MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

MODULE

Set Theory
Overview
Welcome to Set Theory!

What is a set? Well, simply put, it's a collection.

First we specify a common property among "things" and then we gather up all
the "things" that have this common property. To learn sets we often talk about the
collection of objects, such as a set of vowels, a set of negative numbers, a group of
friends, a list of fruits, a bunch of keys, etc.
In mathematics, sets are an organized collection of objects and can be
represented in set-builder form or roster form. Usually, sets are represented in curly
braces { }, for example, A = {1,2,3,4} is a set.
In set theory, you will learn about sets and their properties. It was developed to
describe the collection of objects. You will also learn about the classification of sets
here. The set theory defines the different types of sets, symbols and operations
performed.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, students should be able to:
[1] Define sets and represent set notations
[2] Identify the different types of sets
[3] Classify sets as finite or infinite.
[4] Decide if two sets are equal or equivalent.
[5] Perform set operations using Venn Diagram
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

References:
[1] E. C. Baltazar, C. Ragasa, and J. Evangelista. “Mathematics in the Modern
World”. C & E Publishing, Inc., 2018.
[2] D. Sobecki et al. “Math in Our World, 4th Edition”. McGraw-Hill Education,
2019.
[3] R. Aufmann et al. "Mathematical Excursions, 3rd Edition". Brooks/Cole,
Cengage Learning, 2008/2013.

Defining a Set
Karen was in
math class with her
friend Karl. She
whispered to Karl that
she had just bought a set
of school supplies she
needed. Her school
supply collection
includes pad paper,
notebooks, color pens,
pencil , ballpen, colored papers. Their math teacher overheard the conversation and
asked them: What is a set?

We define a SET as follows.

Definition:
A set is a collection of well-defined distinct objects (elements) which have
common property.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

For example, cats, elephants, tigers, and rabbits are animals. When these
animals are considered collectively, it is called set.
For convenience, sets are denoted by a capital letter. For example,
A = {cat, elephant, tiger, rabbit}
Here, A is a set containing 4 elements.

Remarks:
[1] Each object in a set is called an element or a member of the set.
[2] A set is well defined if it is possible to determine whether any given item is an
element of the set. For instance, the set of letters of the English alphabet is well defined.
The set of great songs is not a well-defined set. It is not possible to determine whether
any given song is an element of the set or is not an element of the set because there is
no standard method for making such a judgment.

Methods of Describing Sets

Descriptive Method
Descriptive methods use words or texts to describe the set.

Example 1: Set A is the set of vowels of the English alphabet

Example 2: Use the descriptive method to describe the set B containing 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,
and 11 in two different ways.
Solution: All of the elements in the set are odd natural numbers, and all are less
than 12, so B is the set of odd natural numbers less than 12. Another is the set of
natural numbers from 1 to 11 that are NOT divisible by 2.

Roster Method
This is a fairly simple notation for sets. We simply list each element (or
"member") separated by a comma, and then put some curly brackets around the whole
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

thing. The elements of the set are listed between braces, with commas between the
elements. The order in which we list elements isn’t important.

Example 1: Write in roster method “Set A is the set of vowels of the English alphabet”
A = { a, e, i, o, u }
Example 2: Write in roster method
“Set C is a set of integers greater than or equal to -3””
C = { -3, -2, -1, 0,1, 2, 3 . . . }

(1) The three dots are called ellipsis, and

mean "continue on".
(2) Duplicate elements are listed only once.
(3) Arrangement or form of the elements does not
affect the set.

Set Builder Notation or The Rule Method

Another method of representing a set is set-builder notation. This is a way of
specifying sets wherein those properties which characterized the elements in the set are
stated, or a rule describing a property common to all elements are given. Set-builder
notation is especially useful when describing sets with several or immeasurable
elements.

Note:
(a) This method makes use of variables.A variable is a symbol (usually a letter)
that can represent the elements of a particular set.
(b) Useful when the roster method is impossible (to enumerate all elements).
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

Example 1: In set-builder notation, the set of natural numbers greater than 7 is written
as follows:

Example 2: In set-builder notation, “set C is the set of integers greater than -3” is
written as follows:
C = {x | x is an integer, x > – 3 }
This is read as: “C is the set of elements x such that x is an integer greater than –3.”.

Example 3: In set-builder notation, “set W is the set vowels in the English alphabet” is
written as follows:
W = {x │ x is a vowel in English alphabet}
This is read as: “W is the set of all x such that x is a vowel in the English alphabet”.

The statement “4 is an element of the set of natural

numbers or counting numbers” can be written using
mathematical notation as 4 ∈ N.

The symbol ∈ reads as “is an element of”. To state

that “-3 is not an element of the set of natural
numbers,” we use the
“is not an element of” symbol, ∉, and write -3 ∉N.

Practice question:
(1) Using the methods below, designate the set P with elements 17, 19, 23, 29, and 31
(a) Roster Method
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

(b) Descriptive Method

(c) Set-builder Notation
(2) Rewrite the following in terms of the other methods.
(a) B={x | x is an integer, x>0}
(b) G={z | z is a point on a line}

Activity 4.1 Designating Sets

Instructions
Designating Sets (15 - 20 minutes)
The following are some common number sets:
Set of Natural numbers N={1,2,3,4,5,...}
Set of Whole numbers W={0,1,2,3,4,...}
Set of Integers Z={...,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ...}
Even natural numbers E= {2,4,6,8,10,...}.
Odd natural numbers O={1,3,5,7,9,...}
Refer to these sets and answer the next questions.
The quiz is timed, and you have 30:00 (mm:ss) to complete it.
If you leave the quiz without clicking the Finished button at the end, your answers are
automatically submitted.

