ENGINEERING MATERIALS

AND ITS PROPERTIES

EPS 131- Chemistry for Engineers (TA)

By:
Abestado, Gia Kristia, N.

Professor:
Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph. D.
 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Engineering materials are fundamental components in the field of engineering, playing a critical

role in the design and construction of various structures and systems. These materials consist a

wide range of substances, each with its unique properties and characteristics, which make them

suitable for specific applications. Understanding the properties of engineering materials is essential

for engineers and designers to make informed decisions about material selection and to ensure the

desired performance, durability, and safety of their projects.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS:

I. Metals: Metals are among the most commonly used engineering materials. They

exhibit excellent strength, durability, and electrical conductivity. Common metals

include iron, steel, copper, aluminum and titanium. The metals are classified as:

(a) Ferrous Metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as cast iron,

wrought, and steel.

(b) Non-ferrous Metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main constituent,

such as copper, aluminum, brass, tin, zinc, etc.

II. Polymers: Polymers are organic compounds composed of long chain molecules made

up of repeating units, called monomers, which in Greek means “one part”. The word

polymer came from the Greek word for, meaning “many parts”. They are lightweight,

corrosion-resistant, and have a wide range of applications. Examples are plastic, rubber,

and synthetic fibers.

 III. Ceramics: Ceramics are inorganic materials known for their high temperature

resistance, electrical insulation, and hardness generally formed from blends of clay,

earthen matter, powders, and water. Ceramic household items are glass, tiles, bricks,

some kitchenware, and toilets

IV. Composites: Composites are materials made by combining two or more different

materials to achieve enhanced properties. A composite material is used to enhance the

properties of its base materials. It improves mono-material alternatives in a variety of

material performance features, especially when the individual components are used.

V. Semiconductors: Semiconductors are materials with electrical conductivity properties

between that of conductors, that are generally metals, and non-conductors or insulators.

They play a crucial role in the electronics industry and are the foundation of devices

like transistors and diodes.

There are factors that you must consider in selecting a material:

• Availability of the materials

• Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service

• The cost of the materials

PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Engineering materials have a variety of properties that determine their suitability for specific

applications. Some of the most important properties include:

• Mechanical Properties- The mechanical properties are those which are associated with

the ability of the material to resist mechanical forces and load. Mechanical properties

include the following:

1. Strength: It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces

without breaking or yielding. The internal resistance offered by a part to an

externally applied forces is called stress. Example of this are bridges, where they

need to ensure that the materials used can withstand the forces generated by

traffic loads, wind, and other environmental factors. In calculating the bending

and shear stresses in bridge beams is a common application.

2. Stiffness: It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The

modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness. Example includes the structural

beams and columns, where it must be made from materials with high stiffness to

support the loads placed on buildings and other structures.

3. Toughness: It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact

loads like hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is

heated. High-strength steel alloys are suitable for applications in the automotive

industry, construction, and machinery. They can absorb significant energy and
 deform without fracturing in the event of an impact, improving safety in vehicles

and structures.

4. Resilience: It is a property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and

impact loads. Rubber has an extreme high modulus of resilience.

5. Hardness: It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of

meanings. It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear,

scratching, deformation, and machinability. The hardness of a metal may be

determined by the following tests:

• Brinell hardness test

• Rockwell hardness test

• Vickers hardness test or Diamond pyramid

• Shore scleroscope

• Thermal Properties: Thermal properties of engineering materials are diverse and so

their uses in different applications. Thermal properties are those properties of material

which is related to its conductivity of heat. These are properties which are display by

material when heat is passed through it. Thermal properties of material refer to

characteristic behaviors of material under thermal load. Thermal conductivity, specific

heat, and coefficient of thermal expansion are essential for understanding how materials

behave under various temperature conditions.

 • Electrical Properties: Electrical properties are their ability to conduct electrical

current. Electrical conductivity, resistivity, and dielectric strength describe a material's

ability to conduct or insulate electricity, which is crucial in electrical and electronic

applications.

• Chemical Properties: Chemical properties related to changes in chemical composition

of material because it interacts with other substances. Chemical properties of engineering

materials are needed because most of materials when they come in contact with other

substances, they react to form new materials. It is a breakdown of material by chemical

reaction with its environment.

• Environmental Properties: These include properties related to a material's ability to

withstand exposure to environmental factors like moisture, UV radiation, and

weathering.

References:

https://madhavuniversity.edu.in/types-of-properties-of-engg-

materials.html?fbclid=IwAR0KARsYDJ96nLV2LGdD_xEyYaXQWpURMsapNZb63sbPeaTT-

Oks44SJ-JQ

https://sedyono.files.wordpress.com/2015/10/ch-02.pdf

https://www.electrical4u.com/chemical-properties-of-materials/
METALS AND NON-METALS

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Antiquando, Cedric Miguel

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D

Metals and Non-metals

Metals and Non-metals are different types of materials present around us and it is important

to know whether a particular element is a metal or non-metal.

Difference between Metals and Non-metals:

● The periodic table consists of elements that are metals, those that are nonmetals, and

elements with properties intermediate between the two groups (metalloids).

● Metals tend to be hard, metallic-looking solids, with high electrical and thermal

conductivity values and high melting and boiling points.

● Nonmetals tend to be softer, often colorful elements. They may be solids, liquids, or gases.

They have lower melting and boiling points than most metals and aren't usually good

conductors.

What are Metals?

Most elements are metals. This includes the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition

metals, lanthanides, and actinides. On the periodic table, metals are separated from nonmetals by

a zig-zag line stepping through carbon, phosphorus, selenium, iodine, and radon. These elements

and those to the right of them are nonmetals. Elements just to the left of the line may be

termed metalloids or semimetals and have properties intermediate between those of the metals and

nonmetals. The physical and chemical properties of the metals and nonmetals may be used to tell

them apart.
Properties of Metals

Physical Properties:

● Lustrous (shiny)

● Good conductors of heat and electricity

● High melting point

● High density (heavy for their size)

● Malleable (can be hammered)

● Ductile (can be drawn into wires)

● Usually solid at room temperature (an exception is mercury)

● Opaque as a thin sheet (can't see through metals)

● Metals are sonorous or make a bell-like sound when struck

Chemical Properties:

● Have 1-3 electrons in the outer shell of each metal atom and lose electrons readily

● Corrode easily (e.g., damaged by oxidation such as tarnish or rust)

● Lose electrons easily

● Form oxides that are basic

● Have lower electronegativities

● Are good reducing agents

What are Non-metals?

Non-metals, with the exception of hydrogen, are located on the right side of the periodic

table. Elements that are non-metals are hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, sulfur,

selenium, all of the halogens, and the noble gases.

Properties of Non-metals

Physical Properties:

● Not lustrous (dull appearance)

● Poor conductors of heat and electricity

● Nonductile solids

● Brittle solids

● May be solids, liquids or gases at room temperature

● Transparent as a thin sheet

● Nonmetals are not sonorous

Chemical Properties:

● Usually have 4-8 electrons in their outer shell

● Readily gain or share valence electrons

● Form oxides that are acidic

● Have higher electronegativities

 ● Are good oxidizing agents

The Metalloids

The distinction between metals and nonmetals is somewhat fuzzy. Elements with properties

of both metals and nonmetals are called semimetals or metalloids. A stair-step line roughly divides

metals from nonmetals on the periodic table. But, chemists recognize that naming one element a

"metal" and the one next to it a "metalloid" is a judgment call. In truth, most metals display the

properties of nonmetals under certain conditions, and nonmetals act like metals in some situations.

Hydrogen is a good example of an element that acts as a nonmetal some times, but as a metal other

times. Under normal conditions, hydrogen is a gas. As such, it acts like a nonmetal. But, under

high pressure it becomes a solid metal.

SOME IMPORTANCE OF METALS AND NON-METALS IN OUR DAILY LIFE

Metals:

● Due to their thermal and electrical conductivity, metals are use to make utensils, cooking

vessels, wires and appliances. For example, copper and aluminium are mainly used for

these purposes.

● Metal like iron is used in various tools, machinery, pipes, rods, sheets, doors, windows,

construction works like bridges, roads, buildings, etc.

 ● Aluminium is used as packaging and wrapping materials. It is also used in aircrafts and

automobiles, etc.

● Metals like gold, silver and platinum are used to make jewellery and other decorating items.

Non-metals:

● We breathe oxygen which is the basis of life of all living things including human beings.

● Non-metals like nitrogen and phosphorus are used in fertilisers for the better yield of plant.

Phosphorus is used in manufacturing of matchsticks and fireworks.

● Non-metal like chlorine is used in water purification process.

● Carbon, a non-metal, is used in most of the fuels.

Importance of Metals and Non-metals in Engineering.

Metallic materials can be considered the most important engineering materials; they are

used as biomaterials due to their excellent thermal conductivity and mechanical properties.

The properties of non-metals can make them preferable to metals in certain

applications. The lack of electrical conductivity mean that non-metals can be used as electrical

insulators and their low heat conduction means that they can be used as heat-resistant applications.

One common application involving the use of both metals and non-metals is

the construction of electronic devices, like smartphones or laptops. These devices require a delicate

balance between the strength of metals and the insulating properties of non-metals to function

effectively and safely.

References:

● https://www.thoughtco.com/metals-versus-nonmetals-608809

● https://byjus.com/question-answer/list-down-the-some-importance-of-metals-and-non-

metals-in-our-daily-life/

● https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-importance-of-metals-in-

engineering#:~:text=Ductility%2C%20excellent%20conductors%20of%20heat,of%20iro

n%20for%20reinforcement%20purposes.

● https://medcraveonline.com/ATROA/the-importance-of-metallic-materials-as-

biomaterials.html#:~:text=Metallic%20materials%20can%20be%20considered,thermal%

20conductivity%20and%20mechanical%20properties.

● https://www.twi-global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/types-of-non-metallic-

materials#:~:text=The%20properties%20of%20non%2Dmetals,as%20the%20handles%2

0of%20saucepans.
FERROUS ALLOYS

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Anuada, Nathan Roisse L.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D

What are Ferrous Alloys?

Ferrous alloys, in which iron is the principal constituent, include steel and pig iron (with a

carbon content of a few percent) and alloys of iron with other metals (such as stainless steel).

Ferrous alloys are known for their strength. Alloys are usually stronger than pure metals,

although they generally offer reduced electrical and thermal conductivity. The simplest ferrous

alloys are known as steels, and they consist of iron (Fe) alloyed with carbon (C) (about 0.1% to

1%, depending on the type). Adding a small amount of non-metallic carbon to iron trades its

great ductility for greater strength. Due to its very-high strength but still substantial toughness,

and its ability to be greatly altered by heat treatment, steel is one of the most useful and common

ferrous alloys in modern use. Their widespread use is accounted for by the following factors:

1. Iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the Earth’s crust.

2. Metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively economical

extraction, refining, alloying, and fabrication techniques.

3. Ferrous alloys are extremely versatile in that they may be tailored to have a wide

range of mechanical and physical properties.

The principal disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is their susceptibility to corrosion. By adding

chromium to steel, its resistance to corrosion can be enhanced, creating stainless steel, while

adding silicon will alter its electrical characteristics, producing silicon steel.
Types of Ferrous Alloys

Carbon Steel

Carbon steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, with carbon content typically ranging from 0.05% to
2.1%. It is widely used in construction, automotive, and machine-building due to its high
strength and low cost.

Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is an alloy of iron, chromium, and sometimes nickel, with at least 10.5%
chromium content. It is known for its high corrosion resistance and is widely used in the food
processing, medical, and aerospace industries.

Alloy Steel
Alloy steel is an umbrella term for a wide range of ferrous alloys that contain other elements
such as manganese, chromium, nickel, and molybdenum. These alloys are designed to provide
specific properties, such as high strength, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance, and are used
in various applications, such as automotive and aerospace.

Cast Iron
Cast iron is an alloy of iron, carbon, and silicon, with carbon content typically ranging from
2.1% to 4%. It is known for its high hardness and excellent castability and is used in applications
such as pipes, engine blocks, and cookware.

Wrought Iron
Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon content, typically less than 0.1%. It is
known for its high ductility and is used in fencing, gates, and ornamental ironwork applications.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Ferrous Alloys

Ferrous alloys, predominantly composed of iron, offer a range of advantages and disadvantages.

On the positive side, these alloys are renowned for their strength and durability, making them

ideal for applications in construction, heavy machinery, and structural components. Some ferrous

alloys, like stainless steel, boast excellent corrosion resistance due to elements like chromium,

making them suitable for use in corrosive environments. Their versatility is another key

advantage, as they find applications in various industries, including automotive, construction,

and manufacturing. Ferrous alloys often exhibit magnetic properties, making them essential for

applications in electric motors and magnetic storage media. Moreover, they are cost-effective due

to the abundance and affordability of iron, and they are highly recyclable, contributing to

sustainability efforts. Additionally, certain ferrous alloys can withstand high temperatures,

making them essential for applications in high-temperature environments.

However, ferrous alloys also come with their set of drawbacks. Corrosion susceptibility is a

common issue, especially in the absence of corrosion-resistant coatings or proper maintenance.

Their high density and weight can be a disadvantage in industries where lightweight materials

are critical, such as aerospace and automotive. Some ferrous alloys may become brittle under

specific conditions, which limits their use in applications requiring ductility and toughness. They

have lower electrical conductivity compared to non-ferrous metals like copper, which may not be

suitable for electrical and electronic applications. Surface treatment is often necessary to protect

ferrous alloys from corrosion and enhance their appearance. Furthermore, the extraction and

production of iron and steel can have a significant environmental impact, contributing to

greenhouse gas emissions and resource consumption. Lastly, their magnetic properties, while
advantageous in some applications, can cause interference in situations where magnetism is

undesirable. In conclusion, the choice between ferrous and non-ferrous alloys depends on the

specific requirements of the intended application, considering both the advantages and

disadvantages of ferrous alloys.

Summary of Ferrous Alloys

Ferrous alloys, primarily consisting of iron and various alloying elements, are valued for their

strength, durability, and versatility. They find extensive use in construction, heavy machinery,

and structural applications due to their high strength and load-bearing capabilities. Some ferrous

alloys, like stainless steel, exhibit excellent corrosion resistance, making them suitable for harsh

environments. Their magnetic properties make them essential in applications such as electric

motors and magnetic storage media. Although ferrous alloys have the advantage of

cost-effectiveness and recyclability, they also face challenges, including corrosion susceptibility,

high density, brittleness under certain conditions, lower electrical conductivity, and

environmental concerns related to their production. The choice of ferrous alloys versus

non-ferrous alternatives depends on specific application requirements and the need to balance

their advantages and disadvantages.

Why are Ferrous Alloys Important in Materials Engineering?

Ferrous alloys play a crucial role in materials engineering due to their unique properties. They
are widely chosen in a variety of applications because they offer:

● High strength and durability: Ferrous alloys, notably steels, are incredibly strong and
resistant to wear, making them excellent for constructing buildings, bridges, and other
structures that need to withstand heavy loads.
● Excellent heat resistance: Some types of ferrous alloys, such as stainless steel, possess
remarkable resistance to heat and can retain their strength at high temperatures.
● Cost-effectiveness: Ferrous alloys are generally less expensive to produce than many
other types of materials. This makes them a cost-effective choice for a wide range of
applications.
● Good machinability: Many ferrous alloys can be easily machined, which means they can
be cut, drilled and shaped with ease.
● A wide range of forms and types: The versatility in compositions of ferrous alloys means
that they can be specifically designed to suit certain applications.
References:

● https://www.nuclear-power.com/nuclear-engineering/metals-what-are-metals/alloys-comp

osition-properties-of-metal-alloys/ferrous-alloys-ferrous-metals/

● https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/engineering/materials-engineering/ferrous-a

lloys/

● https://www.azonano.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=6409
ALUMUNIM ALLOY

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Arado, Hero S

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D

What is an Aluminum Alloy?

Aluminum Alloys

An aluminum alloy is a mixture of aluminum and other elements, such as copper, magnesium,

silicon, zinc, and manganese. The addition of these elements to aluminum improves its strength,

durability, corrosion resistance, and other properties.

Importance of Aluminum Alloy in Engineering

Aluminum and its alloys are also widely used in the production of electronic and microelectronic

components, in particular, capacitors. It is also used to produce antennae, including TV antennae.

This metal is used in radar construction. In some countries even pylons for power lines are made

of aluminum.

Components of Aluminum Alloy:

1. Copper: Provides substantial increases in strength and facilitates precipitation

hardening.

2. Magnesium: Magnesium is also an alloying element that improves the mechanical

properties of aluminum, including its strength, corrosion resistance, and weldability. It
also reduces the specific gravity of aluminum, making it ideal for applications where
weight reduction is important.

3. Manganese: Manganese is an alloying element that improves the mechanical

properties of aluminum, including its strength, toughness, and corrosion
resistance. It also refines the grain structure of aluminum, which further improves
its strength and ductility.
 4. Silicon: Improves castability and makes the metal alloy more fluid without
breaking at high temperature.

5. Zinc: Zinc is a good alloying element for aluminum because it increases its
strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance. It also improves its machinability.

