development of safer and more
Computer Engineers
Pesticides may not have direct significance to computer engineers, as their field
computer engineers might contribute to the development of technology and data analysis
tools used in agriculture and pest management. These technologies can help optimize
pesticide use, monitor crop health, and analyze data related to pest control, which can
benefit the agricultural sector and those involved in pesticide application and regulation.
Conclusion
Pesticides have played a vital role in agriculture and pest control for centuries,
significantly improving crop yields and public health. However, their modern development has
raised concerns about their environmental impact and human health risks. Various types of
pesticides are used in agricultural and non-agricultural applications, with potential consequences
These chemicals can also pose risks to human health through pesticide residues in food
and occupational exposure, resulting in acute and chronic health effects. To mitigate these risks,
engineering, and sustainable agriculture, offer more environmentally friendly approaches to pest
management. Pesticides are of significant importance to chemistry for engineers, who are crucial
in their formulation, safety, and environmental impact reduction. The interdisciplinary nature of
pesticides highlights the role of engineers in ensuring safer and more effective pest control
solutions while advancing the field of chemistry for practical and sustainable applications.
Additionally, although computer engineers typically focus on computer technology, they can
indirectly contribute to agriculture by developing tools for optimized pesticide use and data
References:
Admin. (2023, May 25). Pesticides - definition, types, uses, and harmful
https://portal.ct.gov/CAES/Fact-Sheets/Entomology/Approaches-
to-the-Biological-Control-of-Insect-
Pests#:~:text=Summary-,Biological%20control%20is%20the%20u
se%20of%20living%20organisms%20to%20suppress,predators%2
C%20parasitoids%2C%20and%20pathogens.
environment/
https://www.beyondpesticides.org/resources/genetic-engineering/overview
Mahmood, I., Imadi, S. R., Shazadi, K., Gul, A., & Hakeem, K. R. (2016). Effects of
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Reform. https://www.pesticidereform.org/pesticides-
human-health/
Stehle, S., Bline, A., Bub, S., Petschick, L. L., Wolfram, J., & Schulz, R.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105234
Tudi, M., Ruan, H. D., Wang, L., Lyu, J., Sadler, R., Connell, D., Chu, C.,
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031112
CARCINOGENS
By:
Professor:
Carcinogens can be categorized into two different types: activation-dependent and activation-
independent, and each nature impacts their level and type of influence when it comes to
A carcinogen is anything that causes cancer. Carcinogens may be environmental elements such
as chemicals, metals or gases, or substances that encounter the body through eating, drinking, or
smoking. Some infections as well as certain medical procedures and treatments are also
considered carcinogenic.
• Tabacco smoke
• Radiation
• Sunlight
• Alcohol
National, international, and federal organizations and research groups help to label chemicals and
substances as carcinogens. Among others, these include the International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC) and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ National Toxicology
Program (NTP).
How do carcinogens cause cancer?
Cancer is caused by mutations (changes) in the DNA of cells. Carcinogens may lead to these
• Other carcinogens cause cells to change in some way, such as dividing faster than they
normally would, which over time increases the chances of a mutation happening.
The likelihood that exposure to a carcinogen leads to cancer is affected by several factors, such
as:
• How much exposure the person has had and for how long.
• How the exposure happened (for example, through the skin vs. inhalation)
In the United States, the National Toxicology Program (NTP) evaluates research and publishes
lists of known and possible carcinogens. The International Agency for Research on Cancer
In general, both agencies rely on laboratory tests and epidemiology research (studies in people)
The most recent NTP report lists 63 carcinogenic substances. The report also lists 193 substances
that may cause cancer. The most recent IARC research lists 122 substances known to cause
cancer, 93 substances that probably cause cancer and 319 substances that may cause cancer.
What are types of carcinogens?
Physical carcinogens, like ultraviolet rays from the sun and ionizing radiation from sources like
Chemical carcinogens, like asbestos, tobacco smoke, beverages containing alcohol, aflatoxin (a
fungus that contaminates food) and arsenic that appears naturally in the air, water, and soil.
Examples of carcinogens.
Tobacco: The leading cause of cancer and death from cancer is tobacco. Smoking tobacco
(cigarettes, cigars, and pipes) may cause lung, larynx, mouth, esophagus, throat, bladder, kidney,
liver, stomach, pancreas, colorectal and cervical cancers, as well as acute leukemia. Any amount
of tobacco use is considered risky but quitting—even among people who have been diagnosed
Alcohol: The more alcohol someone drinks, the higher the risk of certain cancers, such as head
and neck cancer, esophageal cancer, liver cancer, breast cancer and colorectal cancer. The U.S.
drink per day for women and up to two drinks per day for men to keep the cancer risk from
rising.
Sunlight: UV radiation from sunlight, as well as from tanning beds, damages skin and may lead
to skin cancer. Wearing a wide-brim hat, covering up with clothing, applying sunscreen, and
Radon: This is a colorless, odorless gas. You may be exposed to radon when you’re inside
buildings like businesses, schools or even your own home. Radon is the second leading cause
of lung cancer.