Types of Aluminum Alloy:

1. Casting alloys are designed to be cast into molds, and they are typically less strong than

wrought alloys but are easier to cast. Casting alloys are commonly used in applications

such as automotive parts, engine blocks, and plumbing fixtures.

2. Wrought alloys are designed to be processed into various shapes, such as sheets, plates,

foils, and extrusions. Wrought alloys are generally stronger than casting alloys and are

more versatile in their applications. Wrought alloys are commonly used in applications

such as aircraft components, building materials, and consumer products.

3. Heat-treatable alloys can be strengthened by heating them to a high temperature and

then quenching them rapidly. Heat-treatable alloys are typically stronger than non-heat-

treatable alloys, but they are also more difficult to work with. Heat-treatable alloys are

commonly used in applications where high strength is required, such as aircraft

components and automotive parts.

4. Non-heat-treatable alloys cannot be strengthened by heat treatment. They are typically

less strong than heat-treatable alloys, but they are also easier to work with. Non-heat-
 treatable alloys are commonly used in applications where formability and machinability

are important, such as beverage cans and food packaging.

Applications in Engineering

• Aerospace

Aluminum alloys are used extensively in aircraft construction, including airframes, wings,

and engines. This is because aluminum alloys are lightweight and strong, which helps to

improve fuel efficiency and performance.

• Automotive

Aluminum alloys are also used extensively in automobile construction, including engine

blocks, cylinder heads, body panels, and wheels. This is because aluminum alloys can help to

reduce the weight of vehicles, which improves fuel efficiency and performance.

• Construction

Application of Aluminum alloys are used in construction because they are strong,

lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and formable. This makes them ideal for a wide range of

applications, such as structural beams, roofing, cladding, window frames, and HVAC systems.
 • Electrical and electronics

Aluminum alloys are used in electrical and electronics applications because they are good

conductors of electricity, lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and workable. This makes them

ideal for a wide range of applications, such as electrical conductors, heat sinks, capacitors, and

enclosures.

• Other engineering applications

Aluminum alloys are also used in a variety of other engineering applications, such as

machinery, tools, and heat exchangers. Aluminum alloys are lightweight, strong, and

durable, making them ideal for these applications.

Advantages of Aluminum alloy:

1. Lightweight: Aluminum alloys are some of the lightest materials available, making them

ideal for applications where weight reduction is important.

2. Strong: Aluminum alloys are very strong for their weight, making them ideal for

applications where high strength is required.

3. Durable: Aluminum alloys are resistant to corrosion and wear, making them ideal for

applications where durability is important.

4. Formable: Aluminum alloys are relatively ductile and formable, meaning they can be

easily shaped into complex shapes.

5. Conductive: Aluminum alloys are good conductors of heat and electricity, making them

ideal for applications where these properties are required.

6. Recyclable: Aluminum alloys are highly recyclable, making them an environmentally

friendly material.
References

Aluminium applications – Electrical engineering. (2023, October 26). Aluminium Leader.

Retrieved October 26, 2023, from
https://www.aluminiumleader.com/application/electrical_engineering/

Xometry. (2023, October 26). What is aluminum alloy? Retrieved October 26, 2023,
from https://www.xometry.com/resources/materials/what-is-aluminum-alloy/

The Aluminum Association. (2023, October 29). Aluminum alloys. Retrieved from
https://www.aluminum.org/

American Society for Metals International. (2023, October 29). Aluminum alloys.
Retrieved from https://www.asminternational.org/

Davis, J. R. (2001). Aluminum and aluminum alloys. ASM International.

https://www.amazon.com/Aluminum-Alloys-Specialty-Handbook-
06610G/dp/087170496X

Hatch, J. E. (1984). Aluminum: Properties and physical metallurgy. American Society for
Metals. https://kahofosuv.files.wordpress.com/2018/10/22210516.pdf

Sheckelton, J. T., & Werley, G. L. (2007). Aluminum alloys for transportation

applications. ASM International.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352377087_Applications_of_Aluminum_Alloys
_in_Rail_Transportation

Kainer, K. U., Ensinger, W., & Gebhardt, U. (2013). Recycling of aluminum and its
alloys. Springer Science & Business Media.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309672086_Recycling_Aluminum_Alloys

Ghosh, A., & Chakraborty, J. (2006). Aluminum alloys for the aerospace industry. CRC
Press. https://www.industrialmetalsupply.com/blog/aerospace-aluminum
 COPPER ALLOYS

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Asdillo, Michelle A.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D

Copper Alloys

To improve or introduce specific characteristics, copper is frequently alloyed with various

other elements, resulting in the creation of copper alloys. Copper alloys belong to the family of

metal alloys with copper as their principal component, and their main alloying elements typically

include zinc (Zn), tin (Sn), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), and nickel (Ni). These alloys are

meticulously engineered to enhance particular properties, such as bolstering strength, increasing

resistance to corrosion, or optimizing electrical conductivity.

Common types of Copper Alloys

Copper alloys are complex combinations of metal consisting of a base made of copper and

alloy components in different proportions that give the alloy the necessary properties. Depending

on which elements are added to the copper, the name of the alloy will also change.

1. Brass – a copper-zinc alloy, typically contains less than 15% zinc to maintain corrosion

resistance. Brass is known for its strength, machinability, electrical conductivity, and

corrosion resistance.

2. Bronze – a copper alloy primarily combined with tin, aluminum, or occasionally silicon,

is renowned for its strength, ductility, thermal conduction, hardness, corrosion resistance,

and low friction.

3. Copper-nickel alloys – also known as “cupronickel,” are materials primarily made up of

copper and nickel. They are renowned for their strong resistance to corrosion, particularly

in marine settings, and their good electrical conductivity.

 4. Beryllium Copper – also known as ‘Spring Copper’, is a copper alloy with 0.5-3%

beryllium. This alloy is known for its exceptional strength, hardness, and electrical

conductivity, along with resistance to wear and fatigue.

Application of Copper Alloys in Engineering

Copper alloys have a range of essential applications in engineering. These alloys, including

copper-nickel (Cu-Ni), copper-silver (Cu-Ag) , and copper-zinc (Cu-Zn), are widely utilized in

power cables and conductors due to their superior electrical conductivity. It offered reduced

electrical resistance in comparison to alternative materials, leading to decreased energy losses and

heightened efficiency in the transmission and distribution of electrical power.

When it comes to creating reliable connections between various electrical components,

electrical connectors are important. Copper alloys, like bronze and brass, are commonly employed

in connectors due to their superior mechanical toughness and electrical conductivity. Bronze

connectors, made from copper and tin, find wide application in high-current scenarios where

durability and resistance to wear are critical. Brass connectors, on the other hand, made of copper

and zinc, are recommended for low-current applications because of their exceptional electrical

conductivity. The exact requirements of the electrical system, including elements like current

capacity, environmental considerations, and anticipated longevity, will determine whether bronze

or brass connections are used.

Moreover, because of their superior electrical and thermal conductivity, copper alloys are

the material of choice for circuit boards and printed circuit boards (PCBs). Considering copper has

such good electrical performance, it is commonly utilized as the basis material for printed circuit

boards. To create the circuitry, it is frequently laminated over a non-conductive substrate like
fiberglass. Electronic components are supported by copper-clad laminates, which guarantee

effective heat dissipation and signal transmission. Furthermore, copper alloys that have better

resistance to corrosion, including copper-nickel-zinc alloys, are being used in PCBs for

applications that are exposed to harsh environments (“Copper alloys: The Versatile Wonders of

Metal Engineering”, 2023).

Advantages of Copper Alloys

Due to their special properties, copper alloys have become popular in many different

industries, especially in the field of engineering. These alloys offer multiple advantages and are

essential in many different kinds of applications.

1. Strength – in its pure form, copper is malleable, which makes it easy to form into wires or

beat into thin sheets for cladding. The addition of tin, nickel, and other metals helps to

create copper alloys that are stronger and more durable.

2. Excellent Electrical and Thermal Conductivity – when combined with other elements

to form copper alloys, these qualities are not only preserved but frequently elevated. One

notable example is phosphor bronze, an alloy of copper, tin, and phosphorus, which is

extensively utilized in electrical contacts and connectors because of its exceptional

electrical conductivity. Furthermore, copper-nickel alloys like cupronickel exhibit

impressive thermal conductivity and are widely applied in heat exchangers and cooling

systems.

3. Resistance to Corrosion – copper alloys are well-known for their impressive corrosion

resistance. This is due to copper’s natural formation of a protective oxide layer when

exposed to air, which acts as a barrier against corrosion. The addition of metals like zinc,

nickel, and tin further improves the corrosion resistance of copper alloys.
 4. Machinability and Formability – one of the standout features of copper alloys is their

outstanding machinability and formability. This inherent quality simplifies the

manufacturing and fabrication processes, making them highly desirable materials. These

materials are favored for their ease of being shaped, molded, and machined, which

simplifies the production of detailed components.

Importance of Copper Alloys in Engineering

Copper alloys are incredibly relevant to engineering because of their unique variety of

characteristics. First, copper alloys are crucial in electrical and electronic engineering because of

their remarkable electrical conductivity, which allows for effective electrical current flow and

lowers power losses. Second, their high thermal conductivity is useful in cooling systems and heat

exchangers, among other applications where effective heat transfer or dissipation is needed.

Additionally, a lot of copper alloys have exceptional resistance to corrosion, which makes them

perfect for use in environments prone to moisture and corrosive elements. Lastly, their formability

and ease of machining make manufacturing complex parts simpler, while their strength and

endurance make them dependable options for mechanical components.

Conclusion

In conclusion, copper alloys are extremely important to the engineering industry, and their

importance cannot be overstated. These alloys, which are created by combining copper with a

variety of other elements, have an extensive variety of outstanding features that cater to the needs

of different applications. Their exceptional electrical conductivity ensures minimal power losses

and heightened efficiency in electrical systems. When it comes to establishing reliable connections
between electrical components, copper alloys like bronze and brass shine due to their mechanical

toughness and excellent electrical conductivity.

Moreover, copper alloys provide a lot of advantages. They provide enhanced corrosion

resistance, electrical and thermal conductivity, and strength. Their formability and machinability

make it easier to manufacture complex components because of their distinctive characteristics.

Copper alloys have become more common across many different kinds of industries. In the field

of engineering, copper alloys are widely recognized as useful and essential materials that have

advanced mechanical components, electrical systems, and other fields. Their continuing

significance in the constantly evolving area of modern engineering is demonstrated by their

ongoing relevance.
References

5 Main Advantages and Features of Copper Alloys. (2023, June 19). Retrieved from
https://www.derfang.com.tw/article_d.php?lang=en&tb=2&id=194

Copper Alloys – Characteristics and Uses. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.nuclear-

power.com/nuclear-engineering/metals-what-are-metals/alloys-composition-properties-of-metal-
alloys/copper-alloys/.

Copper Alloys: Defining the different series and their machinability. (n.d). Retrieved from
https://partsbadger.com/copper/#:~:text=The%20most%20common%20alloying%20element,and
%20gunmetal%20among%20many%20others.

Copper alloys: The versatile wonders of metal engineering.(2023, September 17). Retrieved from
https://fastercapital.com/content/Copper-alloys--The-versatile-wonders-of-metal-
engineering.html

Copper Alloys Metallurgy Dummies. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.metallurgyfordummies

.com/copper-alloys.html

Innovations: Introduction to Copper: Applications. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.copper.org/publications/newsletters/innovations/2001/08/intro_to_copper.html#:~:t
ext=Copper%20alloys%20are%20used%20for,%2C%20hydraulic%20tubing%2C%20and%20fa
steners.

What Are Copper Alloys Definition: Copper Alloys Properties. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.prosaicsteel.com/blogs/what-are-copper-alloys-definition.html

What Are Some of the Advantages of Copper Alloys? (2019, October 29). Retrieved from
https://www.eaglealloys.com/what-are-some-of-the-advantages-of-copper-alloys/
TITANIUM ALLOY

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Atay, Lour Jee P.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D

What is Titanium?

Titanium (Ti), chemical element, a silvery gray metal of Group 4 (IVb) of the periodic

table. Titanium is a lightweight, high-strength, low-corrosion structural metal and is used

in alloy form for parts in high-speed aircraft. A compound of titanium oxygen was discovered

(1791) by the English chemist and mineralogist William Gregor and independently rediscovered

(1795) and named by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth.

What is the importance of titanium in the field of engineering?

High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: Titanium is as strong as steel but only 45% of the weight,

making it extremely lightweight yet strong. This property is particularly valuable in aerospace

and automotive industries, where reducing weight without compromising strength is crucial.

Corrosion Resistance: Titanium is highly resistant to corrosion, even in harsh environments. This

property makes it invaluable for applications in chemical processing, marine engineering, and

medical implants, where materials are exposed to corrosive substances.

Biocompatibility: Titanium is biocompatible, meaning it can coexist with living tissues without

causing harmful reactions. This property makes it ideal for medical implants, such as dental

implants, joint replacements, and bone plates.

High Melting Point: Titanium has a high melting point, making it suitable for high-temperature

applications, including aircraft engines, gas turbines, and other components in aerospace and

industrial settings.
Excellent Ductility: Titanium is highly ductile, meaning it can be easily shaped and formed

without losing its strength. This property allows engineers to create complex shapes and structures

for various applications.

Good Fatigue Resistance: Titanium exhibits excellent fatigue resistance, making it suitable for

applications subjected to repeated stress cycles, such as aircraft components and sports equipment.

High Performance in Extreme Environments: Titanium's combination of high strength, low

weight, and corrosion resistance makes it ideal for applications in extreme environments, including

deep-sea exploration, space exploration, and military equipment.

Overall, titanium's unique combination of properties makes it a valuable material in various

engineering fields, enabling the development of lightweight, durable, and high-performance

products for numerous applications.

What is alloy?

An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal, that has

been combined with the aim of enhancing its properties. Alloys are created to achieve specific

desirable characteristics, such as increased strength, hardness, durability, or resistance to

corrosion.

What is titanium alloy?

Titanium alloys are alloys that contain a mixture of titanium and other chemical elements,

typically aluminum, vanadium, iron, or other metals. These alloys are created to enhance the

properties of pure titanium, making it more suitable for specific applications. Titanium alloys are
known for their excellent strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and high temperature

stability, making them valuable in various industries, particularly aerospace, medical, and

automotive engineering.

Example of titanium alloys:

Titanium-Aluminum Alloys: These alloys are lightweight and have excellent corrosion

resistance, making them suitable for aerospace applications, such as aircraft components and

engine parts.

Titanium-Vanadium Alloys: Titanium alloys containing vanadium have high strength,

toughness, and heat resistance. They find applications in jet engines, airframes, and other high-

performance components.

Titanium-Iron Alloys: These alloys have high strength, good corrosion resistance, and are

relatively low in cost compared to other titanium alloys. They are used in industrial equipment,

chemical processing, and marine applications.

Types of Titanium Alloy

Ti-6Al-4V (Grade 5): This is the most widely used titanium alloy. It consists of 90% titanium,

6% aluminum, and 4% vanadium. Ti-6Al-4V offers excellent strength, corrosion resistance, and

weldability, making it suitable for aerospace, medical implants, and marine applications.
Ti-3Al-2.5V (Grade 9): Grade 9 titanium alloy consists of 90% titanium, 3% aluminum, and 2.5%

vanadium. It offers good strength, corrosion resistance, and formability. Grade 9 is commonly

used in bicycle frames, exhaust systems, and marine applications.

Where to find titanium

In its natural state, titanium is always found bonded with other elements, usually within

igneous rocks and sediments derived from them.

The most commonly mined materials containing titanium are ilmenite (an iron-titanium

oxide, FeTiO3) and rutile (a titanium dioxide, TiO2).

Ilmenite is most abundant in China, whereas Australia has the highest global proportion of

rutile, about 40% according to Geoscience Australia. It’s found mostly on the east, west and

southern coastlines of Australia.

Both materials are generally extracted from sands, after which the titanium is separated

from the other minerals.

Safe in the body

Titanium is considered the most biocompatible metal – not harmful or toxic to living tissue

– due to its resistance to corrosion from bodily fluids. This ability to withstand the harsh bodily

environment is a result of the protective oxide film that forms naturally in the presence of oxygen.

Its ability to physically bond with bone also gives titanium an advantage over other

materials that require the use of an adhesive to remain attached. Titanium implants last longer, and
much larger forces are required to break the bonds that join them to the body compared with their

alternatives.

Titanium alloys commonly used in load-bearing implants are significantly less stiff – and

closer in performance to human bone – than stainless steel or cobalt-based alloys.

REFERENCES

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium_alloys

https://theconversation.com/titanium-is-the-perfect-metal-to-make-replacement-human-

body-parts-115361

https://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/ti.htm
Thermoplastic Polymers

EPS 131-Chemistry for Engineers (TA)

BY:

Ashram T. Bali-ug

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D

Introduction

Thermoplastic polymers are a class of materials that have found widespread use in various industries due to

their unique combination of properties, versatility, and recyclability. This report will delve into the

characteristics, applications, and environmental impact of thermoplastic polymers.

Characteristics of Thermoplastic Polymers

Molecular Structure

Thermoplastic polymers are long-chain molecules composed of repeating units called monomers. Unlike

thermosetting polymers, which undergo permanent chemical cross-linking upon curing, thermoplastics have a

linear or branched molecular structure. This allows them to be melted and reformed multiple times without

significant degradation.

Melting Behavior

One of the defining characteristics of thermoplastics is their ability to soften and flow when exposed to heat and

then harden upon cooling. This behavior is reversible, making thermoplastics recyclable. The melting and

solidification temperature varies among different thermoplastic materials.

Versatility

Thermoplastic polymers exhibit a wide range of properties, depending on the specific polymer and its

processing conditions. They can be designed to be stiff and rigid (e.g., polyvinyl chloride), flexible and

elastomeric (e.g., polyethylene), or even conductive (e.g., polyaniline). This versatility makes them suitable for

a broad spectrum of applications.

Thermoplastic polymers are a type of polymer that can be melted and reshaped multiple times without

undergoing any significant chemical change. They are widely used in various industries due to their versatility

and ease of processing. Here are some examples of common thermoplastic polymers:

1. Polyethylene (PE): Polyethylene is one of the most commonly used thermoplastics. It comes in various

forms, including low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). LDPE is

often used for plastic bags and flexible packaging, while HDPE is used for items like bottles, pipes, and

containers.

2. Polypropylene (PP): Polypropylene is known for its toughness and resistance to heat. It's used in a wide

range of applications, including packaging materials, automotive parts, medical devices, and household

items.

3. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): PVC is a versatile thermoplastic that can be rigid or flexible. It is used for

pipes, cable insulation, vinyl flooring, and a variety of other construction and industrial applications.

4. Polystyrene (PS): Polystyrene is lightweight and can be transparent or colored. It is used for items like

disposable cutlery, packaging materials, and insulation.

5. Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET): PET is commonly used for beverage bottles, food containers, and

synthetic fibers. It has excellent clarity and resistance to impact.

6. Polyurethane (PU): Polyurethane is a flexible thermoplastic used in foam form for cushioning and

insulation or in solid form for various applications, including car parts, footwear, and coatings.

7. Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS): ABS is a tough and impact-resistant thermoplastic commonly

used for consumer products like LEGO bricks, automotive parts, and electronic enclosures.

8. Polycarbonate (PC): Polycarbonate is known for its high impact resistance and optical clarity. It is used

for applications like eyeglass lenses, automotive components, and CDs/DVDs.

9. Nylon (Polyamide): Nylon is a strong and durable thermoplastic used in applications such as textiles,

engineering plastics, and various mechanical parts.

 10. Polyethylene Chlorosulfonated (Hypalon): Hypalon is a thermoplastic elastomer known for its

resistance to chemicals, UV radiation, and extreme temperatures. It's used for applications like industrial

belts and roofing.

These are just a few examples of thermoplastic polymers, and there are many more with various properties and

applications. The ability to be melted and reshaped makes them versatile materials in a wide range of industries,

from packaging and consumer goods to automotive, construction, and aerospace.

Applications of Thermoplastic Polymers

Packaging

Thermoplastics are extensively used in packaging materials. Polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and

polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are commonly employed for manufacturing plastic bags, bottles, and

containers. Their lightweight and barrier properties contribute to the preservation and protection of various

goods.

Automotive Industry

The automotive sector benefits from thermoplastic materials due to their lightweight nature, corrosion

resistance, and moldability. Polypropylene, for instance, is widely used in the production of interior

components, while acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) is employed for various exterior parts.

Medical Devices

Thermoplastic polymers are critical in the production of medical devices and equipment. Polycarbonate and

polyurethane are used in the manufacturing of transparent, impact-resistant medical equipment, while polyvinyl

chloride (PVC) is used for tubing and containers due to its flexibility and chemical resistance.
Construction

In the construction industry, thermoplastics like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and high-density polyethylene

(HDPE) are used for pipes, cable insulation, and roofing materials. These polymers are valued for their

durability, ease of installation, and resistance to environmental factors.

Electronics

Thermoplastic polymers play a crucial role in the electronics industry. Polymers like polyethylene,

polypropylene, and polyethylene terephthalate are used for insulation, encapsulation, and housing of electronic

components due to their electrical insulating properties and lightweight nature.

Consumer Goods

Thermoplastics are also prevalent in the manufacturing of consumer goods. Polystyrene (PS) is used in the

production of disposable cutlery and packaging materials. Additionally, thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs) are

employed in products such as footwear, toys, and kitchen appliances due to their flexibility and resilience.

Environmental Impact of Thermoplastic Polymers

Recyclability

One of the key environmental advantages of thermoplastic polymers is their recyclability. They can be melted,

reprocessed, and reused without significant degradation of their properties. This reduces the demand for new

virgin materials and lessens the environmental impact of plastic waste.

Energy Consumption

The production of thermoplastic polymers can be energy-intensive, particularly in the petrochemical industry.

Efforts are being made to develop more sustainable production methods and to use renewable feedstocks to

reduce the energy footprint. Additionally, energy-efficient processing techniques are being employed to

minimize the energy requirements during polymer shaping and molding.

Biodegradability

While thermoplastic polymers are not inherently biodegradable, research is ongoing to develop biodegradable

thermoplastics that can break down in a natural environment. This would mitigate the long-term environmental

impact associated with plastic waste.

Waste Management

Effective waste management systems, including recycling and proper disposal, are essential for mitigating the

environmental impact of thermoplastic polymers. Improved recycling infrastructure, public awareness, and

regulations can ensure that thermoplastic waste is managed responsibly and sustainably.

Conclusion

Thermoplastic polymers are versatile materials that find applications across various industries. Their

recyclability and adaptability make them environmentally advantageous, but challenges remain in reducing the

energy intensity of their production, improving waste management, and developing biodegradable alternatives.

As technology advances and sustainability concerns grow, thermoplastics will continue to evolve, shaping the

way we interact with the world around us.

REFERENCES

ScienceDirect. (n.d.). Thermoplastics. ScienceDirect.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/thermoplastics

PlasticsEurope. (n.d.). Thermoplastics. PlasticsEurope.

https://plasticseurope.org/plastics-explained/a-large-family/thermoplastics/

Sciencing. (n.d.). What Is a Thermoplastic Polymer? Sciencing.

https://sciencing.com/thermoplastic-polymer-5552849.html

British Plastics Federation. (n.d.). Polymer - Thermoplastics. Plastipedia.

https://www.bpf.co.uk/plastipedia/polymers/polymer-thermoplastics.aspx

Vedantu. (n.d.). Thermoplastic Polymers. Vedantu.

https://www.vedantu.com/chemistry/thermoplastic-polymers
Thermosetting Polymers

EPS 131-Chemistry for Engineering (TA)

By:

Balido,Kyla S.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D

 THERMOSETTING POLYMERS

Epoxy resin Polyester resin polyurethane

What is a Thermosetting Polymer?

In materials science, a thermosetting polymer, often called a thermoset, is a polymer that is

obtained by irreversibly hardening ("curing") a soft solid or viscous liquid prepolymer (resin).

Curing is induced by heat or suitable radiation and may be promoted by high pressure or mixing

with a catalyst. Heat is not necessarily applied externally, and is often generated by the reaction

of the resin with a curing agent (catalyst, hardener). Curing results in chemical reactions that

create extensive cross-linking between polymer chains to produce an infusible and insoluble

polymer network. Process such as compresson, moulding, pultrusion, hand lay-up and filament

winding depend on thermosetting behavior. Some of the common thermosets include epoxy,

polyimide, and phenolic, many of which are significant in composites.

Thermosetting Structure

The starting material for making thermosets is usually malleable or liquid prior to curing, and is

often designed to be molded into the final shape. It may also be used as an adhesive. Once

hardened, a thermoset cannot be melted for reshaping, in contrast to thermoplastic polymers

which are commonly produced and distributed in the form of pellets, and shaped into the final

product form by melting, pressing, or injection molding.

What is Crosslinking (curing)?

It is often the case that all kinds of thermosets have the tendency to connect to one another. Such

a process of forming chemical links across different thermosetting molecules is called

crosslinking (or curing). Upon curing, formed crosslinks not only confine the polymer molecules

from moving but also the atoms inside those molecules are impeded to a greater degree than

intermolecular attractions.

Another way of observing the behavioural difference between thermosets and thermoplastics is

via their molecular weight. Thermosets stand out in how their molecular weight drastically

increases upon curing. When crosslinking occurs between two thermosets, a polymer network is
formed of molecular weight almost double the weight when the two were separate. As the

number of linked molecules increases, the molecular weight continues to rise, exceeding that of

thermoplastics. This drastic increase in molecular weight causes major changes in material

properties, such as an increased melting point. With a continuous increase in molecular weight

due to crosslinking, the melting point can rise and reach a point that exceeds the decomposition

point. In that case, a thermoset polymer would have a very high molecular weight that it would

decompose before it can melt, which defines why thermoset processing is irreversible

Properties of Thermosetting

Thermosets generally yield higher chemical and heat resistance, as well as a stronger structure

that does not deform easily.

Here is a list showing the features and properties of thermoset and the effect of crosslinking as an

underlying factor in diverting those materials from one another.

•Molecular structure: Network polymers: high level of crosslinking with strong chemical

molecular bonds

•Melting Point: Melting point higher than the degradation temperature

• Mechanical:Inelastic and brittle. Strong and rigid. Strength comes from crosslinking

• Polymerisation: Polycondensation polymerisation: polymerised during processing

•Microstructure: Comprised of thermosetting resin and reinforcing fibre in its solid state

•Size: Size is expressed by crosslink density

•Chemical resistance: Heat and chemical resistant

•Solubility: Do not dissolve in organic solvents

Types and Application

Application/process uses and methods for thermosets include protective coating, seamless

flooring, civil engineering construction grouts for jointing and injection, mortars, foundry sands,

adhesives, sealants, castings, potting, electrical insulation, encapsulation, 3D printing, solid

foams, wet lay-up laminating, pultrusion, gelcoats, filament winding, prepregs, and molding.

Some common uses for thermoset plastics across various industries and sectors include gas and

water pipelines, automotive parts, medical equipment, construction machinery parts, signage,

storage boxes, electrical plugs and casings, kitchen appliances and toys

Thermosetting processing

Thermosetting resins are processed in their liquid form under heat. The curing process involves

adding curing agents, inhibitors, hardeners or plasticisers to the resin and reinforcement or fillers,

depending on the required outcome.

The most commonly used thermosetting resins include:

•Epoxy •Silicone

•Polyurethane •Polyester

•Polyamide •Phenolic
Types of thermosetting polymers and their applications
Thermosets are used to create hard and, protective coatings, strong fibers, and even things
like dinnerware. Below are some type of thermosets and their applications.
THERMOSETS PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS
Epoxy resin Hard material that is brittle without extra
reinforcement. Used for adhesives and
bonding of materials
Melamine Formaldehyde Hard stiff and strong, with decent chemical
and water resistance, used for work surface
laminates, tableware and electrical insulation
Polyester resin Hard, stiff and brittle when unlaminated.
Used for encapsulation, bonding and casting
Urea Formaldehyde Hard, stiff, strong and brittle used primarily
in electrical devices due to its good electrical
insulation properties
Polyurethane Hard, strong and durable material used in
paint, insulating foam, shoes, car parts,
adhesives and sealants
Phenol Formaldehyde Resin(PF) Strong, heat and electrical-resistant material
used in electrical items, sockets and plugs, car
parts, cookware and precision-made industrial
parts

Importance of Thermosets
Due to Thermosets having unique properties, they are highly useful for some of the daily

requirements. The uses of the Thermosetting Polymers are as follows.

•They are used for manufacturing permanent parts in a wide array of industries.Thermosets are

used for producing electrical goods as well as components such as panels and insulators.
•Thermosets are used for manufacturing construction equipment panels.Since they tend to be

heat resistant, Thermosets are used for manufacturing heat shields.In automobiles, Thermosets

are utilised for producing brake pistons.

•Thermosets are also used for various agricultural equipments that includes motors and

feeding troughs.

Reference

[what is thermosetting polymer]IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold
Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "thermosetting polymer".
doi:10.1351/goldbook.TT07168

[properties of thermosetting]
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benefits/%23:~:text%3DSome%2520common%2520uses%2520for%2520thermoset,casings%252C%252
0kitchen%2520appliances%2520and%2520toys.&sa=U&ved=2ahUKEwiiq9zC8puCAxWoZfUHHQYxBPEQ
FnoECBAQBQ&usg=AOvVaw0W0ofL_-Oxd_ogi8SzjRGP

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polymers
[structure image]
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polymers%2F&psig=AOvVaw2NRMeFoiBBYHm5C9QteWP4&ust=1699068178965000&source=images&c
d=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBAQjRxqFwoTCMCG9NS5qIIDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAG

[images]
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fm.indiamart.com%2Fproddetail%2Fresin-art-
epoxy-resin-for-stools-24234567088.html&psig=AOvVaw3cPc91vP1ex83kn31-
K7IK&ust=1699077768794000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBAQjRxqFwoTCIiCgajdqI
IDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD

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items%2Fwater-soluble-polyester-
resin%2F&psig=AOvVaw3VhsBfL6dCMXvF4zrnoi1B&ust=1699077824797000&source=images&cd=vfe&o
pi=89978449&ved=0CBAQjRxqFwoTCPiKjcTdqIIDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD

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improve-our-daily-
lives%2F&psig=AOvVaw3Qv2ExAIArG7Bksuhdbtzu&ust=1699077890157000&source=images&cd=vfe&o
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[Importance of thermosets]
https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.vedantu.com/chemistry/thermosetting-
polymers%23:~:text%3DThe%2520Uses%2520of%2520Thermosetting%2520Polymers%26text%3DTher
mosets%2520are%2520used%2520for%2520producing,used%2520for%2520manufacturing%2520heat
%2520shields.&sa=U&ved=2ahUKEwiyoMDxvqiCAxW0UfUHHbNmDpcQFnoECAcQBQ&usg=AOvVaw0Ts
3E45AGE52znIxTVV7rb
 Introduction to
Ceramic Engineering

REXFEILD JOHN P. BOC

BSCOE - I
EPS 131 TA - CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
What is Ceramic Engineering?
Ceramic engineering is a specialized field of materials science and
engineering that focuses on the design, development, and production of
ceramic materials and products.

Characteristics of Ceramics
Ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic materials.
They are typically hard, brittle, and have high melting points.
Exceptional resistance to heat, corrosion, and wear.
Often electrically insulating, making them useful for electronic applications.
Types of Ceramic Materials
Traditional Ceramics: Includes clay, porcelain, and glass.
Advanced Ceramics: High-performance materials like alumina, silicon
carbide, and zirconia.

Refractory Materials: Designed to withstand high temperatures, used in

furnaces and kilns.

Applications of Ceramics
Aerospace: Used in engine components, heat shields, and insulators.
Electronics: Insulators, substrates, and semiconductors.
Automotive: Engine parts, brake discs, and sensors.
Medical: Dental implants, prosthetics, and bio-ceramics.
Construction: Tiles, bricks, and cement.
Ceramic Processing
Forming: Shaping ceramics into desired shapes.
Sintering: Heating ceramics to high temperatures to increase density.
Glazing: Applying a protective coating to ceramics.
Cutting and Machining: Shaping ceramics with precision.

Challenges in Ceramic Engineering

Brittle nature: Ceramics are prone to fractures and require careful handling.
Processing difficulties: High-temperature processing can be energy-
intensive.

Cost: Some advanced ceramics can be expensive to produce.

Future Trends
Emerging technologies like 3D printing for ceramics.
Development of eco-friendly ceramics.
Integration of ceramics into advanced electronics and renewable energy.

Career Opportunities
Ceramic engineers work in research, development, manufacturing, and
quality control. Job prospects in industries like aerospace, electronics,
energy, and healthcare.

Conclusion
Ceramic engineering plays a vital role in various industries due to the
unique properties of ceramics. Continuous research and development are
expanding the horizons of this field.

A promising and dynamic career choice for those interested in materials

science and engineering.
Referrences
https://www.mines.edu/undergraduate-studies/trail/emm-menu/ceramic-
engineering/

https://www.preciseceramic.com/blog/functional-ceramics-are-ubiquitous-
in-peoples-lives.html

https://precision-ceramics.com/uk/ceramic-engineering/

https://www.edmissions.com/stories/ceramic-engineering-scope-in-india

https://steemit.com/science/@asbonclz/an-overview-to-ceramics-
engineering-and-basic-formulation-of-traditional-ceramic-body

https://www.alfred.edu/academics/undergrad-majors-minors/ceramic-
engineering/
 COMPOSITE

EPS 131-Chemistry for Engineers (TA)

By:

Borlado, Jasmine A.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D

Composite

Composites are one of the greatest inventions of today's technology and make modern

technical life easier in many ways. Composites are made of two or more materials that are

physically, chemically or biologically different from each other. Composites are assembled at the

macro level from two or more different materials to ensure that the desired efficiency is achieved

at the highest level. This new material is called a composite material, and these new metals are

very practical for engineering purposes. Composite materials consist of at least two or more

components, and the main structure of the composite material consists of two components. The

first of these materials is called "matrix material" and the other is called "reinforcing material".

The matrix material is the binder of the composite material. The reinforcing material is

responsible for holding the composite material together.