Formaldehyde: Studies suggest people exposed to high levels of formaldehyde in the workplace
have an increased risk of acute myeloid leukemia and rare cancers in their nasal cavities and
sinuses.
Asbestos: Asbestos once was a common form of insulation. You may be exposed to asbestos if
you spend time in buildings constructed before 1989, when the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) banned all new uses of asbestos. Asbestos is linked to malignant
Processed meat: Meat that’s been transformed by salting, curing or smoking is linked
to colorectal cancer. There’s been speculation that certain foods or minerals are implicated in
cancer risk, such as the black char on grilled meat, acrylamide in French fries and other foods,
For example, X-rays, positron emission tomography (PET) scans, computed tomography (CT)
scans and radiation therapy all carry some cancer risk due to the radiation that has the potential
to damage cells. Typically, the levels are low enough to not present a significant risk.
Hormone therapy to treat menopause may also increase the risk of certain cancers, such as breast
and endometrial cancer. The hormone estrogen, contained in these therapies, is a known
carcinogen. In the case of both tests and treatments, oftentimes the benefits may outweigh the
cancer risks.
Carcinogens may be present in the environment where people live or work. While environmental
and occupational safety regulations exist to keep people safe from these carcinogens, those who
work or live near certain industries may still face increased risks of cancer.
Unfortunately, you can’t avoid all carcinogens. But you can avoid some known carcinogens by:
• Protecting your skin from the sun and other sources of ultraviolet radiation.
Limiting exposure to carcinogens when possible is important for lowering the risk of cancer—
quitting tobacco use or limiting alcohol consumption are some examples. Vaccines and
treatments may reduce the risk of cancer from infectious carcinogens, such as human
papillomavirus (HPV). Environmental and occupational safety regulations also help workers and
carcinogenic, but it’s not possible or even healthy to always avoid the sun. Because it may take
many years to study the effects of a given substance on the body, other carcinogens may not yet
be known. Experts are always studying possible carcinogens in the lab and population studies.
REFERENCES
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogen
https://www.cancercenter.com/risk-factors/carcinogens
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/25081-carcinogens
FOOD ADDITIVES
By:
Professor:
taste, appearance, or other sensory qualities. Some additives have been used for
centuries as part of an effort to preserve food, for example vinegar (pickling), salt
(salting), smoke (smoking), sugar (crystallization), etc. This allows for longer-lasting
foods such as bacon, sweets or wines. With the advent of ultra-processed foods in the
second half of the twentieth century, many additives have been introduced, of both
natural and artificial origin. Food additives also include substances that may be
content, and safety. They can be natural or synthetic and serve various roles in
processed foods. They are essential in the food industry for preservation, flavor
Nutritional additives
Processing agents
Preservatives
Sensory agents
Nutritional Additives
substitutes. Fortification began in 1924 with iodine added to table salt for goitre
prevention. Vitamins are commonly added to foods to enrich their nutritional value,
such as vitamins A and D in dairy and cereal products, B vitamins in flour, cereals,
baked goods, and pasta, and vitamin C in fruit beverages, cereals, dairy products, and
confectioneries. Other additives include essential fatty acids, minerals, and dietary
fiber.
Processing Agents
stabilizers and thickeners increase the viscosity of the final product. They prevent the
coalescence of oil droplets, promote the separation of oil and aqueous phases, inhibit
ice or sugar crystal formation, and can encapsulate flavor compounds. Cooling agents
protect food products from enzymatic reactions that promote deterioration during
deterioration, and microorganism growth. In food, they extend shelf life by inhibiting
Preservatives also act as antioxidants, protecting fats and oils from oxidation,
preventing rancidity, and extending shelf life. They play crucial functions in food
products, ensuring they maintain their intended characteristics and prevent potential
health risks.
Food preservatives are classified into two main groups: antioxidants and
roles and functions. Antioxidants are compounds that delay or prevent the
for human health by reducing oxidative stress, while antimicrobials are used in
1. Organic acids like acetic, citric, sorbic, and benzoic acid, which inhibit
microbial growth.
bacteria growth.
products.
Sensory Agents
Sensory agents improve the sensory properties of food products like food
Flavourings
Sweeteners
Colorants
of taste and quality. Food processing can cause degradation of natural pigments in raw
materials. Some formulated products require colouring agents, which are natural or
synthetic. Natural colorants come from plant, animal, and mineral sources, while
Natural colorants
reactivity, and secondary flavors. They are insoluble in water and require an
emulsifier for even distribution, making them essential for food product
quality.
Synthetic colorants
hydroxide, contain 10-40% of the dye and are insoluble in water and organic
solvents. Their stability is influenced by light, heat, pH, and reducing agents.