The main purpose of making composite materials is to improve the properties of two or

more materials and obtain a material that better suits the purpose of the material being made. Apart

from the fact that composites are very useful from an engineering point of view, there are also

many examples of composites in the field of biology. Wood and bone in our body are examples of

composite materials. Apart from this, the application area of composites is wide.

Importance of Composite Materials in Engineering

Composites play a vital role in engineering by providing solutions that improve structural

integrity, reduce weight, and enhance performance across a wide range of applications. The

general purpose of making composites is to reduce the weight of the manufactured material,

increase its durability, heat resistance and conductivity. Apart from this, the composite material

retains its durability and lightness while remaining resistant to wear.

Components of Composite Materials:

1. Fiber: These are reinforcing materials like glass, carbon, aramid, etc., with a sufficient

aspect ratio to provide reinforcement in specific directions. Glass, carbon or aramid

fibers are the most common choices for composite parts.

Carbon Fiber: The main advantage of using carbon fiber as a composite material instead

of steel is that it is much lighter than steel. The density of carbon fiber is very low compared

to steel, which saves both space and fuel. With lighter equipment, higher efficiency is

achieved. This is the main advantage of using carbon fiber. In addition, carbon fiber has

the advantage of durability and esthetics, as it does not oxidize compared to steel.

2. Resin: Resins are a unique tool for the composite industry in how they bring other materials

together, the glue of composites. Which makes the additives that go into them that much

more interesting, because the resins additives that go into the resins solve an endless

number of problems in the world today. Additives are commonly used to modify resin

systems for thickening purposes and enhancing mechanical, thermal, or even electrical

properties.

3. Additives: These are fillers, core materials, and other substances added to control the

molding process or enhance the physical properties of the final product, such as color,

strength, durability, and fire resistance.

Types of Composite Materials:

1. Ceramic Matrix Composite: Ceramic spread out in a ceramic matrix, known for being

thermal shock and fracture resistant.

2. Reinforced Concrete: Concrete strengthened with high-tensile materials like steel

reinforcing bars.

3. Engineered Wood: Manufactured wood combined with other materials like particle board

or specialty materials like veneer./

4. Plywood: Engineered wood made by gluing thin layers of wood together at different

angles.

5. Cement-Bonded Wood Fiber: Mineralized wood pieces cast in cement, known for

insulating and acoustic properties.

6. Fibre-Reinforced Plastic (FRP): A composite material with a polymer matrix reinforced

with fibers, often glass, carbon, aramid, or basalt.

Applications in Engineering

● Aerospace and Aviation

Utilization of composites in aircraft structures to reduce weight, increase fuel efficiency,

and improve performance.

● Automotive Industry

Integration of composites in vehicle components to enhance fuel economy, safety, and

design flexibility.

● Construction and Infrastructure

Application of composites in bridges, buildings, and other infrastructure for their

durability, corrosion resistance, and structural integrity.

● Marine Engineering
 Utilization of composites in boat hulls and maritime structures due to their corrosion

resistance and lightweight properties.

● Sports and Recreation

Incorporation of composites in sports equipment like tennis rackets, bicycles, and helmets

for improved performance.

● Notebook Computer

Using carbon fiber reinforced composite material (CFRP) as the material of the notebook

shell, it not only has the elegant and strong characteristics of aluminum-magnesium alloy, but also

has the high plasticity of ABS engineering plastic. Its appearance is similar to plastic, but its

strength and thermal conductivity are better than ordinary ABS plastic. Carbon fiber is a kind of

conductive material, which can play a shielding effect similar to metal (ABS shell needs another

layer of metal film to shield). The following is a comparison table of typical structural material

performance and weight reduction. It can be clearly seen from the table that CFRP The lightweight

effect of carbon fiber is much higher than that of metal materials. Compared with steel, carbon

fiber is 8 times stronger than steel, but its weight is only 70% of steel. Compared with aluminum,

its strength is 20 times, but its weight is only 40% of aluminum. Lightweight, high strength, and

high modulus, it is the material of choice for lightweight parts, so it is an ideal choice for notebook

materials.

Advantages of Composite Materials:

1. Design Flexibility – Thermoset Composites / nearly unlimited flexibility in designing

shapes and forms. They be molded into the most intricate components and can be made a
 wide/ range of densities and chemical formulations to have precise performance

properties.

2. Low cost per cubic inch – When comparing costs based on volume, thermoset composites

have lower material costs than traditional materials such as wood, xm

engineered thermoplastics and metals. In addition, because thermoset composites have a

low petroleum-based content, they are not subjected to the price fluctuations experienced

in petroleum-based products.

3. Lower material costs – Because thermoset composites can be precisely molded, there is

little waste and therefore significantly lower overall material costs than metals products.

4. Improved productivity – Industrial Designers and Engineers are able to reduce assembly

costs by combining several previously assembles parts into a single component. Also,

inserts can be molded directly into the part during the molding process thereby eliminating

the need for a post-process. In addition, composites do not usually require additional

machining, thereby reducing work-in-process and time to market.

References

Advantages of Composite Materials. (2023). Retrieved from MBI MAR-BAL Incorporated:

https://www.mar-bal.com/language/en/applications/advantages-of-composites/

Composite Engineering Materials Review. (2000). Retrieved from ENGINEERS EDGE:

https://www.engineersedge.com/materials/composite_engineering_materials_review_131

94.htm

CORVUS. (2022, April 14). Retrieved from orvuscomposites.com/post/why-should-we-use-

composite-materials

Polymer Matrix Composites - Additives. (2002, June 5). Retrieved from AZO Materials:

https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1450

Resin Choice. (n.d.). Retrieved from Exel Composites: https://exelcomposites.com/guide-to-

composites/resin-choices/

The science and technology of composite materials. (2015, JUNE 18). Retrieved from Australian

Academy of Science: https://www.twi-global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/what-is-a-

composite-material#WhataretheDifferentTypes

Types of composite materials. (2022, 9 13). Retrieved from AIMPLAS:

https://www.aimplas.net/blog/types-of-composite-materials/

WHAT IS A COMPOSITE MATERIAL? (A DEFINITIVE GUIDE). (2023). Retrieved from TWI:

https://www.twi-global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/what-is-a-composite-

material#WhataretheDifferentTypes
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY:

INTRODUCTION

EPS 131 - Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Cadavedo, Kurt Yxieqyle T.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D

 INTRODUCTION

Environmental chemistry is a branch of science that studies the chemical processes occurring in

the environment and how pollutants interact with the natural world. It involves the investigation

of the sources, transport, transformation, and fate of various chemicals in air, water, soil, and

living organisms. Understanding environmental chemistry is crucial for addressing issues related

to pollution, climate change, and the overall health of ecosystems.

It is the study of biotic and abiotic chemical processes in the environment, the effects of human

activity on them, and how these in turn affect human and wildlife health. It is an interdisciplinary

field of science that includes biological, ecological, atmospheric, aquatic and soil chemistry,

heavily dependent on chemical analysis and effect analysis in vivo, in vitro and in silico. Within

environmental chemistry you will study the contaminants journey from source, their fate

(reactions, transport) in the environment, and finally the effects (toxicity). That information will

lay base to identify the hazard, exposure and risk of the chemicals. The course is designed to

provide a fundamental survey of concepts and definitions of environmental chemical and

toxicological concepts.
 Topics of Environmental Chemistry:

1. Air Quality and Atmospheric Chemistry:

● Study of pollutants in the air, such as particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen oxides,

and sulfur compounds.

2. Water Chemistry:

● Investigation of the chemical composition of natural waters, including rivers,

lakes, and oceans, as well as water treatment processes.

3. Soil Chemistry:

● Examination of the chemical properties of soils and their role in nutrient cycling,

contamination, and remediation.

These topics collectively contribute to our understanding of the complex interactions between

chemical processes and the environment. Researchers and professionals in environmental

chemistry play a crucial role in addressing environmental challenges and promoting sustainable

practices.

Understanding the sources and behavior of chemicals in the environment is crucial for

developing strategies to mitigate pollution and sustainably manage natural resources.

Environmental chemists play a vital role in monitoring and assessing the impact of human

activities on the environment and proposing solutions for a more sustainable and healthier planet.

Chapter 1: Air Quality and Atmospheric Chemistry

Atmospheric chemistry is an important discipline for understanding air pollution and its impacts.

This mini review gives a brief history of air pollution and presents an overview of some of the

basic photochemistry involved in the production of ozone and other oxidants in the atmosphere.

Urban air quality issues are reviewed with a specific focus on ozone and other oxidants, primary

and secondary aerosols, alternative fuels, and the potential for chlorine releases to amplify

oxidant chemistry in industrial areas.

Regional air pollution issues such as acid rain, long-range transport of aerosols and visibility

loss, and the connections of aerosols to ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate chemistry are examined.

Finally, the potential impacts of air pollutants on the global-scale radiative balances of gases and

aerosols are discussed briefly.

KEYWORDS: ozone, peroxyacetyl nitrate, volatile hydrocarbon, aerosol, troposphere, chlorine

radical, hydroxyl radical, peroxy radicals, acid rain, radiative balance, alternative fuel

DOMAINS: Atmospheric Systems, Chemical Composition, Environmental Chemistry,

Environmental Monitoring, Environmental Management & Policy, and Global Systems

Humans are benthic organisms living in a sea of air. That air is made up primarily of nitrogen

(78.1 %), oxygen (20.9%), and argon (0.9%). The rest of the atmosphere is composed of water,

carbon dioxide, and a large number of trace gases.

Many of the organisms on the planet directly affect the chemistry of the atmosphere. Plants take

up carbon dioxide and transform it into organic diacids, then into cellular materials. Plants and

animals use oxygen in the air for oxidative biochemical reactions that release heat and energy

during respiration and reintroduce carbon dioxide and many trace gas species. Atmospheric

chemistry is a complicated subject that addresses gas-, liquid-, solid-, and mixed-phase chemical

reactions in our atmosphere and focuses on the trace gas species.

Like the trace molecules in our bodies that enable us to live, the trace gases and aerosols in our

atmosphere maintain a very crucial part of the planet — its atmosphere — without which we

could not survive.

Our atmosphere is composed of a number of important regions that are defined by thermal

structure as a function of altitude[1,2]. As altitude increases, air pressure drops off rapidly.

The temperature structure of the atmosphere is somewhat complex because of exothermic

chemical reactions in the upper atmosphere that are caused by the absorption of high-energy

photons (ultraviolet-C and ultraviolet-B) from incoming solar radiation.

The breaking of molecular bonds produces atomic species and results in recombination reactions

that form ozone (O3) and other important gases that can filter the incoming ultraviolet (B and C)

light and act as a protective optical shield against harmful solar radiation.
Most of this shielding occurs in the stratosphere, where a great deal of recent interest has been

focused because of the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer by anthropogenic use of

chlorofluorocarbons. As altitude increases from sea level, temperature in the troposphere

decreases up to about 12–15 km — at the tropopause — where temperature begins to increase in

the stratosphere. The troposphere, where we live, is where we focus this mini-review.

In the troposphere, humans have begun to alter the chemistry of the air through the emission of

tremendous amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), trace organics, and sulfur

and nitrogen oxides from a wide variety of human activities.

The release of gases and aerosols from the combustion of fossil fuels and other sources affects

the quality of tropospheric air (which we breathe) directly or indirectly via chemical reactions

that form secondary pollutants. Pollutants can result in human health effects, crop losses,

visibility reduction, urban heat island effects, regional weather modification, and global climate

change.

This chapter highlights key issues related to the chemistry of the troposphere and the quality of

the air. We give a brief history of air pollution, with particular attention to photochemical air

pollution and its basis, and we explore urban, regional, and global impacts of air pollutants,

particularly regarding the use of fossil and alternative fuels.

 Chapter 2: Water Chemistry

Water chemistry is a field of study that focuses on the chemical composition and properties of

water, including its interactions with substances present in the environment. Understanding water

chemistry is crucial for ensuring water quality, managing water resources, and addressing

environmental issues.

Water is an unusual compound with unique physical properties. As a result, it’s the compound of

life. Yet, it’s the most abundant compound in the biosphere of Earth. These properties are related

to its electronic structure, bonding, and chemistry. However, due to its affinity for a variety of

substances, ordinary water contains other substances. Few of us have used, seen or tested pure

water, based on which we discuss its chemistry.

The chemistry of water deals with the fundamental chemical property and information about

water. Water chemistry is discussed in the following subtitles.

● Composition of water

● Structure and bonding of water

● Molecular Vibration of water

● Symmetry of water molecules

● Formation of hydrogen bonding in water

● Structure of ice
 ● Autoionization

● Leveling effect of water and acid-base characters

● Amphiprotic nature

● Reactivity of water towards alkali metals; alkaline earth metals; halogens; hydrides;

methane; oxides; and oxygen ions.

● Electrolysis of water

It focused on understanding the chemical processes that affect the composition of natural waters

and their suitability for human uses—is a field that evolved from early foundations in several

related disciplines. As such, it is difficult to associate a precise date to its founding. Nonetheless,

several key events support the argument that water chemistry as we know it today developed in

the middle of the 20th century (late 1950s to early 1960s)—at the dawn of the “environmental

era.” If we take the midpoint of this period as 1960 or so, this means that the field in its modern

incarnation is about 50 years old. In celebration of this half-centenary, we examine here the

origins of water chemistry and describe how the field has changed since its formation, focusing

on both the “practice” of water chemistry and the ways that teaching the subject have evolved.

Chapter 3: Soil Chemistry

Soil chemistry is a branch of environmental chemistry that focuses on the chemical composition,

structure, and reactions that occur in the soil. Understanding soil chemistry is crucial for
managing agricultural practices, assessing environmental impact, and developing sustainable

land use strategies.

Originated in the early 1850s with the research of J. Thomas Way, a consulting chemist to the

Royal Agricultural Society in England. Way, who is considered the father of soil chemistry,

carried out a remarkable group of experiments on the ability of soils to exchange ions. He found

that soil could adsorb both cations and anions, and that these ions could be exchanged with other

ions. He noted that ion exchange was rapid, that clay was an important soil component in the

adsorption of cations, and that heating soils or treating them with strong acid decreased the

ability of the soils to adsorb ions. The vast majority of Way's observations were later proven

correct, and his work laid the groundwork for many seminal studies on ion exchange and

ion sorption that were later conducted by soil chemists. Way's studies also had immense impact

on other disciplines including chemical engineering and chemistry. Research on ion exchange

has truly been one of the great hallmarks of soil chemistry (Sparks, 1994).

The forefather of soil chemistry in the United States was Edmund Ruffin, a philosopher, rebel,

politician, and farmer from Virginia. Ruffin fired the first Confederate shot at Fort Sumter, South

Carolina. He committed suicide after Appomattox because he did not wish to live under the

“perfidious Yankee race.” Ruffin was attempting to farm near Petersburg, Virginia, on soil that

was unproductive. He astutely applied oyster shells to his land for the proper reason—to correct

or ameliorate soil acidity. He also accurately described zinc deficiencies in his journals (Thomas,

1977).
It is traditionally focused on the chemical reactions in soils that affect plant growth and plant

nutrition. However, beginning in the 1970s and certainly in the 1990s concerns increased about

metal(loid)s, nutrients (particularly nitrogen and phosphorus), and organic contaminants in soil

and their impact on water quality and plants, animal, and human health. We now refer to the field

as environmental soil chemistry, which is the study of chemical reactions/processes between

soils and environmentally important plant nutrients, radionuclides, metal(loid)s, and organic

chemicals (1).

A knowledge of environmental soil chemistry is fundamental in predicting the fate of

contaminants in the surface and subsurface environments. An understanding of the chemistry and

mineralogy of inorganic and organic soil components is necessary to comprehend the array of

chemical reactions that contaminants may undergo in the soil environment. These reactions,

which may include equilibrium and kinetic processes such as dissolution, precipitation,

polymerization, adsorption/desorption, and oxidation-reduction, affect the solubility, mobility,

speciation (form), toxicity, and bioavailability of contaminants in soils and in surface waters and

groundwaters. A knowledge of environmental soil chemistry is also useful in making sound and

cost effective decisions about remediation of contaminated soils (1), (2).

References:

● Gaffney, J. S., & Marley, N. A. (2003). Atmospheric chemistry and air pollution. The

Scientific World Journal, 3, 199–234. https://doi.org/10.1100/tsw.2003.18

● Shaltami, O. R. (2019). Water

chemistry. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336994812_Water_C

hemistry

● Libretexts. (2021, July 7). Water chemistry. Chemistry

LibreTexts. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Environmental_Chemistry/Suppleme

ntal_Modules_(Environmental_Chemistry)/Aquatic_Chemistry/Water_Chemistry

● Johnston‐Monje, D., Castillo-Avila, D. K., Raizada, M. N., & López-Lavalle, L. a. B.

(2019). Paying the rent: How endophytic microorganisms help plant hosts obtain

nutrients. In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 770–788). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-64046-

8.00253-6

● Sparks, D. L. (2019). Fundamentals of soil chemistry. Encyclopedia of Water, 1–11.

https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119300762.wsts0025

● Brezonik, P. L., & Arnold, W. A. (2012). Water Chemistry: Fifty years of change and

progress. Environmental Science & Technology, 46(11), 5650–

5657. https://doi.org/10.1021/es300882y
vccc vvvkop

LAYERS OF THE EARTH’S

ATMOSPHERE

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Calamba,Christine Marie G.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela , Ph.D

What Is the Earth’s Atmosphere?

The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surrounds the planet. It defined as a blanket of gas on

the surface of the planet.Without the atmosphere, life on Earth wouldn't be possible.

Gases of the atmosphere:

The atmosphere is the mixture of different types of gases, including water vapour and dust

particles. Nitrogen and Oxygen are the two main gases of the atmosphere. 99 percent part of it is

made up of these two gases. Other gases like organ, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nion, helium etc.

form the remaining part of atmosphere.

Importance of the Atmosphere:

(i) Oxygen is very important for the living beings.

(ii) Carbon dioxide is very useful for the plants.

(iii) Dust particles present in the atmosphere create suitable conditions for the

precipitation.

(iv) The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere goes on changing and directly

affects the plants and living beings.

 (v) Ozone protects all kinds of life on the earth from the harmful ultra violet rays of

the sun.

Earth’s atmosphere is composed of a series of layers ,each with its own specific traits . Moving upward

from the ground level , these layers are called the troposphere , stratosphere , mesosphere ,

thermosphere and exosphere.

The Troposphere

The troposphere is Earth's lowest layer , containing 75-80% of the atmosphere's mass and most

clouds. It is the wettest layer and extends up to 10 km above sea level. The top of the troposphere

varies with latitude and season, reaching heights of 20 km near the equator and 7 km over the

poles in winter.

*The troposphere is considered the "wettest" layer of Earth's atmosphere because it contains the

highest concentration of water vapor.

The Stratosphere

The stratosphere is a dry atmospheric layer with few clouds, except for polar stratospheric clouds

(PSCs) near the poles during winter , which are linked to ozone depletion. Limited vertical

movement in the stratosphere allows materials like CFCs to remain for extended periods,

impacting the environment. Events like volcanic eruptions, meteorite impacts, and rocket launches

can introduce particles into the stratosphere, affecting the global climate. Various atmospheric
waves and tides influence the stratosphere, transferring energy and influencing air movements

and regional heating.

*Ozone , a type of oxygen molecule that is relatively abundant in the stratosphere , heats this layer

as it absorbs energy from incoming ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

The Mesosphere

The mesosphere , located between the stratosphere and thermosphere , is known for its extremely

cold temperatures, with the coldest reaching around -90°C. The boundary between the mesosphere

and thermosphere is called the mesopause, and at the bottom is the stratopause, separating it from

the stratosphere. It is difficult to study due to its inaccessibility. Meteors vaporize in the

mesosphere, leaving a high concentration of metal atoms. It hosts unique phenomena like

"noctilucent clouds" and electrical discharges called "sprites" and "ELVES." The mesosphere is

very dry compared to the troposphere and forms the middle atmosphere, where gases are

thoroughly mixed. Above the mesosphere, gases become somewhat separated due to infrequent

collisions in the thermosphere.

The Thermosphere

The thermosphere is a layer of Earth's atmosphere that extends from 90 km to between 500 and

1,000 km (311 to 621 miles) above the Earth's surface. It is directly above the mesosphere and
below the exosphere, with temperatures climbing sharply in the lower thermosphere and leveling

off with increasing altitude. Solar activity significantly influences temperature in the

thermosphere, with temperatures typically being 200°C (360° F) hotter during the daytime and

500°C (900° F) hotter when the Sun is very active. The upper thermosphere consists of atomic

oxygen, atomic nitrogen, and helium. Gas particles collide infrequently within the thermosphere,

causing gas particles to become somewhat separated based on their chemical elements. Energetic

ultraviolet and X-ray photons from the Sun also break apart molecules in the thermosphere. When

the Sun is very active, the increased radiation can cause the layer to get hotter and expand, resulting

in the thermopause. Earth's atmosphere has waves and tides that help move energy around,

including the thermosphere, which is primarily responsible for the aurora, or Southern and

Northern Lights.

The Exosphere

The exosphere is the uppermost region of Earth's atmosphere , with no clear upper boundary as it

fades into outer space. It is directly above the thermosphere and has an altitude ranging from 500

to 1000 km above the Earth's surface. Some scientists believe the exosphere is just part of space,

while others consider it part of Earth's atmosphere. The outermost limit of the exosphere is around

190,000 km , halfway to the Moon. Sunlight exerts more force on hydrogen atoms than Earth's

gravity, resulting in a faint UV glow called the geocorona.

The air in the exosphere is thin, making collisions rare. Gas atoms and molecules move along

"ballistic trajectories," resembling the arcing flight of a thrown ball or shot cannonball. Most gas

particles zoom along curved paths without hitting another atom or molecule, eventually arcing

back down into the lower atmosphere due to gravity.

Other Atmosphere:

The Ionosphere

Earth's atmosphere that contains a series of regions that have a relatively large number of

electrically charged atoms and molecules. The part of the earth's atmosphere in which ionization

of atmospheric gases affects the propagation of radio waves which extends from about 30 miles

(50 kilometers) to the exosphere , and which is contiguous with the upper portion of the

mesosphere and the thermosphere. As a group , these regions are collectively . Regions with higher

concentrations of ions and free electrons occur at several different altitudes and are known, as a

group, as the ionosphere.

3 Main Regions of the Ionosphere

* D layer - is the lowest , starting about 60 or 70 km (37 or 43 miles) above the ground and

extending upward to about 90 km (56 miles).

* E layer - is the higher region, starting at about 90 or 100 km (56 or 62 miles) up and extending

to 120 or 150 km (75 or 93 miles).

* F layer - The uppermost part of the ionosphere, the F region, starts about 150 km (93 miles) and

extends far upward, sometimes as high as 500 km (311 miles) above the surface of our home

planet.

*These regions do not have sharp boundaries, and the altitudes at which they occur vary during

the course of a day and from season to season. The regions of the ionosphere are not considered

separate layers, such as the more familiar troposphere and stratosphere. Instead, they are ionized

regions embedded within the standard atmospheric layers. The D region usually forms in the upper

part of the mesosphere, while the E region typically appears in the lower thermosphere and the F

regions found in the upper reaches of the thermosphere.

*Earth is not the only planet in our solar system with an atmosphere. Each planet and moon in our

solar system has a unique structure, with Mercury having a thin, vacuum-like atmosphere. The gas

giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune have thick, deep atmospheres, while Earth,

Venus, and Mars have thinner, hovering atmospheres above their solid surfaces. Moons typically

have thin atmospheres, except for Saturn's moon, Titan, which has higher air pressure than Earth.

Pluto has a thin, seasonally expanding and collapsed atmosphere, and Ceres has a thin, transient

atmosphere made of water vapor. However, only Earth's atmosphere has a layered structure that

traps enough Sun's energy for warmth while blocking harmful radiation, which is crucial for life

on Earth. Scientists use light spectroscopy to observe these atmospheres.

 References

Education, U. C. F. S. (n.d.). What is the atmosphere? | Center for Science Education. UCAR.

Earth’s atmospheric Layers-NASA.(n.d.).NASA.

Earth's Atmosphere:Multi-layered Cake.(2019,Octoberr 16 ClimateChange:Vital Signs of

the plane.
OZONE LAYER FORMATION

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

CALO, SIMON JUSTINE

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D

 Certainly! Here's a reporting script on Ozone Layer Formation that should last

approximately 5 minutes:

---

**Introduction:**

- Begin by introducing the topic: "Today, we'll delve into the fascinating world of the ozone

layer, a crucial component of Earth's stratosphere."

**Overview of the Ozone Layer:**

- Briefly explain the ozone layer's significance: "The ozone layer shields life on Earth from

harmful UV radiation, making it an indispensable protector of our planet."

**Natural Formation of Ozone:**

- Discuss the natural process over millions of years: "The ozone layer's formation started

with the evolution of life and photosynthesizing organisms that released oxygen, ultimately

leading to its creation in the stratosphere."

 **Formation of Ozone (Chemical Process):**

1. *Photodissociation:* "High-energy UV-C and UV-B photons break oxygen molecules

into two oxygen atoms."

- `O2 + UV-C or UV-B -> 2O`

2. *Oxygen Atom Reacts with Oxygen Molecule:* "Reactive oxygen atoms combine with

other oxygen molecules, forming ozone."

- `O + O2 -> O3`

3. *Destruction and Regeneration:* "Ozone undergoes a delicate balance between

destruction and regeneration."

**Factors Influencing Ozone Formation:**

- Discuss solar radiation, altitude, and oxygen concentration: "Solar radiation, altitude,

and oxygen availability crucially impact ozone formation and distribution in the

stratosphere."

**Anthropogenic Influence:**

1. *Ozone-Depleting Substances:* "Human activities release substances like CFCs, leading

to the release of chlorine and bromine into the stratosphere."

2. *Ozone Depletion:* "Chlorine and bromine atoms catalytically destroy ozone, causing

the infamous ozone hole."

3. *International Agreements:* "The Montreal Protocol, initiated in 1987, successfully

curbed the production of ozone-depleting substances."

4. *Ozone Recovery:* "Due to global efforts, the ozone layer is slowly recovering, marking

a positive outcome of international collaboration."

**Conclusion:**

- Summarize key points: "Understanding the dynamic process of ozone formation and

mitigating human-induced disruptions is vital for safeguarding the ozone layer and,

consequently, life on Earth."

**Closing Statement:**

- End with a thought-provoking statement: "As we continue to protect and nurture our

planet, let's celebrate the progress made in healing our ozone layer and ensure a

sustainable future for generations to come."

 ---

Feel free to adapt and adjust the script according to your specific presentation style and

time constraints.

In Summary:

The ozone layer is formed in the Earth’s stratosphere through the interaction of solar UV radiation

with oxygen molecules (O2), resulting in the creation of ozone (O3). This process involves

photodissociation and recombination reactions. Key factors influencing ozone formation include

solar radiation, altitude, and oxygen concentration. Human activities, notably the release of ozone-

depleting substances like CFCs, have adversely affected the ozone layer, leading to issues such as

the ozone hole over Antarctica. Preserving the ozone layer is crucial for safeguarding life on Earth.

References:
Van Der Leun, J. C. (2004). The ozone layer. Photodermatology, Photoimmunology and

Photomedicine, 20(4), 159–162. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0781.2004.00091.x

Jenkin, M. E., & Clemitshaw, K. C. (2000). Ozone and other secondary photochemical

pollutants: chemical processes governing their formation in the planetary boundary layer.

Atmospheric Environment, 34(16), 2499–2527. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1352-2310(99)00478-

1
 Causes and Effects of Ozone Depletion

Subject: Chemistry

Course: BS CoE

Section: TA

Instructors Name: Marinela C. Bansuela

Submitted by: Jhudiel D. Credo

Submitted to: Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D

Ozone Layer Definition

The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the earth’s atmosphere. It has the

potential to absorb around 97-99% of the harmful ultraviolet radiations coming from the sun that

can damage life on earth. If the ozone layer was absent, millions of people would develop skin

diseases and may have weakened immune systems. However, scientists have discovered a hole

in the ozone layer over Antarct ica. This has focused their concern on various environmental

issues and steps to control them. The main reasons for the ozone hole are chlorofluorocarbons,

carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide and hydro chlorofluorocarbons.

Ozone Layer Depletion

Ozone layer depletion is the thinning of the ozone layer present in the upper atmosphere. This

happens when the chlorine and bromine atoms in the atmosphere come in contact with ozone and

destroy the ozone molecules. One chlorine can destroy 100,000 molecules of ozone. It is

destroyed more quickly than it is created. Some compounds release chlorine and bromine on

exposure to high ultraviolet light, which then contributes to ozone layer depletion. Such

compounds are known as Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS).

The ozone-depleting substances that contain chlorine include chlorofluorocarbon, carbon

tetrachloride, hydro chlorofluorocarbons, and methyl chloroform. Whereas, the ozone-depleting

substances that contain bromine are halons, methyl bromide, and hydro bromofluorocarbons.
Chlorofluorocarbons are the most abundant ozone-depleting substance. It is only when the

chlorine atom reacts with some other molecule, it does not react with ozone.

Montreal Protocol was proposed in 1987 to stop the use, production and import of ozone-

depleting substances and minimize their concentration in the atmosphere to protect the ozone

layer of the earth.

Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion

Ozone layer depletion is a major concern and is associated with a number of factors. The main

causes responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer are listed below:

Chlorofluorocarbons

Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs are the main cause of ozone layer depletion. These are released by

solvents, spray aerosols, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.

The molecules of chlorofluorocarbons in the stratosphere are broken down by ultraviolet

radiations and release chlorine atoms. These atoms react with ozone and destroy it.

Unregulated Rocket Launches

Researchers says that the unregulated launching of rockets results in much more depletion of the

ozone layer than the CFCs do. If not controlled, this might result in a huge loss of the ozone

layer by the year 2050.

Natural Causes

The ozone layer has been found to be depleted by certain natural processes such as Sun-spots and

stratospheric winds. But it does not cause more than 1-2% of the ozone layer depletion.
The volcanic eruptions are also responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.

Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)

“Ozone-depleting substances are the substances such as chlorofluorocarbons, halons, carbon

tetrachloride, hydrofluorocarbons, etc. that are responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.”

Ozone-Depleting Substances Sources

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Refrigerators, air-conditioners, solvents, dry-

cleaning agents, etc.

Halons Fire Extinguishers

Carbon tetrachloride Fire extinguishers, solvents

Methyl chloroform Adhesives, aerosols

Hydrofluorocarbons fire extinguishers, air-conditioners, solvents

Effects Of Ozone Layer Depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer has harmful effects on the environment. Let us see the major

effects of ozone layer depletion on man and environment.

Effects on Human Health

Humans will be directly exposed to the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the sun due to the

depletion of the ozone layer. This might result in serious health issues among humans, such as

skin diseases, cancer, sunburns, cataract, quick ageing and weak immune system
Effects on Animals

Direct exposure to ultraviolet radiations leads to skin and eye cancer in animals.

Effects on the Environment

Strong ultraviolet rays may lead to minimal growth, flowering and photosynthesis in plants. The

forests also have to bear the harmful effects of the ultraviolet rays.

Effects on Marine Life

Planktons are greatly affected by the exposure to harmful ultraviolet rays. These are higher in the

aquatic food chain. If the planktons are destroyed, the organisms present in the food chain are

also affected.

Solutions to Ozone Layer Depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer is a serious issue and various programs have been launched by

the government of various countries to prevent it. However, steps should be taken at the

individual level as well to prevent the depletion of the ozone layer.

Avoid Using ODS

Reduce the use of ozone depleting substances. E.g. avoid the use of CFCs in refrigerators and air

conditioners, replacing the halon based fire extinguishers, etc.

Minimize the Use of Vehicles

The vehicles emit a large amount of greenhouse gases that lead to global warming as well as

ozone depletion. Therefore, the use of vehicles should be minimized as much as possible.

Use Eco-friendly Cleaning Products

Most of the cleaning products have chlorine and bromine releasing chemicals that find a way

into the atmosphere and affect the ozone layer. These should be substituted with natural products

to protect the environment.

REFERENCES:

Ozone Layer Depletion – Cause, Effects, and Solutions (2011). Retrieved from BYJUS.COM:

https://byjus.com/biology/ozone-layer-depletion/
What are the causes and effects of Ozone Depletion (2017). Retrieved from SOCRATIC.ORG:

https://socratic.org/questions/what-are-the-causes-and-effects-of-ozone-depletion
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion & Its Effects on Human (2017). Retrieved from SCRIP.ORG:

https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=63065
Greenhouse Effect In Relation to Chemistry

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that helps to keep Earth's surface warm enough for

life to exist. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap some of the Sun's heat, preventing it

from escaping back into space. This natural greenhouse effect is essential for life, but human

activities are increasing the levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which is causing

the planet to warm at an alarming rate.

Chemistry of Greenhouse Gases

The main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),

and water vapor (H2O). These gases absorb infrared radiation, which is the type of heat

emitted by Earth's surface. When the greenhouse gases absorb this radiation, they warm up

and then emit the radiation in all directions. Some of this radiation is emitted back to Earth's

surface, which causes the planet to warm.

Sources and Sinks of Greenhouse Gases

The main sources of greenhouse gas emissions are human activities such as the burning of

fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture. Greenhouse gases are also released naturally from

volcanoes, wildfires, and the decay of organic matter.

Greenhouse gases are removed from the atmosphere through a variety of processes, including

photosynthesis, absorption by the oceans, and chemical reactions in the atmosphere.

The Role of Chemistry in Climate Change

The greenhouse effect is a complex process that is influenced by a variety of chemical

factors. The chemistry of greenhouse gases, their sources and sinks, and their interactions

with other atmospheric constituents all play a role in determining how Earth's climate

responds to changes in greenhouse gas emissions.

Chemical Processes that Affect Climate Change

There are a number of chemical processes that affect climate change, including:

 Photosynthesis: Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during photosynthesis.

This process helps to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and mitigate climate

change.