Flavourings
Food flavor is a result of the chemical senses of taste and smell stimulated by
specific food molecules. Taste reception occurs in taste buds and olfactory cells in the
nasal cavity. Flavor additives, including natural and synthetic compounds, provide the
flavor impact of a food. Natural flavourings come from plants, spices, herbs, animals,
flavors.
Sweeteners
carbohydrates. Other nutritive sweeteners include glucose, fructose, corn syrup, high-
fructose corn syrup, and sugar alcohols. Chemically synthesizing sweeteners began in
the late 1800s with saccharin's discovery. Nonnutritive sweeteners, with greater
sweetening power than sucrose, are used in low-calorie products like baked goods,
Pros
The advantages of using food additives include: Increase product shelf life,
production, prevent food poisoning, may aid in, weight loss, help companies stay
Cons
The disanvantages of using food additives include: Pose health hazards, distort
food components, cause food poisoning, cause price increases, may cause allergic
complications, may cause digestive problems, and may promote obesity and diabetes.
References
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/food-additives
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_additive#cite_note-FDAoverview-1
Food and Drug Administration. (2018). Food Ingredient & Packaging Terms.
https://www.fda.gov/food/food-ingredients-packaging/food-ingredient-
packaging-terms
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119792130.ch2
https://www.britannica.com/topic/food-additive/Sweeteners
https://foodnhealth.org/16-pros-and-cons-of-food-additives/
HEAVY METALS
By:
Taroy, Charlize T.
Professor:
The term “heavy metal” refers to a metallic chemical element with a high density that is
toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Their high density gives them useful properties in
Lustre: the surface of heavy metals have a gentle sheen or shiny usually with reflected light.
Ductility: heavy metals can undergo changes in their physical form without breaking.
Malleability: the shape of heavy metals can be easily distorted under compression.
• nondegradable
Through natural phenomena or anthropogenic origin, we can obtained these heavy metals.
These sources can be natural phenomena such as weathering and volcanic eruptions, that can
contribute to the formation of heavy metal pollution or it can be through anthropogenic origin or
change of nature caused by people such as Industrial Waste, Mining and Smelting processes,
Agricultural use of metals like machines, then those processing plants like nuclear power plant,
1.Mercury
SOURCES:
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
2. Cadmium
SOURCES:
• Phosphate fertilizers
• Smoking
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
Complications include coughing, anemia, irreversible kidney damage, and an increased risk of
cancer.
3. Arsenic
SOURCES:
• Smelting
• Burning coal
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
4. Chromium
SOURCES:
• Combustion
• Metal processing
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
5. Thallium
SOURCES:
• Mining
• Metal processing
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
Complications have been associated with psychotic behaviour, and issues with skin, bones, and
organs.
6. Lead
SOURCES:
• Products containing lead such as paints, dishware, ceramic items, jewelry and etc.
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
Exposure to lead causes symptoms such as pain, anaemia, and organ damage.
7. Copper
SOURCES:
• Mining
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
8. Nickel
SOURCES:
• Domestic wastewater, these are wastewater from home such as toilets, bathrooms and
kitchens.
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
9. Zinc
SOURCES:
EFFECTS TO HEALTH
Zinc toxicity include nausea, vomiting, and fatigue. Complications include dyspnoea (laboured
Moving forward, heavy metals have important biochemical and physiological functions in living
organisms. Especially, Copper and zinc in particular are very useful in the body. Copper and Zinc
are essential to maintain the metabolism of the human body, copper alongside with iron to form
red blood cells which help to maintain healthy bones and nerve and zinc aids the immune system.
Copper is used alongside iron to form red blood cells. It helps to maintain healthy bones, nerves,
Zinc aids the immune system, metabolism function, wound healing, and DNA synthesis
Heavy metals are dangerous because they tend to bioaccumulate. It is when an organism absorbs
heavy metals because some of these metals are used in the manufacturing and assembly of
Furthermore, understanding the properties and potential hazards associated with heavy metals can
help computer engineers develop safer and more sustainable electronics products. It can also
enable them to make informed decisions about reducing exposure to these metals during
REFERENCES:
https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/environmental-science/pollution/heavy-metals/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1573428505800201
https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/environmental-science/pollution/heavy-metals/
Radioactive Wastes
By:
BS in Computer Engineering
Professor:
Radioactive waste is a byproduct from nuclear reactors, fuel processing plants, hospitals
and research facilities. It is also generated while decommissioning and dismantling nuclear
reactors and other nuclear facilities. Radioactive waste includes elements and compounds that
produce or absorb ionizing radiation and any material that interacts with such elements and
compounds. There are two broad classifications of radioactive waste: high-level or low-level
waste. Radioactive waste is filled with persistent unstable elements or radionuclides, which emit
Most radioactive waste comes from nuclear electricity production and military activities. However,
it is also generated in hospitals from the use of radioactive material to diagnose and treat the sick
and sterilize medical products, in universities in conducting vital research in biology, chemistry
and engineering, and in agriculture, where nuclear applications have helped produce crops that are
more drought and disease resistant, as well as crops with shorter growing periods or increased
yield – a practice that has been especially beneficial for some developing countries. As with all