 Ocean absorption: The oceans absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The oceans are a

major sink for carbon dioxide, but their ability to absorb carbon dioxide is limited.

 Chemical reactions in the atmosphere: Greenhouse gases can react with other chemicals in the

atmosphere to form new compounds. These new compounds can have different effects on

climate change than the original greenhouse gases.

Human Impacts on the Greenhouse Effect

Human activities are increasing the levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which is

causing the planet to warm at an alarming rate. The main human activities that contribute to

greenhouse gas emissions are the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture.

The Consequences of Climate Change

Climate change is already having a number of negative consequences, including:

 Rising sea levels: As the planet warms, the oceans expand and glaciers and ice sheets melt,

causing sea levels to rise. This is a major threat to coastal communities around the world.
  More extreme weather events: Climate change is making extreme weather events such as heat

waves, droughts, floods, and storms more frequent and intense.

 Changes in plant and animal life: Climate change is causing changes in plant and animal life,

as species are forced to adapt to new conditions or move to new areas.

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies

There are a number of strategies that can be used to mitigate and adapt to climate change.

Mitigation strategies aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, while adaptation strategies aim

to help communities and ecosystems cope with the effects of climate change.

Mitigation Strategies

Mitigation strategies include:

 Switching to renewable energy sources: Renewable energy sources such as solar and wind

power do not produce greenhouse gas emissions.

 Improving energy efficiency: Using energy more efficiently can help to reduce greenhouse

gas emissions.

 Reducing deforestation: Forests play an important role in absorbing carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere. Reducing deforestation can help to mitigate climate change.

 Developing new technologies: New technologies are being developed to capture and store

carbon dioxide emissions. These technologies could help to mitigate climate change.

Adaptation Strategies

Adaptation strategies include:

 Building seawalls: Seawalls can help to protect coastal communities from rising sea levels.

 Developing drought-resistant crops: Drought-resistant crops can help to ensure food security

in areas that are affected by drought.

  Improving early warning systems: Early warning systems can help communities to prepare

for extreme weather events.

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that is essential for life on Earth. However, human

activities are increasing the levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which is causing

the planet to warm at an alarming rate. This climate change is having a number of negative

consequences, including rising sea levels, more extreme weather events, and changes in plant

and animal life.

There are a number of other chemical factors that can affect the greenhouse effect. These

include:

* **Aerosols:** Aerosols are tiny particles that are suspended in the atmosphere. Aerosols

can come from both natural and human sources. Natural aerosols include dust, pollen, and sea

salt. Human-made aerosols include smoke from factories and cars, and sulfate particles from

the burning of fossil fuels. Aerosols can affect the greenhouse effect in a number of ways.

They can scatter and absorb sunlight, which can cool the planet. Aerosols can also act as

nuclei for the formation of clouds, which can also cool the planet. However, some aerosols,

such as black carbon, can absorb heat and warm the planet.

* **Ozone:** Ozone is a molecule that is made up of three oxygen atoms. Ozone is found in

the stratosphere, a layer of the atmosphere that is located about 10 to 50 kilometers above

Earth’s surface. Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, which protects life on

Earth from harmful radiation. However, ozone is also a greenhouse gas. Ozone depletion,
which is the thinning of the ozone layer, is caused by the release of certain chemicals into the

atmosphere, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Ozone depletion can lead to both cooling

and warming at the surface, depending on where it occurs in the atmosphere.

* **Water vapor:** Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.

Water vapor absorbs infrared radiation from Earth’s surface, which warms the planet.

However, water vapor also has a cooling effect on the planet by reflecting sunlight back into

space. The net effect of water vapor on the greenhouse effect is complex and depends on a

variety of factors, such as the temperature of the atmosphere and the amount of other

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

**The Role of Chemistry in Climate Change Mitigation**

Chemistry can play a major role in mitigating climate change. For example, new technologies

are being developed to capture and store carbon dioxide emissions from power plants and

other industrial sources. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies could help to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate change.

Another way that chemistry can be used to mitigate climate change is by developing new

fuels and energy sources that produce fewer greenhouse gas emissions. For example, biofuels

are fuels that are made from renewable resources such as plants. Biofuels can produce fewer

greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuels, such as coal and oil.
The greenhouse effect is a complex process that is influenced by a variety of chemical

factors. The chemistry of greenhouse gases, their sources and sinks, and their interactions

with other atmospheric constituents all play a role in determining how Earth’s climate

responds to changes in greenhouse gas emissions.

Chemistry can play a major role in mitigating climate change by developing new

technologies to capture and store carbon dioxide emissions, and developing new fuels and

energy sources that produce fewer greenhouse gas emissions.

**References**

Galloway, J. N. (2009). The Chemistry of Climate Change. Springer.

Seinfeld, J. H., & Pandis, S. N. (2016). Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Change (4th ed.).

Wiley.

Held, I. M., & Robock, A. J. (

* IPCC (2021). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working

Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

* Seinfeld, J. H. (2016). The Role of Chemistry in Climate Change Mitigation. Annual

Review of Chemistry, 67, 273-295.

* Nocera, D. K. (2022). The Future of Chemistry in Climate Change Mitigation. Proceedings

of the National Academy of Sciences, 119 (26), e2202609119.

References
GLOBAL WARMING

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Duhaylungsod, Carl Marx

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D

 Introduction

Global Warming

Global warming is like an urgent wake-up call for our planet. It’s not just

some abstract concept; it’s a real and pressing issue that affects all of us, our

environment, and future generations. Think of it as our Earth’s temperature slowly

inching up, causing disruptions in weather patterns, melting polar ice, and leading

to more frequent and severe natural disasters.

As stated by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration or NASA

Climate change, in essence, represents the gradual and lasting shift in the usual

weather patterns that we’ve come to recognize as the defining characteristics of

Earth’s local, regional, and global climates. This transformation isn’t something

that happens overnight; rather, it’s a process that unfolds over many years and even

decades. It’s akin to a slow and persistent shift in our planet’s atmospheric

behavior. These alterations bring about a multitude of observable effects that are

closely associated with the term “climate change.” These effects encompass

everything from rising temperatures and shifts in precipitation patterns to more

frequent extreme weather events and the loss of glaciers and ice caps.

Understanding and addressing these changes is crucial for the well-being of our
planet and future generations. Global warming is a serious threat it affects

everyone, every species, every living and nonliving things.

Global warming causes

Global warming is primarily caused by the accumulation of greenhouse gases in

the Earth’s atmosphere, which trap heat and lead to a rise in global temperatures.

Here’s a breakdown of the main causes and factors contributing to global warming:

• Greenhouse Gas Emissions

a. Burning Fossil Fuels
b. Deforestation
c. Agriculture Practices
d. Industrial Processes

• Land Use Changes

• Waste Management
• Livestock and Agriculture
• Natural Factors
• Feedback loops
• Positive Feedback from Water Vapor

These are the actors to global warming. Global warming is primarily driven by

human activities, with the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation being the most

significant contributors. Now let’s talk about these causes, let us discuss them in

detail.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions

The most significant contributor to global warming is the emission of

greenhouse gases. The main greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). These gases are released into the

atmosphere from various human activities, such as:

a. Burning Fossil Fuels: The burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural

gas for electricity, transportation, and industrial processes releases large

amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

b. Deforestation: The cutting down of trees and forests reduces the Earth’s

capacity to absorb CO2 through photosynthesis. When trees are removed, the

stored carbon in them is released as CO2.

c. Agricultural Practices: Agricultural activities, including livestock

production and rice cultivation, release methane and nitrous oxide, both potent

greenhouse gases.

d. Industrial Processes: Various industrial activities, such as cement

production, also release greenhouse gases.

Land Use Changes

The transformation of land for urbanization and agriculture contributes to global

warming. Urban sprawl and land development lead to increased energy

consumption, while agricultural expansion can result in deforestation, releasing

stored carbon.
Waste Management

Improper waste management, including the decomposition of organic waste in

landfills, produces methane gas, a potent greenhouse gas.

Transportation

The transportation sector, which relies heavily on fossil fuels, is a major source

of CO2 emissions. This includes cars, trucks, airplanes, and ships.

Livestock and Agriculture

Livestock farming, particularly cattle, produces methane during digestion.

Additionally, the use of synthetic fertilizers in agriculture releases nitrous oxide.

Natural Factors

Livestock farming, particularly cattle, produces methane during digestion.

Additionally, the use of synthetic fertilizers in agriculture releases nitrous oxide.

Feedback Loops

Global warming can trigger feedback loops that exacerbate the problem. For

example, as the Arctic ice melts due to higher temperatures, it reduces the Earth’s

albedo (reflectivity), causing more heat to be absorbed, further warming the planet.

Positive Feedback from Water Vapor

As temperatures rise, the atmosphere can hold more water vapor, which is

also a greenhouse gas. This amplifies the greenhouse effect.

Effects of Global Warming

Global warming, driven by the increase in greenhouse gases in the Earth’s

atmosphere, has a wide range of effects on the planet. These effects extend to the

environment, ecosystems, human societies, and the economy. Here are some of the

key effects of global warming:

1. Rising Temperatures

- Higher global temperatures, with more frequent and intense heatwaves, can have

detrimental impacts on human health, agriculture, and ecosystems.

2. Melting Ice and Glaciers

- The warming climate leads to the melting of glaciers and polar ice caps,

contributing to rising sea levels and posing a threat to coastal communities.

3. Sea Level Rise

 - As ice melts and ocean waters expand due to warming, sea levels are rising,

increasing the risk of coastal flooding and erosion.

4. Ocean Acidification

- Increased levels of carbon dioxide are absorbed by the world’s oceans, leading

to ocean acidification, which can harm marine life, especially organisms with

calcium carbonate shells and skeletons.

5. Extreme Weather Events

- Global warming is associated with more frequent and severe extreme weather

events, including hurricanes, typhoons, droughts, and heavy rainfall, which can

result in natural disasters and economic losses.

6. Loss of Biodiversity

- Many plant and animal species are facing threats due to changing temperatures

and habitat loss, leading to decreased biodiversity.

7. Shifts in Ecosystems

- Global warming can alter the distribution and behavior of species, leading to

disruptions in ecosystems and impacting food chains.

8. Agricultural Impacts

- Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can affect crop yields and lead

to food insecurity.

9. Water Scarcity

- Changes in precipitation patterns and increased evaporation can lead to water

scarcity in many regions, affecting drinking water supplies and agriculture.

10. Health Risks

- Heat-related illnesses, the spread of disease vectors like mosquitoes, and air

pollution can pose health risks to people, particularly in vulnerable communities.

11. Economic Costs

- The economic costs of global warming include damage from extreme weather

events, increased healthcare costs, and the expenses associated with adaptation and

mitigation efforts.
12. Meltwater Contributions

- Melting glaciers and ice sheets can contribute to rising sea levels, with potential

long-term implications for coastal communities and island nations.

Efforts to mitigate global warming include reducing greenhouse gas emissions

through the transition to cleaner energy sources, conservation and reforestation, and

implementing sustainable land use practices. Adaptation strategies are also crucial

to help communities and ecosystems cope with the changes already occurring due to

global warming. Addressing this complex issue requires global cooperation and

ongoing research to understand and address the wide-ranging impacts of climate

change.

Difference between Global Warming and Climate change

Global warming is when the Earth’s temperature goes up because there are

more greenhouse gases in the air. Climate change is when the climate changes over

a long time, including things like how much it rains, how hot it gets, and the way

the wind blows.

Relevance to computer engineering

Global warming connects with computer engineering in some interesting

ways:

1. Saving Energy: Computer systems use a lot of power, and that energy use

contributes to global warming. Computer engineers are like the eco-

conscious folks who turn off the lights when they leave a room. They work

on making computers and data centers more energy-efficient to reduce their

impact on the environment.

2. Eco-Friendly Tech: Think of computer engineers as the drivers of eco-

friendly cars in the tech world. They design hardware and software that’s

kinder to the planet. This “green computing” helps lower energy use and

decrease the environmental footprint of our gadgets.

3. **Going Green with Renewable Energy**: Computer engineers are also in

on the renewable energy action. They figure out how to use solar or wind

power to run our tech, which is a big step toward reducing our reliance on

fossil fuels and cutting carbon emissions.

4. **Powering Climate Research**: Climate scientists need some serious

computing power to run complex simulations. Computer engineers help

create supercomputers and software to tackle big climate questions, like

predicting weather patterns and understanding climate change.

5. **Eco-Friendly Software**: Computer engineers also write code with a

green twist. They optimize software to be energy-efficient and create tools

for keeping an eye on the environment.

6. **Green Tech Assessment**: They’re also like the environmental inspectors

of the tech world. They assess the impact of tech products on the planet,

from how they’re made to how they’re recycled.

7. **Remote Work and a Lower Carbon Footprint**: Remote work, thanks to

technology, means fewer commutes and less pollution. Computer engineers

have a role in making this possible, contributing to a cleaner environment.

 Overall, computer engineering can have a positive impact on mitigating global

warming by developing energy-efficient technologies, enabling climate research,

and supporting sustainable practices in the IT industry. It’s essential for computer

engineers to be aware of the environmental implications of their work and strive to

contribute to a greener and more sustainable future.

Reference list

https://www.google.com/amp/s/climate.nasa.gov/what-is-climate-change.amp
https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/blogs/climateqa/category/global-warming-
causes/
https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-difference-between-global-warming-and-climate-
change#:~:text=%E2%80%9CGlobal%20warming%E2%80%9D%20refers%20to
%20the,%2C%20temperature%2C%20and%20wind%20patterns.
 HYDROSPHERE

EPS 131-Chemistry of Engineers (TA)

By:

Durango, Grace Joy D.

Professor:

Engr. Marinela C. Bansuela, Ph.D

 Everything in Earth's system can be placed into one of four major subsystems: land,

water, living things, or air. These four subsystems are called "spheres." The hydrosphere,

including all the waters on the Earth’s surface, is interconnected with the other ‘spheres’ in the

Earth system, that is the geosphere (lithosphere and atmosphere), the biosphere, and the human-

related anthroposphere. Water is everywhere on Earth. About seventy percent of the surface of

the Earth is covered by water. If you were an alien visiting the planet, you would see a giant blue

sphere from space (especially on the Pacific Ocean side). Not only is water everywhere, but all

life depends on water. The tiniest bacteria and the largest dinosaurs have all needed water.

The hydrosphere is the world of water that surrounds all of us.

The abundance of liquid water on Earth clearly distinguishes our unique planet from

other planets in the solar system, where no liquid water can be found. Water is a basic element of

the life support system of the planet, being essential for self-reproducing life. It is a universal

solvent and carrier of substances. Water has unique properties and behaves in an anomalous way.

This plays a crucial role in many fundamental processes in the geosphere and biosphere.

The hydrosphere is the component of the Earth that is composed of

all liquid water found on the planet. The hydrosphere includes water storage areas such

as oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams. Overall, the hydrosphere is very large, with the

oceans alone covering about 71% of the surface area of Earth.

Any water storage area on the Earth that holds liquid water is considered to be a part of the

hydrosphere. Because of this, there is an extensive list of formations that make up the

hydrosphere. These include:

 Oceans: Most of the water on the planet Earth is salt water, and the vast majority of this salt

water is held in the oceans. 97% of Earth's water is salty. The salty water collects in deep

valleys along Earth's surface. These large collections of salty water are referred to as oceans.

 Fresh water: Fresh water is much less abundant than salt water, and is held in a variety of

different places. This water flows as precipitation from the atmosphere down to Earth's

surface, as rivers and streams along Earth's surface, and as groundwater beneath Earth's

surface. Fresh water makes up only 3% of the hydrosphere but is nonetheless essential for

life. Of all the water on Earth, more than 99% of Earth’s water is usable by humans and

many other living things. Only about 0.3% of Earth’s freshwater is accessible as surface

water in lakes and rivers. The majority (over 68%) of Earth’s freshwater is found in icecaps

and glaciers, and just over 30% is found in groundwater.

o Surface water: Surface sources of freshwater include lakes, rivers, and streams.

o Ground water: Fresh water held beneath ground makes up a small portion of the fresh

water on Earth.

 Glacial water: Water that melts off of glaciers.

 Cryosphere: this component includes areas where water is in a frozen state, such as

glaciers, ice caps, and polar ice sheets. The cryosphere influences sea levels and reflects solar

radiation.

 Atmospheric water vapor: The atmosphere is closely linked to the hydrosphere through the

water cycle. It contains water vapor, which condenses into clouds and falls as precipitation,

replenishing the Earth’s water sources.

Central to any discussion of the hydrosphere is the concept of the water cycle (or hydrologic

cycle). This cycle consists of a group of reservoirs containing water, the processes by which
water is transferred from one reservoir to another (or transformed from one state to another), and

the rates of transfer associated with such processes. These transfer paths penetrate the entire

hydrosphere, extending upward to about 15 km (9 miles) in Earth’s atmosphere and downward

to depths on the order of 5 km (3 miles) in its crust.

Water is necessary for sustaining life on Earth and helps connect the Earth's systems.