managed in a safe way to protect people and the environment. Good waste management begins
before the waste is generated: the starting point for all activities that produce radioactive waste is
to avoid or reduce waste generation at its source. Minimizing primary waste generation also
minimizes the quantity of waste requiring disposal. Various types of radioactive waste exist and
Radioactive wastes are created wherever radioactive materials are used. By far the greatest
source of radioactive wastes is the nuclear fuel cycle. The mining, milling and the preparation of
fuels for reactors and weapons produce wastes containing natural radioisotopes; and fuel
irradiation and subsequent processing produce waste rich in fission products. Additional wastes
NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY
This refers to the radioactivity of materials found in nature. These materials are present in
uranium and thorium ores, nature’s nuclear fuels. Wastes from mining or milling and fuel
fabrication therefore contain this natural radioactivity, which consists primarily of the natural
FISSION PRODUCTS
Are produced during the irradiation of nuclear fuels in reactors are by far the largest source
of radioactive wastes in terms of contained radioactivity. When each uranium atom fissions, it
breaks into two major fragments appropriately called fission products. Fission products are
radioactive; they undergo one or more steps of radioactive decay before reaching a stable, harmless
condition. Valuable fuel material remains in the irradiated nuclear fuel is, therefore, and
inescapable part of the nuclear industry. The processing creates highly radioactive wastes
consisting not only of fission products but also some activated reactor materials, chemicals, and
corrosion products.
ACTIVATION PRODUCTS
Are produced during the irradiation of nonfuel materials located near the fuel in nuclear
reactors. Structural materials are activated (made radioactive) by the absorption of neutrons, as are
impurities in the coolant and often the coolant itself. Traces of iron, nickel, and other corrosions
products, for example, are carried along with the coolant in some types of reactors and irradiated
Are the more than establishments making or using nuclear products in the United States.
The radioactivity of this great variety of wastes originates in one of the ways we have just discussed
– from naturally occurring radioisotopes, fission products. These may be in many forms, including,
chemicals, solids collected in evaporators, resins, and contaminated equipment and materials.
contaminated gloves and clothing, and broken glassware. Even when sealed radioisotopes devise
are used, there eventually is need for disposal when the radioactivity has decayed below useful
levels.
The main consideration for defining and categorizing waste is long term safety of disposal.
Waste is classified according to its potential hazard, and this determines the containment and
isolation required. Within the nuclear energy sector, a rough categorization divides nuclear waste
into low level, intermediate level and high-level wastes. This categorization varies slightly from
country to country, but in principle the main criteria for determining the type of waste are derived
from radioactive content and half-life, i.e., the time taken for the waste to lose half of its
radioactivity. Low and intermediate level wastes arise mainly from routine facility maintenance
and operations. Low level waste can be contaminated clothing such as protective shoe covers, floor
sweepings, paper and plastic. Intermediate level waste can be, for example, reactor water treatment
residues and filters used for purifying a reactor’s cooling water. The radioactivity ranges from just
above nature’s background level to more elevated radioactivity in certain cases, such as parts from
inside the reactor vessel in a nuclear power plant. Low and intermediate level wastes comprise
97% of the volume but only 8% of the radioactivity of all radioactive waste. High level waste
consists mostly of spent fuel from reactors. Some countries also reprocess spent fuel, which gives
rise to additional types of high-level waste. All of this high-level waste and spent fuel, when
declared as waste, poses a sufficiently high enough radiological risk that a high degree of isolation
from the biosphere is required for a long period of time. Because of the radioactivity and heat
generated, this waste has to be shielded and cooled. Whatever the type of the radioactive waste,
Radiation is a fact of life. Light and heat radiations are produced by the sun. Earth itself is
•All electricity generation forms produce waste. The most important waste from a nuclear power
• Radioactive waste is also produced by military activities and beneficial practices in medicine,
• The world has over half a century’s experience in managing radioactive waste – the
characteristics of the waste are well known and therefore it can be safely managed.
• The main objective of waste management is to protect people and the environment, now and in
the future.
• As a term, nuclear waste management refers to practices and techniques used for all activities
• There are over 440 nuclear power plant units in the world today producing three types of waste
that are roughly categorized as low, intermediate and high level wastes.
• The criteria defining these three main types of waste are derived from the waste’s radioactive
content and half-life, i.e. the time taken to lose half of the radioactivity.
• The disposal of low and intermediate level wastes is well established in several countries. Long
term safety determines the measures needed to protect people and environment.
• A number of countries have made good progress towards implementing geological disposal of
• The mechanisms for collecting money in advance to cover waste management costs exist and
REFERENCE:
HAZARDS
BSCOE 1
concern that affects every living being on our planet. These risks, ranging from pollution brought
on by humanity to natural disasters, gravely threaten our ecosystems, biodiversity, and general
well-being. As the global population and economy continue to expand, the impacts of these
hazards become more pronounced and in need of urgent action. This report digs down into the
various environmental hazards our society faces, analyzing causes and consequences and potential
solutions.
Now what are environmental hazards? Environmental hazards refers to the condition that may
cause harm or danger to human health or the environment itself. These hazards can be natural or
human-made that often result in negative consequences for the society, ecosystem and
individuals. Environmental hazards have the potential to cause harm to the environment, disrupt
ecological balance, and impact human communities by causing health problems, property
damage, or economic losses. Managing and mitigating these hazards are essential to ensuring
environmental sustainability and human well-being. These are threats to people and also a result
of the interaction between natural systems, technological systems and human systems.
These hazards can be classified into several categories based on their impact and origin.
a. Natural Hazards
a. geological hazards
- are disasters originating from solid earth. these refer to earthquakes, landslides,
and tsunamis.
- earthquakes are movements of tectonic plates that slide past each others fault
zones a pressure is build up over a long period of time because of the friction that
slows them down and when the time comes, a force of movement finally
overcomes the friction resulting a sudden break of the crust in the form of
seismic waves.
- tsunamis are results of an earthquake that happened below or near the ocean floor.
b. meteorological hazards
- this includes extreme temperature, hurricanes, tornadoes, heat waves and cold
waves
- Hurricanes form over warm ocean waters when moist air rises from the surface,
creating a low-pressure system. As the air continues to rise and cool, water vapor
condenses to form clouds and releases latent heat, fueling the storm's growth. If
the conditions are favorable, with warm sea surface temperatures and low wind
c. hydrological hazards
- floods, droughts
- floods are the result of excessive rainfall overwhelming the capacity of rivers,
d. biological hazards
- are organic substances that present a threat to the health of people and other living
organisms.
- these are viruses, fungi and diseases that lead to epidemics and pandemics.
e. chemical hazards
- hazardous chemical that can be a solid, liquid or gas. It can be a pure substance,
- Toxic Substances: Chemicals that can cause harm or illness when ingested,
inhaled, or come into contact with the skin. Examples include lead, and certain
pesticides.
(physicochemical)
- it's examples are corrosion, the effects of wildfires and air pollution into a
human’s health
b. Human-Induced Hazards
Pollution: air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, and noise pollution.
Climate Change: global warming, sea level rise, and extreme weather events caused by
ecosystems.
contamination.
- nuclear accidents
- studies indicate that long-term exposure to NO2 may decrease lung function and
increase the risk of respiratory symptoms such as acute bronchitis and cough and
phlegm.
- water pollutants are caused by Radioactive waste released from facilities that
create nuclear energy can be extremely harmful to the environment and must be
disposed of properly.
- uranium, the element used in the creation of nuclear energy, is a highly toxic
- plastics are example of hazardous waste it take hundreds of years for plastic to
- climate change
- Greenhouse gases trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, creating the natural
greenhouse effect that keeps our planet warm enough to support life. However,
increased the concentration of these gasses resulting into more heat being trapped,
c. Technological Hazards
facilities.
substances.
- industrial accidents
- chemical spills, explosions, and leaks in factories or industrial facilities.
- Infrastructure Failures
- Levees are typically constructed along rivers, lakes, or coastlines to confine water
within specified areas. When water levels rise above the height of the levee, it can
lead to over-topping. The pressure from the excess water can weaken the
d. Social Hazards
health issues.
Conflict: wars and social unrest leading to environmental damage and displacement of
communities.
Natural hazards turn into a natural disaster when a catastrophic event causes a great deal of
damage and surpasses people's capacity for recovery and response. These hazards are often
unpredictable and can occur due to geological, meteorological, hydrological, or other natural
processes. Because hazards are threats of harm mainly to human systems, human activities play a
large role in how severe a hazard is. New Orleans and Honolulu, Hawaii built their cities in coastal
areas. These cities face the threat of rising sea levels. Natural hazards include earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, wildfires, tsunamis, storms and typhoons. The Philippines is an example of a vulnerable
country which experienced numerous natural disasters ranging from earthquakes, tropical
typhoons and flooding. Every year, the Philippines is visited by an average of 20 typhoons taking
a toll on not only infrastructures but also human life. The government, in collaboration with various
organizations, implements DRRM to ensure the safety and resilience of the communities in the
face of disasters. DRRM stands for Disaster Risk Reduction and Management, a program
implemented in the country to address its vulnerability to natural disasters. DRRM initiatives are
essential to minimize the impact of these disasters, enhance preparedness, and protect the lives and
In contrast to natural disasters brought on by natural risks, man-made disasters involve human
intent, recklessness, or incompetence. Human-induced hazards are hazards that result from human
activities. These hazards are caused by various actions and decisions made by individuals,
communities, or organizations. Natural disasters have the potential to increase the consequences
of first human-caused disasters by resulting in secondary ones. Transportation systems, water and
other technological infrastructure, industrial facilities, and electricity are all susceptible to natural
disasters, and their construction may not always be strong enough to withstand the effects of the
present or future. Climate change is one of the hazards we humans have created. It is a serious
topic that has been talked about for decades. According to Rebecca Lindsey and Luann Dahlman
(2023), the earth’s temperature has risen by an average of 0.14° fahrenheit (0.08° celsius) per
decade since 1880, or about 2° F in total. The rate of warming since 1981 is more than twice as
fast: 0.32° F (0.18° C) per decade. This occurrence is made by us-humans, hence we should be the
one to solve it. Man-made hazards pose a significant threat to our environment, society, and well-
being. As we reflect on the devastating consequences of our actions, it becomes imperative to take
Our world is quickly evolving, technology has become an integral part of our daily lives,
revolutionizing the way we communicate, work, and live. However, this cannot be done without
its drawbacks. The rise of technology has also ushered in a new era of hazards, collectively known
as technological hazards, which encompass a wide range of risks arising from the use,
development, or malfunction of various technological devices and systems. These hazards include
nuclear accidents, improper storage and power outages. A well known example of a nuclear
accident occurred in Fukushima in 2011. More than 2 300 death has been recorded after that tragic
incident. The mentioned catastrophe generated a massive tsunami, with waves reaching heights of
up to 15 meters (49 feet). The tsunami waves inundated the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power
plant complex, knocking out the power supply and disabling the cooling systems of three reactors.