Precipitation, evaporation, freezing and melting and condensation are all part of the hydrological

cycle (water cycle)- a never-ending global process of water circulation from clouds to land, to

the ocean, and back to the clouds. This cycling of water is intimately linked with energy

exchanges among the Atmosphere, Cryosphere, Hydrosphere, and Geosphere. These connections

help define the Earth's climate and cause much of natural climate variability. Knowing details

about where precipitation occurs, how much, and its characteristics allows scientists to better

understand the impact of precipitation on streams, rivers, surface runoff and groundwater.

Scientists rely on frequent and detailed measurements to develop models to determine changes

and make predictions about future changes in Earth’s water cycle.

Why is the Hydrosphere Important?

The major importance of the hydrosphere is that water sustains various life forms. It plays an

important role in ecosystems and regulating the atmosphere. The hydrosphere covers all water

present on the surface of the earth. It involves saltwater, freshwater, and frozen water along with

groundwater. Also, water in the lower levels of the atmosphere. Following are the reasons why

the hydrosphere is important:

  Water is the most important part of living cells- every cell in a living organism is built up

of about 75% of water. It allows the cell to function appropriately. Cells would not able

to carry out their normal functioning and the life of a cell cannot exist without water.

 For human needs- humans use water in many ways for different purposes. Drinking water

is the most obvious use by humans. This water is also in use for domestic purposes like

washing and cleaning and in industries. Water is also in use for generating electricity

through hydropower.

 Water provides habitat- hydrosphere provides a place for many plants and animals to

survive. Many gases like CO2, O2, nutrients like ammonium and nitrite NO−2 as well as

other ions that are dissolved in water. The presence of these substances is important for

life to exist in water.

 Regulate Climate- the specific heat of water is its unique characteristics. This shows that

water takes a lot of time to heat up and a lot of time to cool down. This helps in

regulating temperatures on earth. This is because they stay in a range that is acceptable

for life on earth to exist.

Challenges Facing the Hydrosphere:

Despite its critical role, the hydrosphere faces numerous challenges:

 Water Pollution: Water pollution is a pressing issue affecting the hydrosphere. It stems

from a variety of sources, including industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, and urban

pollutants. These contaminants introduce harmful substances into aquatic ecosystems,

negatively impacting both human health and the environment. Industrial effluents often
 contain heavy metals, toxic chemicals, and organic pollutants that can disrupt the balance

of aquatic ecosystems and threaten the health of those who rely on these water sources

for drinking and recreation. Agricultural runoff, which includes pesticides and fertilizers,

can lead to nutrient pollution and harmful algal blooms, further deteriorating water

quality. Urban areas contribute to pollution through stormwater runoff, carrying oil,

heavy metals, and other pollutants from streets and impervious surfaces into rivers and

oceans.

 Over-Extraction: The excessive withdrawal of groundwater for agricultural and industrial

purposes is a significant challenge for the hydrosphere. As the global population grows,

so does the demand for freshwater resources. This often results in over-pumping of

aquifers, leading to lowered water tables, land subsidence, and the depletion of this finite

resource. Furthermore, the construction of dams for various purposes, including

irrigation, hydroelectric power generation, and flood control, alters natural water flow

patterns. While these dams provide valuable services, they can also disrupt ecosystems,

reduce sediment transport, and hinder fish migration, impacting aquatic habitats.

 Climate Change: Climate change is having profound effects on the hydrosphere. Rising

global temperatures are accelerating the melting of glaciers and polar ice caps. This

contributes to rising sea levels, which can lead to coastal erosion, flooding of low-lying

areas, and the displacement of communities. Additionally, climate change alters

precipitation patterns, leading to more intense and unpredictable rainfall in some regions

and prolonged droughts in others. These changes can disrupt the availability and

distribution of freshwater resources, intensify competition for water, and impact

agriculture, industry, and ecosystems that depend on stable water supplies.

  Overfishing: Overfishing and destructive fishing practices are depleting marine resources

and threatening the health of marine ecosystems. Industrial fishing techniques, like

bottom trawling, can devastate seafloor habitats and capture non-target species as

bycatch. In addition, excessive fishing pressure has led to the decline of numerous fish

populations. This not only affects the livelihoods of those who depend on fishing but also

disrupts the balance of marine food chains, potentially causing cascading effects on the

entire ecosystem. Sustainable fishing practices and effective fisheries management are

essential to ensure the long-term health of marine environments.

 Habitat Destruction: Wetland drainage, river channelization, and coastal development

contribute to habitat loss and destruction. Wetlands, which serve as natural water filters,

flood control mechanisms, and critical wildlife habitats, are often drained for agriculture

or urban development. Channelization of rivers for navigation and flood control can alter

the natural flow of water and disrupt ecosystems. Coastal development can lead to habitat

loss, increased pollution from runoff, and greater vulnerability to storm surges and rising

sea levels. These actions have severe consequences for the health of the hydrosphere and

the species that rely on it for survival.

In conclusion, the hydrosphere is a vital component of Earth's systems, playing a crucial role

in supporting life, regulating climate, and providing numerous benefits to humanity. However, it

is facing significant challenges due to human activities, including pollution, over-extraction,

climate change, overfishing, and habitat destruction. It is imperative that we take proactive

measures to protect and preserve the hydrosphere for current and future generations. By

understanding its significance and acting responsibly, we can ensure a sustainable future for our

planet and all its inhabitants.

References

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, April 13). hydrosphere. Encyclopedia Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/science/hydrosphere

Andrew Rader Studios. (n.d.). Geography4Kids.com: Hydrosphere. Copyright © 1997-2015 by

Andrew Rader Studios, All Rights Reserved.

http://www.geography4kids.com/files/water_intro.html

Hydrosphere: Definition, components, importance and examples. (2020b, December 23). Toppr-

guides.

https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/earth/hydrosphere/?fbclid=IwAR0TpRwDZaNgITsZ4FD

a66vpQZ6LfsTdYyow4jAHXRVCssRop0CM2RbX0_U

Hydrosphere - energy education. (n.d.).

https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Hydrosphere?fbclid=IwAR3LJsCoVPlRnGuwO

GkAIGBbdW-5ROoFNzjgjdmBh5JhTn53gySrFhjINVU

Admin. (2022, July 29). Hydrosphere - Importance Of Hydrosphere | Layers Of Hydrosphere.

BYJUS.

https://byjus.com/physics/hydrosphere/?fbclid=IwAR38aRYloT1iU1pq3WO0qFCzXgQu

a_ag0qp3eBav85sMjwWUyXzZiUDGTck

Data, M. N. (n.d.). About The Hydrosphere | My NASA Data. My NASA Data.

https://mynasadata.larc.nasa.gov/basic-page/about-

hydrosphere?fbclid=IwAR2HLrEGnRhs6MVn04oMhduMc0twBEhBQe4dSCIT2_FiIzA

ocUeL8Z6AGfs
EPS 131- CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS (TA)

MWF (10:00 AM-12:00 PM)

WATER CYCLE
also called "Hydrologic Cycle"

ENGR. MARINELA C. BANSUELA, Ph. D

PROFESSOR

ESPARCIA, FRANCIS CYLA C.

STUDENT
 Water is a priceless natural resource. Water is a necessity for all living things. Life without

water is impossible. As explained in the Cambridge Dictionary, "water" is defined as "a clear

liquid, without color or taste, that falls from the sky as rain and is necessary for animal and plant

life." Moreover, it is also defined with the same source as " an area of water, such as an ocean, a

lake or a swimming pool." In addition, it is also defined scientifically in Britannica as "a

substance composed of the chemical elements hydrogen and oxygen and existing in gaseous,

liquid, and solid states"( Zumdahl, 2023).

According to NASA Climate Kids (2023), "Water Cycle"also known as the Hydrologic Cycle,

is the path or the way that water moves around the Earth in different states like liquid, solid ice

and water vapor or a gas. In a simpler sense, it is the process where that happens above and

below the surface of the Earth. The sun's heat is the major cause in this process. In some colder
parts of the Earth, the heat of the sun causes the glaciers and snow to melt, forming a liquid

water. This liquid water flows from rivers to oceans and even to soil. There, it supplies water for

plants and the groundwater that we usually drink. Following this is the process in which the

water moves in different places and in different states.

When the heat from the sun causes the water molecules to rise up to the atmosphere, this is

where evaporation occurs. Evaporation generally happens when water molecules at the surface

of water bodies like oceans, lakes and streams rise into the air. The molecules with the highest

kinetic energy forms water vapor in the clouds because the molecules move and vibrate so

quickly. In the same way, this happens when a liquid substance becomes a gas. Evaporation is a

very essential part in the water cycle and as it is mentioned the Sun plays an important role in the

process. On one end, when evaporation takes place the level of water decreases as it is exposed

to heat. In addition, this process involves a change in the state of matter of liquid. They transfer

energy to each other as the molecules of the liquid collide with each other. The liquid particles

will generally escape and enter the surrounding air as a gas when a molecule near the surface

consumes enough energy to overcome the vapor pressure. The energy extracted from the

vaporized liquid as evaporation occurs decreases the temperature of the liquid, resulting in

evaporative cooling. Additionally, evaporation also occurs in land and plants. This process is

called "transpiration", where water vapor is being released from soil and plants (National

Geographic Society, 2023). Furthermore, when the water evaporates, it helps to form the clouds.

The clouds then release the moisture as rain or snow and it falls back to Earth (National

Geographic Society, 2023).

 But before the vapors fall back to earth, it undergoes another process of condensation.

Particularly, this process is where the water vapor becomes liquid and is the reverse action of

evaporation. Condensation happens in two different ways, either the air is cooled to its dew point

or it becomes saturated with water vapor that it cannot hold anymore water. This is where a gas

turns into a liquid form. When the water in the air comes in contact with a cold surface, it

condenses and forms water droplets. Clusters of atoms and molecules are created during

condensation. For instance, water nucleates around dust, pollen, or microbiological particles

inside clouds. The clusters eventually get big enough to produce droplets (Helmenstine,2019).

The organization of water molecules leads to the release of heat into the atmosphere, which

causes the water to transition from a vapor to a liquid phase. Condensation occurs and happens

everyday. Clouds in the sky, morning dew, fog on the car's window, fog in the air, and foggy

glasses are examples of when condensation happens. Further, dry ice and glaciers can also

contribute to condensation. This process is called "sublimation" and happens when dry ice and

glaciers produce water vapors. In other words, the process is done when a solid is converted in a

liquid state.

As water vapor condenses, it cools down to the point where it becomes liquid again, creating

clouds in the atmosphere. Because the liquid envelops minuscule dust or dirt particles in the

atmosphere, clouds are visible to humans. In this situation, the process of "precipitation" occurs,

when water vapor condenses into bigger droplets of water heavy enough to fall back to Earth.

They come in different forms such as rain, sleet or snow. If a cloud is colder, like it would be at

higher altitudes, the water droplets may freeze to form ice. These ice crystals can then fall back

to Earth as snow, hail, or rain, depending on the temperature within the cloud and at the Earth's
surface. Most rain begins as snow high in the clouds and as they fall through warmer air, they

become raindrops. Particles of dust or smoke in the atmosphere are very important in

precipitation. These particles are called "condensation nuclei," which provides a surface for

water vapor to condense upon. This helps water vapor to gather together and become large

enough to fall back to Earth.

Precipitation is always fresh water ( National Geographic Society, 2023), even when it

originated from the ocean. That is because sea salt does not evaporate with water. However, in

some cases, pollutants in the atmosphere can contaminate water droplets before they fall to the

ground, which results in acid rain. Although acid rain does not directly harm humans, it brings

acidity to lakes, rivers or streams and can also harm the ecosystem. In some instances, the

intensity and frequency of precipitation is also affected by climate change (Hatheway, 2008).

Moreover, the formation of precipitation also suggests the presence of chemical reaction and can

be affected by temperature.

After precipitation, there are multiple processes that can happen. Some of it runs off into rivers

and streams, some seeps into the ground as groundwater or soil moisture, and some evaporates

and returns to the atmosphere. When the precipitation stops, runoff can happen. Runoff pertains

to when there is a lot of water a land can absorb. The remaining liquid flows into nearby creeks,

streams, or ponds after flowing across the land. Natural processes and human action are both

sources of runoff. Snowmelt is the most known type of natural runoff. When large quantities of

snowfall fall on mountains that are incapable of absorbing the water, runoff creates streams,
rivers, and lakes. Runoff from snow, rain, and glaciers also contribute to this natural process.

(National Geographic Society, 2023)

Aside from runoff, there is also what is called "infiltration". As water percolates into the soil

from the surface, infiltration occurs. It travels underneath the surface, passing through rocks and

dirt. Plants will grow by absorbing some of the water through their roots. After a while, the

plant's leaves spill out waste water into the atmosphere. Water may be absorbed by the soil and

remain there for a substantial period of time before slowly evaporating. Infiltration happens in

the upper layers of the ground but may also continue further downwards into the ground but it

also depends on how saturated the ground is or in simpler term, it also depends on what kind of

soil, the structure and the moisture content a soil has (Udegbunam, 2020).

It is important to remember that runoff is typically higher in semi-arid regions. Water had a

hard time penetrating the earth in some places due to burnt soil. Infiltration is important in the

process because of several reasons. Poor quality soil prevents water from penetrating the soil and

instead causes it to runoff downslope. Also, poor soil water storage for plant growth can result

from an extended runoff. It may also result in soil erosion, which is the process by which

nutrients, organic matter, and sediments from the soil are carried into lakes, rivers, and streams

(NOAA, 2023).
 REFERENCES

https://gpm.nasa.gov/education/water-cycle

"The Water Cycle: Precipitation Education"

https://climatekids.nasa.gov/water-cycle/

"What is the Water Cycle"

https://byjus.com/biology/water-cycle/

"Water Cycle -and its Various Stages"

https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/how-weather-works/water-cycle

"The Water Cycle"

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/water-cycle/

"Water Cycle"

https://ncse.ie

"The Water Cycle" (pdf)

https://www.weather.gov/lot/hydrology_education_watercycle

"Hydrology Education: The Water Cycle"

https://www.britannica.com/science/water

"Water | Definition, Chemical Formula, Structure, Molecule & Facts"

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/water

" Water | Definition in the Cambridge Dictionary"

https://byjus.com/chemistry/evaporation-causes-cooling/

"What is Evaporation"

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/process-evaporation/

"The Process of Evaporation"

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/hydrologic-cycle/

"Hydrologic Cycle"

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/precipitation/

"Precipitation: National Geographic Education"

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/condensation/

" Condensation "

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/runoff/

"Runoff"

https://afrilcate.com/infiltration/

"What is infiltration"

https://eartheclipse.com/science/geography/process-of-infiltration-water-cycle-and-its-importanc

e.html

"Process of Infiltration in Water Cycle and Why It Is Important"

 CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

EPS 131 for CoE

Topic Number 20:

LAYERS OF LITHOSPHERE

Submitted by: Jay R Nocelo Fuentes

CoE 1st Year student

Submitted to: Engr. Marinela Bansuela PhD

Chemistry for Engineers Professor
 LAYERS OF LITHOSPHERE

According to the National Geographic Society that the lithosphere is the solid, outer part

of Earth. The lithosphere includes the brittle upper portion of the mantle and the crust, the

outermost layers of Earth’s structure. It is bounded by the atmosphere above and

the asthenosphere (another part of the upper mantle) below.

Although the rocks of the lithosphere are still considered elastic, they are not viscous.

The asthenosphere is viscous, and the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (LAB) is the point

where geologists and rheologists—scientists who study the flow of matter—mark the

difference in ductility between the two layers of the upper mantle. Ductility measures a solid

material’s ability to deform or stretch under stress. The lithosphere is far less ductile than

the asthenosphere.

https://images.nationalgeographic.org/image/upload/t_edhub_resource_key_image/v1638890146/EducationHub/photos/cutaway-earth.jpg
 EARTH’s CORE

Earth’s core is the very hot, very dense center of our planet. The ball-shaped core lies beneath

the cool, brittle crust and the mostly solid mantle. The core is found about 2,900 kilometers

(1,802 miles) below Earth’s surface, and has a radius of about 3,485 kilometers (2,165 miles).

Planet Earth is older than the core. When Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago, it was

a uniform ball of hot rock. Radioactive decay and leftover heat from planetary formation

(the collision, accretion, and compression of space rocks) caused the ball to get even hotter.

Eventually, after about 500 million years, our young planet’s temperature heated to

the melting point of iron—about 1,538° Celsius (2,800° Fahrenheit). This pivotal moment in

Earth’s history is called the iron catastrophe.

The iron catastrophe allowed greater, more rapid movement of Earth’s molten, rocky

material. Relatively buoyant material, such as silicates, water, and even air, stayed close to

the planet’s exterior. These materials became the early mantle and crust. Droplets of iron,

nickel, and other heavy metals gravitated to the center of Earth, becoming the early core. This

important process is called planetary differentiation.

Earth’s core is the furnace of the geothermal gradient. The geothermal gradient measures the

increase of heat and pressure in Earth’s interior. The geothermal gradient is about 25° Celsius

per kilometer of depth (1° Fahrenheit per 70 feet). The primary contributors to heat in the

core are the decay of radioactive elements, leftover heat from planetary formation, and heat

released as the liquid outer core solidifies near its boundary with the inner core.