As the fuel rods overheated, they produced hydrogen gas. In the absence of proper venting, the
hydrogen gas built up inside the reactor buildings. In a desperate attempt to release the pressure
and prevent further damage, explosions caused by the ignition of hydrogen gas occurred in the
buildings housing reactors 1, 2, and 3. These explosions further damaged the reactor structures and
released radioactive materials into the environment. The Fukushima disaster is considered the most
severe nuclear disaster since the Chernobyl disaster in 1986. It raised concerns about nuclear safety
worldwide, leading many countries to review their nuclear energy policies and improve safety
standards.
A social hazard refers to any situation, condition, or factor within society that poses a threat to
hazards, social hazards are rooted in human behavior, social structures, and cultural norms. These
hazards can have diverse origins and may lead to various social, economic, or political aspects.
Poverty, overpopulation and conflict or war are great factors of social hazards Poverty is a
significant social hazard that affects millions of people worldwide. It can lead to lack of access to
basic necessities such as food, clean water, education, and healthcare, resulting in poor living
conditions, malnutrition, and limited opportunities for social mobility. 50% of Filipino families,
or around 13.2 million homes, self-reported as poor, according to a poll conducted from July 22 to
July 26. The number was higher than the expected 11.3 million families (43%), which was noted
in March. The government had established a program called 4 PS. The program aims to break the
cycle of poverty by keeping children aged 0-18 healthy and in school, so they can have a better
future. In relation to that, overpopulation also plays a big role in a country's state of economy.The
equivalent to 1.46% of the total world population. the Philippines ranks number 13 in the list of
countries (and dependencies) by population. Conflict and wars have been integral parts of human
history, shaping societies and nations in profound ways. Conflicts arise from a variety of sources,
including political, economic, social, and cultural factors. Political disagreements, resource
scarcity, religious differences, and power struggles often fuel conflicts between individuals,
the complexity of conflicts. Countries such as Afghanistan, Central African Republic, Ethiopia,
Libya, Mali, Somalia, South Sudan, and Syria are all currently experiencing civil wars, resulting
in significant casualties and displacement. Drug wars are another form of conflict that can result
In conclusion, environmental hazards pose a significant threat to our planet's delicate balance,
impacting not only the natural world but also the lives and well-being of millions of people. As
we face the challenges of climate change, pollution, deforestation, and loss of biodiversity, it is
crucial that we recognize our collective responsibility to safeguard the environment. Social hazards
not only divide communities but also stifle progress and hinder the potential of individuals. To
confront these challenges, we must collectively dismantle the barriers that perpetuate social
hazards. By fostering inclusivity, promoting education, and advocating for social reforms, we can
pave the way for a more equitable and compassionate society. Let us stand united against social
hazards, working hand in hand to create a world where every person is valued, respected, and given
the opportunity to thrive. Through raising awareness, implementing sustainable practices, and
advocating for policies that prioritize environmental protection, we can mitigate the hazards we
face. Let us stand together in the pursuit of a greener, cleaner future, ensuring that the beauty of
References
International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (D. Liverman, 2001)
Encyclopedia of Social Measurement (Cutter, 2005)
Environment and Society in a Changing World (Petra T.,Zimerer, Brian King , et. al.)
Philstar (2023)
By:
Torres, Theodore P.
Professor:
profits, but also to take an active and positive social role in the world around them. The term is
also associated with the related term corporate citizenship. CSR is an approach that espouses the
notion that a company can do good in the world and make a difference to improve social order.
It’s a topic that can engage the board of directors in an organization, as CSR reflects company
culture and business practices. Social responsibility is a broad topic; it includes human aspects,
such as having ethical labor practices both internally and as part of a larger supply chain.
• Environmental Responsibility
Environmental responsibility refers to the organization’s commitment to sustainability and
environmentally friendly operations. Every year, more companies are prioritizing sustainable
practices, pledging to consider their environmental impact at every stage of business. This can
mean reducing the company’s carbon footprint or greenhouse gas emissions, opting for sustainable
resources by avoiding single-use plastics and keeping environmental aspects at the heart of all
operations. However, this environmental responsibility can extend past the company’s promise to
sustainable development. If protecting the environment is a part of your corporate mission, you
technologies to reduce the environmental impact of chemical production. This can include using
• Nestlé Cleanup
To uphold their company value of protecting the planet with environmentally friendly practices,
Nestlé Switzerland organized a volunteer week event centered around corporate environmental
responsibility. Their cleanup week coincided with World Cleanup Day, and it gave their employees
hands-on experience in helping to protect their local environment and support communities. More
than 100 employees participated across Switzerland over four days, with six Nestlé sites involved.
Thanks to this effort, Nestlé collected 110+ kilograms of trash and contributed to other
environmental benefits.
manner that upholds human rights principles, such as fair treatment of all stakeholders, fair trade
practices and equal pay. To champion ethical responsibility, many businesses will speak up in the
name of human rights injustices such as child labor, racial or gender discrimination and the fight
for a higher minimum wage. Much like with responsibility to the environment, there are ways to
EXAMPLE:
Equal access to essential goods for everyone is one of the main pillars of Glovo’s commitment to
serve the community. They set out to build a volunteer program that would engage employees in
providing resources to those in need within the communities where they are located. By organizing
a global volunteer week initiative at local food banks, they supported an ethical cause that aligns
bettering society as a whole. One huge aspect of corporate philanthropy is donating money from
company earnings to worthy causes within the local community — often in the form of a trust or
foundation. These kinds of philanthropic efforts speak volumes to your public image as a business
leader, which is crucial in today’s world. There are several ways in which businesses can
incorporate CSR in the form of philanthropy while engaging employees, including giving schemes
EXAMPLE:
For Giving Tuesday, NatWest Group employees were invited to give their voice, time and money
to good causes. Alongside volunteer initiatives, they were invited to donate money to one of 11
partner nonprofits.
Through this initiative, the bank raised 425,000 pounds in donations during Giving Tuesday, with
commitment to doing good. Some common examples of economic responsibility include investing
in alternative energy sources, putting more money into education programs and funding local
charities as a way of bolstering their mission. To uphold economic responsibility, business leaders
are challenged to think past operational cost savings and instead put their obligation to corporate
Regardless of the type of CSR, consider how you’ll measure your program’s performance and
impact.
EXAMPLE:
In the chemical industry, economic corporate responsibility takes various forms, all aimed at
contributing to economic growth and stability. One fundamental aspect is job creation, as chemical
companies invest in facilities and operations that generate employment opportunities, thereby
bolstering local economies. These companies also allocate significant resources to research and
innovation, resulting in the development of cutting-edge products and technologies that have wide-
Companies also engage in community investment, offering financial support, grants, and
partnerships with non-profits to address economic challenges, such as funding education and
international trade, exporting their products to global markets, which stimulates economic growth
small or large, are expected to lead the way in creating a progressive CSR program that gives back
Benefits:
1. CRS initiatives strive to have a positive impact on the world through
2. Direct benefits to society, nature and the community in which a business operations.
4. Members of society may be more likely to choose to transact with companies that are
attempting to make a more conscious positive impact beyond the scope of its business.
Brand Recognition
Companies looking to get an edge and outperform the market, enacting CSR strategies tends to
positively impact how investors feel about an organization and how they view the worth of the
company.
Investor Relations
A company engages more in CSR, they are more likely to receive favorable brand recognition.
Employment Engagement
This type of activity is more likely to lead to lawsuits, litigation, or legal proceeds where the
Risk Mitigation
Works are more likely to stick around a company that they believe in. This in turn reduces
employee turnover, disgruntled workers, and the total cost of a new employee.
incorporating ethical and socially responsible practices into the design, development, and
technology solutions. Examples include sustainable design practices, ethical use of data, and
Administration (OSHA)
By:
Professor:
Occupational Safety and Health is an integral part of a workplace. In this accord, the
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act) of 1970 was established by US Congress and
signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 29, 1970. One of the agencies that OSH
act of 1970 created is the Occupational Safety and Health Administration whose primary mission
is to ensure the welfare of both working men and women. They inspect, outreach, educate, and
assist both labor and the management for bilateral benefits. The policies that were introduced by
OSH act of 1970 was later then established as well in the other states including the Philippines
which has Occupational Safety and Health Center. In computer engineering, OSHA’s standards
are more on electrical safety and machine guarding. Above all the agency’s efforts in assuring that
so far as possible, every working man and woman in the nation have safe and healthful working
conditions and to preserve human resources, it still has its greatest weakness, the absence of private
right of action or PRA which enables people to sue under the aforesaid law.