Unlike the mineral-rich crust and mantle, the core is made almost entirely of metal—

specifically, iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni). The shorthand used for the core’s iron-nickel alloys is

simply the elements’ chemical symbols—NiFe.

Elements that dissolve in iron, called siderophiles, are also found in the core. Because these

elements are found much more rarely on Earth’s crust, many siderophiles are classified as

“precious metals.” Siderophile elements include gold, platinum, and cobalt.

Another key element in Earth’s core is sulfur—in fact 90 percent of the sulfur on Earth is

found in the core. The confirmed discovery of such vast amounts of sulfur helped explain

a geologic mystery: If the core was primarily NiFe, why wasn’t it heavier?

Geoscientists speculated that lighter elements such as oxygen or silicon might have been

present. The abundance of sulfur, another relatively light element, explained the conundrum.

Although we know that the core is the hottest part of our planet, its precise temperatures are

difficult to determine. The fluctuating temperatures in the core depend on pressure,

Earth's rotation, and the varying composition of core elements. In general, temperatures range

from about 4,400° Celsius (7,952° Fahrenheit) to about 6,000° Celsius (10,800° Fahrenheit).

The core is made of two layers: the outer core, which borders the mantle, and the inner core.

The boundary separating these regions is called the Bullen discontinuity.

INNER CORE

The inner core is a hot, dense ball of (mostly) iron. It has a radius of about 1,220 kilometers

(758 miles). Temperature in the inner core is about 5,200° Celsius (9,392° Fahrenheit). The

pressure is nearly 3.6 million atmosphere (atm).

The temperature of the inner core is far above the melting point of iron. However, unlike the

outer core, the inner core is not liquid or even molten. The inner core’s intense pressure—the

entire rest of the planet and its atmosphere—prevents the iron from melting. The pressure and
density are simply too great for the iron atoms to move into a liquid state. Because of this

unusual set of circumstances, some geophysicists prefer to interpret the inner core not as a

solid, but as a plasma behaving as a solid.

OUTER CORE

The outer core, about 2,200 kilometers (1,367 miles) thick, is mostly composed of liquid iron

and nickel. The NiFe alloy of the outer core is very hot, between 4,500° and 5,500° Celsius

(8,132° and 9,932° Fahrenheit).

The liquid metal of the outer core has very low viscosity, meaning it is

easily deformed and malleable. It is the site of violent convection. The churning metal of the

outer core creates and sustains Earth’s magnetic field.

The hottest part of the core is actually the Bullen discontinuity, where temperatures reach

6,000° Celsius (10,800° Fahrenheit)—as hot as the surface of the sun.

MANTLE

The mantle is the mostly solid bulk of Earth’s interior. The mantle lies between

Earth’s dense, superheated core and its thin outer layer, the crust. The mantle is about 2,900

kilometers (1,802 miles) thick, and makes up a whopping 84 percent of Earth’s total volume.

As Earth began to take shape about 4.5 billion years ago, iron and nickel quickly separated

from other rocks and minerals to form the core of the new planet. The molten material that

surrounded the core was the early mantle.

Over millions of years, the mantle cooled. Water trapped inside minerals erupted with lava, a

process called “outgassing.” As more water was outgassed, the mantle solidified.

The rocks that make up Earth’s mantle are mostly silicates—a wide variety

of compounds that share a silicon and oxygen structure. Common silicates found in the

mantle include olivine, garnet, and pyroxene. The other major type of rock found in the

mantle is magnesium oxide. Other mantle elements include iron, aluminum, calcium, sodium,

and potassium. The temperature of the mantle varies greatly, from 1000°C (1832°F) near

its boundary with the crust, to 3700°C (6692°F) near its boundary with the core. In the

mantle, heat and pressure generally increase with depth. The geothermal gradient is a

measurement of this increase. In most places, the geothermal gradient is about 25°C per

kilometer of depth (1°Fper 70 feet of depth).

The viscosity of the mantle also varies greatly. It is mostly solid rock, but less viscous

at tectonic plate boundaries and mantle plumes. Mantle rocks there are soft and able to

move plastically (over the course of millions of years) at great depth and pressure. The

transfer of heat and material in the mantle helps determine the landscape of Earth. Activity in

the mantle drives plate tectonics, contributing to volcanoes, seafloor spreading, earthquakes,

and orogeny (mountain-building).

The mantle is divided into several layers: the upper mantle, the transition zone, the lower

mantle, and D” (D double-prime), the strange region where the mantle meets the outer core.

UPPER MANTLE

The upper mantle extends from the crust to a depth of about 410 kilometers (255 miles). The

upper mantle is mostly solid, but its more malleable regions contribute to tectonic activity.
Two parts of the upper mantle are often recognized as distinct regions in Earth’s interior:

the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.

The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of Earth, extending to a depth of about 100 kilometers

(62 miles). The lithosphere includes both the crust and the brittle upper portion of the mantle.

The lithosphere is both the coolest and the most rigid of Earth’s layers.

LITHOSPHERE

The most well-known feature associated with Earth’s lithosphere is tectonic activity. Tectonic

activity describes the interaction of the huge slabs of lithosphere called tectonic plates. The

lithosphere is divided into 15 major tectonic plates: The North American, Caribbean, South

American, Scotia, Antarctic, Eurasian, Arabian, African, Indian, Philippine, Australian,

Pacific, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, and Nazca.

The division in the lithosphere between the crust and the mantle is called the Mohorovicic

discontinuity, or simply the Moho. The Moho does not exist at a uniform depth, because not

all regions of Earth are equally balanced in isostatic equilibrium. Isostasy describes the

physical, chemical, and mechanical differences that allow the crust to “float” on the

sometimes more malleable mantle. The Moho is found at about eight kilometers (five miles)

beneath the ocean and about 32 kilometers (20 miles) beneath continents.

Different types of rocks distinguish lithospheric crust and mantle. Lithospheric crust

is characterized by gneiss (continental crust) and gabbro (oceanic crust). Below the Moho,

the mantle is characterized by peridotite, a rock mostly made up of the mineral’s olivine and

pyroxene.

ASTHENOSPHERE
The asthenosphere is the denser, weaker layer beneath the lithospheric mantle. It lies between

about 100 kilometers (62 miles) and 410 kilometers (255 miles) beneath Earth’s surface. The

temperature and pressure of the asthenosphere are so high that rocks soften and partly melt,

becoming semi-molten.

The asthenosphere is much more ductile than either the lithosphere or lower mantle. Ductility

measures a solid material’s ability to deform or stretch under stress. The asthenosphere is

generally more viscous than the lithosphere, and the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary

(LAB) is the point where geologists and rheologists—scientists who study the flow of

matter—mark the difference in ductility between the two layers of the upper mantle.

The very slow motion of lithospheric plates “floating” on the asthenosphere is the cause of

plate tectonics, a process associated with continental drift, earthquakes, the formation of

mountains, and volcanoes. In fact, the lava that erupts from volcanic fissures is actually the

asthenosphere itself, melted into magma.

Of course, tectonic plates are not really floating, because the asthenosphere is not liquid.

Tectonic plates are only unstable at their boundaries and hot spots.

Transition Zone

From about 410 kilometers (255 miles) to 660 kilometers (410 miles) beneath Earth’s
surface, rocks undergo radical transformations. This is the mantle’s transition zone.

In the transition zone, rocks do not melt or disintegrate. Instead, their crystalline structure
changes in important ways. Rocks become much, much more dense.

The transition zone prevents large exchanges of material between the upper and lower
mantle. Some geologists think the increased density of rocks in the transition zone
prevents subducted slabs from the lithosphere from falling further into the mantle. These
huge pieces of tectonic plates stall in the transition zone for millions of years before mixing
with other mantle rock and eventually returning to the upper mantle as part of the
asthenosphere, erupting as lava, becoming part of the lithosphere, or emerging as new
oceanic crust at sites of seafloor spreading.
Some geologists and rheologists, however, think subducted slabs can slip beneath the
transition zone to the lower mantle. Other evidence suggests that the transition layer
is permeable, and the upper and lower mantle exchange some amount of material.

Water

Perhaps the most important aspect of the mantle’s transition zone is its abundance of water.
Crystals in the transition zone hold as much water as all the oceans on Earth’s surface.

Water in the transition zone is not “water” as we know it. It is not liquid, vapor, solid, or
even plasma. Instead, water exists as hydroxide. Hydroxide is an ion of hydrogen and oxygen
with a negative charge. In the transition zone, hydroxide ions are trapped in the crystalline
structure of rocks such as ringwoodite and wadsleyite. These minerals are formed from
olivine at very high temperatures and pressure.

Near the bottom of the transition zone, increasing temperature and pressure transform
ringwoodite and wadsleyite. Their crystal structures are broken and hydroxide escapes as
“melt.” Melt particles flow upwards, toward minerals that can hold water. This allows the
transition zone to maintain a consistent reservoir of water.

Geologists and rheologists think that water entered the mantle from Earth’s surface
during subduction. Subduction is the process in which a dense tectonic plate slips or melts
beneath a more buoyant one. Most subduction happens as an oceanic plate slips beneath a
less-dense plate. Along with the rocks and minerals of the lithosphere, tons of water and
carbon are also transported to the mantle. Hydroxide and water are returned to the upper
mantle, crust, and even atmosphere through mantle convection, volcanic eruptions, and
seafloor spreading.

Lower Mantle

The lower mantle extends from about 660 kilometers (410 miles) to about 2,700 kilometers
(1,678 miles) beneath Earth’s surface. The lower mantle is hotter and denser than the upper
mantle and transition zone.

The lower mantle is much less ductile than the upper mantle and transition zone. Although
heat usually corresponds to softening rocks, intense pressure keeps the lower mantle solid.

Geologists do not agree about the structure of the lower mantle. Some geologists think that
subducted slabs of lithosphere have settled there. Other geologists think that the lower mantle
is entirely unmoving and does not even transfer heat by convection.

D Double-Prime (D’’)

Beneath the lower mantle is a shallow region called D'', or “d double-prime.” In some areas,
D’’ is a nearly razor-thin boundary with the outer core. In other areas, D’’ has
thick accumulations of iron and silicates. In still other areas, geologists
and seismologists have detected areas of huge melt.

The unpredictable movement of materials in D’’ is influenced by the lower mantle and outer
core. The iron of the outer core influences the formation of a diapir, a dome-shaped geologic
feature (igneous intrusion) where more fluid material is forced into brittle overlying rock. The
iron diapir emits heat and may release a huge, bulging pulse of either material or energy—
just like a Lava Lamp. This energy blooms upward, transferring heat to the lower mantle and
transition zone, and maybe even erupting as a mantle plume.

At the base of the mantle, about 2,900 kilometers (1,802 miles) below the surface, is the core-
mantle boundary, or CMB. This point, called the Gutenberg discontinuity, marks the end of
the mantle and the beginning of Earth’s liquid outer core.

Mantle Convection

Mantle convection describes the movement of the mantle as it transfers heat from the white-
hot core to the brittle lithosphere. The mantle is heated from below, cooled from above, and
its overall temperature decreases over long periods of time. All these elements contribute to
mantle convection.

Convection currents transfer hot, buoyant magma to the lithosphere at plate boundaries and
hot spots. Convection currents also transfer denser, cooler material from the crust to Earth’s
interior through the process of subduction.

Earth's heat budget, which measures the flow of thermal energy from the core to the
atmosphere, is dominated by mantle convection. Earth’s heat budget drives most geologic
processes on Earth, although its energy output is dwarfed by solar radiation at the surface.

Geologists debate whether mantle convection is “whole” or “layered.” Whole-mantle

convection describes a long, long recycling process involving the upper mantle, transition
zone, lower mantle, and even D’’. In this model, the mantle convects in a single process. A
subducted slab of lithosphere may slowly slip into the upper mantle and fall to the transition
zone due to its relative density and coolness. Over millions of years, it may sink further into
the lower mantle. Convection currents may then transport the hot, buoyant material in D’’
back through the other layers of the mantle. Some of that material may even emerge as
lithosphere again, as it is spilled onto the crust through volcanic eruptions or seafloor
spreading.

Layered-mantle convection describes two processes. Plumes of superheated mantle material

may bubble up from the lower mantle and heat a region in the transition zone before falling
back. Above the transition zone, convection may be influenced by heat transferred from the
lower mantle as well as discrete convection currents in the upper mantle driven by subduction
and seafloor spreading. Mantle plumes emanating from the upper mantle may gush up
through the lithosphere as hot spots.

Mantle Plumes

A mantle plume is an upwelling of superheated rock from the mantle. Mantle plumes are the
likely cause of “hot spots,” volcanic regions not created by plate tectonics. As a mantle plume
reaches the upper mantle, it melts into a diapir. This molten material heats the asthenosphere
and lithosphere, triggering volcanic eruptions. These volcanic eruptions make a minor
contribution to heat loss from Earth’s interior, although tectonic activity at plate boundaries is
the leading cause of such heat loss.
The Hawaiian hot spot, in the middle of the North Pacific, sits above a likely mantle plume.
As the Pacific plate moves in a generally northwestern motion, the Hawaiian hot spot remains
relatively fixed. Geologists think this has allowed the Hawaiian hot spot to create a series of
volcanoes, from the 85-million-year-old Meiji Seamount near Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula,
to the Loihi Seamount, a submarine volcano southeast of the “Big Island” of Hawai'i. Loihi, a
mere 400,000 years old, will eventually become the newest Hawaiian island.

Geologists have identified two so-called “superplumes.” These superplumes, or large low
shear velocity provinces (LLSVPs), have their origins in the melt material of D’’. The Pacific
LLSVP influences geology throughout most of the southern Pacific Ocean (including the
Hawaiian hot spot). The African LLSVP influences the geology throughout most of southern
and western Africa.

Geologists think mantle plumes may be influenced by many different factors. Some may
pulse, while others may be heated continually. Some may have a single diapir, while others
may have multiple “stems.” Some mantle plumes may arise in the middle of a tectonic plate,
while others may be “captured” by seafloor spreading zones.

Some geologists have identified more than a thousand mantle plumes. Some geologists think
mantle plumes don’t exist at all. Until tools and technology allow geologists to more
thoroughly explore the mantle, the debate will continue.

Exploring the Mantle

The mantle has never been directly explored. Even the

most sophisticated drilling equipment has not reached beyond the crust.

Xenoliths

Many geologists study the mantle by analyzing xenoliths. Xenoliths are a type of intrusion—
a rock trapped inside another rock. The xenoliths that provide the most information about the
mantle are diamonds. Diamonds form under very unique conditions: in the upper mantle, at
least 150 kilometers (93 miles) beneath the surface. Above depth and pressure, the carbon
crystallizes as graphite, not diamond. Diamonds are brought to the surface in explosive
volcanic eruptions, forming “diamond pipes” of rocks called kimberlites and lamprolites. The
diamonds themselves are of less interest to geologists than the xenoliths some contain. These
intrusions are minerals from the mantle, trapped inside the rock-hard diamond. Diamond
intrusions have allowed scientists to glimpse as far as 700 kilometers (435 miles) beneath
Earth’s surface—the lower mantle. Xenolith studies have revealed that rocks in the deep
mantle are most likely three-billion-year old slabs of subducted seafloor. The diamond
intrusions include water, ocean sediments, and even carbon.

Seismic Waves

Most mantle studies are conducted by measuring the spread of shock waves from
earthquakes, called seismic waves. The seismic waves measured in mantle studies are
called body waves, because these waves travel through the body of Earth. The velocity of
body waves differs with density, temperature, and type of rock.
There are two types of body waves: primary waves, or P-waves, and secondary waves, or S-
waves. P-waves, also called pressure waves, are formed by compressions. Sound waves are
P-waves—seismic P-waves are just far too low a frequency for people to hear. S-waves, also
called shear waves, measure motion perpendicular to the energy transfer. S-waves are unable
to transmit through fluids or gases. Instruments placed around the world measure these waves
as they arrive at different points on Earth’s surface after an earthquake. P-waves (primary
waves) usually arrive first, while s-waves arrive soon after.

Both body waves “reflect” off different types of rocks in different ways. This allows
seismologists to identify different rocks present in Earth’s crust and mantle far beneath the
surface. Seismic reflections, for instance, are used to identify hidden oil deposits deep below
the surface.

Sudden, predictable changes in the velocities of body waves are called “seismic
discontinuities.” The Moho is a discontinuity marking the boundary of the crust and upper
mantle. The so-called “410-kilometer discontinuity” marks the boundary of the transition
zone.

The Gutenberg discontinuity is more popularly known as the core-mantle boundary (CMB).
At the CMB, S-waves, which can’t continue in liquid, suddenly disappear, and P-waves are
strongly refracted, or bent. This alerts seismologists that the solid and molten structure of the
mantle has given way to the fiery liquid of the outer core.

Mantle Maps

Cutting-edge technology has allowed modern geologists and seismologists to produce mantle
maps. Most mantle maps display seismic velocities, revealing patterns deep below Earth’s
surface. Geoscientists hope that sophisticated mantle maps can plot the body waves of as
many as 6,000 earthquakes with magnitudes of at least 5.5. These mantle maps may be able
to identify ancient slabs of subducted material and the precise position and movement of
tectonic plates. Many geologists think mantle maps may even provide evidence for mantle
plumes and their structure.