Objectives:
After going through this lesson, fellow learners are expected to:
general;
● find out the role of Occupational Safety and Health Administration in Computer
Engineering; and
● recognize the limitations of Occupational Safety and Health Act and the administration
itself.
Introduction
Workers are important persons of a state. They carry a pivotal role as they contribute to the growth
generally considered to positively affect a country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the higher it
gets the healthier is the labor market of the country. In this accord, it is essential to consider the
safety and health of the employees in their workplace. In this report, we will revolve around this
topic.
Safety is one of the most considered aspects in a work environment. There are various
organizations and agencies established for the workers’ welfare and rights and one of them is the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration or OSHA. According to the U.S. Department of
Labor, OSHA is an agency of the United States Department of Labor, created under the
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act) of 1970 by Congress and signed into law by
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) ensures the safe and healthful
working conditions for working men and women by setting and enforcing standards and by
providing training, outreach, education, and assistance. It is the policy of the agency to provide a
safe and healthful work environment for all permanent, temporary, and contract employees. OSHA
is not only committed to ensuring a safe and healthful work environment for others, but is equally
committed to the safety and health of its employees. The development, implementation, and
evaluation of this Safety and Health Management System (SHMS) shall be a cooperative effort
between labor and management in order to prevent injuries, illnesses, and death from work-related
causes and minimize losses of material resources (U.S. Department of Labor, 2020).
OSHA sets the safety standards in computer engineering. The aforementioned agency
addresses issues such as electrical safety, ergonomics, hazardous materials, and machine guarding
(U.S. Department of Labor, 2020). They also conduct inspections of computer engineering
workplaces to identify any potential hazards or violations of safety standards. Inspections can be
enforcement of standards. If OSHA finds violations of safety standards, they may issue citations
and penalties to ensure compliance. They can also require employers to correct safety hazards and
employers and employees on safe work practices in computer engineering. This helps raise
awareness about potential hazards and promotes a culture of safety in the industry. The agency
collaborates with employers, industry professionals, and trade associations to develop best
practices and guidelines for safe work environments in computer engineering. They also offer
proactively.
Department of Labor regarding Occupational Safety and Health that apply to computer
1. Electrical Safety (29 CFR 1910 Subpart S): This standard addresses the safe use of
electricity in the workplace, including requirements for electrical equipment, wiring, and
2. Machine Guarding (29 CFR 1910 Subpart O): This standard outlines requirements for
guarding machines and equipment to prevent amputations, injuries, and other accidents. It
3. Hazard Communication (29 CFR 1910.1200): Also known as the "HazCom" standard, this
regulation ensures employees are informed about and trained on the hazards of chemicals
used in the workplace. It requires chemical manufacturers and importers to provide safety
4. Ergonomics (29 CFR 1910 Subpart Ergonomics): Although there is no specific standard
requires the use of respiratory protective equipment, training on proper usage, and
for personal protective equipment (PPE) apply to computer engineering work whenever
hazards cannot be adequately controlled by other means. This includes the use of eye
Limitations of OSHA
The first and most fundamental weakness in the OSH Act’s enforcement regime is that it
does not provide a private right of action (PRA), the ability for a private individual to sue under
the law. OSHA itself is the only entity or party empowered to investigate or enforce potential
OSHA in Philippines
The OSHA version of the Philippines is the Occupational Safety and Health Center
(OSHC) which was established through Executive Order No. 307, signed by the late President
Corazon C. Aquino on November 4, 1987. The aforementioned is under the Department of Labor
implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of OSHC’s operations. As of 2023, the head of OSHC
The services of the OSHC cover the preventive aspects of occupational safety and health
in both public and private workplaces. As the authority on OSH, the OSHC fulfills its mission
through research, training, information dissemination, and technical services. The OSHC has a
staff of specialists in various fields of OSH and draws on national and foreign expertise when
needed.
References
BOOK (PUBLISHED)
Glickman, H. (1990). Occupational Safety and Health. In The World Book Encycopledia (1990th
ARTICLES
About OSHA: Occupational Safety and Health Administration. About OSHA | Occupational
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017, April 21). National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health Fact Sheet (2003-116). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2003-
116/default.html#:~:text=NIOSH%20is%20part%20of%20the,and%20Health%20Admin
istration%20(OSHA).
The Job Safety Law of 1970: Its passage was perilous. DOL. (n.d.).
https://www.dol.gov/general/aboutdol/history/osha
The OSHC story. Occupational Safety and Health Center. (n.d.). https://oshc.dole.gov.ph/about-
us/
Weaknesses in Osh Act enforcement mechanisms limit prevention of Bossware’s harms. Center
in-osh-act-enforcement-mechanisms-limit-prevention-of-bosswares-harms/
BOOKS (ONLINE)