Types of Sets
1. Empty Set
A set which does not have any element is known as an empty set. It is also
called Null Set. Empty set is denoted by ϕ or { }.
Example: Set B is a set of months of the year that begins with the letter “K”.

2. Singleton Set
If a set has only one element, it's known as a singleton set. ​For instance, C = {
moon }.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

3. Finite Set
If a set contains no element or a definite number of elements, it is called a finite
set. In this set, the number of elements is countable.
All the empty sets also fall into the category of finite sets.
If the set is non-empty, it is called a non-empty finite set. Some examples of finite
sets are:
A = {x | x is a month in a year}; A will have 12 elements
B = Set of rivers in Iloilo City; B has countable number of elements
C = {d | d is a degree offered by the CLASE, University of San Agustin}

A set is finite if the number of elements in the set is a

whole number. The cardinal number (cardinality) of a
finite set is the number of elements in the set. The
cardinal number of a finite set A is denoted by the
notation n(A). For instance, if A={1, 4, 6, 9} , then n(A)=
4. In this case, A has a cardinal number of 4, which is
sometimes stated as “A has a cardinality of 4.”

4. Infinite Set
Just contrary to the finite set, it will have infinite elements. If a given set is not
finite, then it will be an infinite set.
For example D = {x | x is a natural number}; There are infinite natural numbers.
Hence, A is an infinite set.
F = {1,1,2,3,5,8,13,...}; The set of Fibonacci numbers has an infinite number of
elements.

5. Equal Sets
Set A is equal to set B, denoted by A = B, if and only if A and B have exactly the
same elements. Otherwise, we write A ≠ B.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

For instance, P = {d, e, f } and Q = {e, f, d}. Then we say P = Q.

However, if R = {d, e, f } and S = {e, f, g}. Then R ≠ S.

Definition: One-to-one Correspondence

A one-to-one correspondence exists between two sets A and B if it is possible
to associate the elements of A with the elements of B in such a way that each
element of each set is associated with exactly one element of the other.

6. Equivalent Sets
Set A is equivalent to set B, denoted by A ~ B, if and only if A and B have the
same number of elements or if there is a one-to-one correspondence between their
elements. Note that if two sets are equivalent , then n(A)= n(B).
For instance {1, b, 6, c } = {29, e, f, d}.

Activity 4.2 Classifying Sets

Classifying Sets (15 - 20 minutes)
In the following questions, determine whether the given sets are singleton,
empty, finite, infinite, equal, or equivalent.
The quiz is timed, and you have 30:00 (mm:ss) to complete it.
If you leave the quiz without clicking the Finished button at the end, your answers are
automatically submitted.

Subsets and Power Sets

Subset
Set A is said to be a subset of set B if every
element of set A is also the member of set B.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

Simply, if set A is contained in set B, A is called subset of B. It is denoted by A ⊆ B.

A = {1, 2, 3} B = {2, 1, 4, 3, 5}

Here, all three elements 1, 2, and 3 of set A are also members of set B. Hence, A
is a subset of B.
Remarks:
A ⊆ B reads as “A is a subset of B”.
A ⊇ B reads as “A is a superset of B”.

Proper Subsets of a Set

Set B is a proper subset of set A, denoted by B ⊂ A, if every element of B is an
element of A, and B ≠ A.
The proper subsets of A={1, 2, 3} are
{ }, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}
If B=A then B is an improper subset of A
Set B={1,2,3} is an improper subset of A={1,2,3}

● Any set is considered to be a subset of itself.

Example: A={1,2,3} is a subset of A={1,2,3}
● No set is a proper subset of itself.
Example: A={1,2,3} is not a proper subset of
A={1,2,3}
● The empty set is a subset of every set.
Example { } is a subset of A={1,2,3}
● The empty set is a proper subset of every set except for the empty set.

Power Set
The power set of a set A is the set which consists of all the subsets of the set A.
It is denoted by P(A).
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

For a set A which consists of n elements, the total number of subsets that can be
formed is 2n. From this, we can say that P(A) will have 2n elements. For e.g. A={1, 2, 3} ;
23 = 8 subsets
P(A) = { }, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3}.
Universal Set
This is the set which is the base for every other set formed. Depending upon the
context, the universal set is decided. It may be a finite or infinite set. All the other sets
are the subsets of the Universal set. It is represented by U and is sometimes referred to
as the universe of discourse.
For instance:
The set of real numbers is a universal set of integers. Similarly, the set of a
complex number is the universal set for real numbers.

Joint Set (Overlapping Sets)

Two sets are said to be overlapping sets if they have at least one element in
common.
A = {10, 12, 14, 15} and B = {13, 14, 15, 16, 17} are said to be joint sets or
overlapping sets.
Notice that 14 and 15 are common in both sets.

Disjoint Set
Two sets are said to be disjoint sets if they don't have common element/s.
Consider A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {5, 6}.
Here A and B are disjoint sets because these two sets don't have a common
element.

Venn Diagrams
A good way to visualize sets and their
relationships is to make use of a
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

diagram.
In the 1800's, John Venn developed a diagram to represent sets which he later called
the Venn Diagram.
The figure above shows an example of a Venn Diagram.

Definition:
Venn Diagram is a pictorial representation of sets using shapes. The universal set is
represented by an interior of a rectangle and the other sets, by any closed plane
figures like circle (mostly), triangle, square, etc.
(http://www.solving-math-problems.com/)

In the figure, we can see two overlapping sets A and B which are both contained
in the universal set U. The element {4} happens to be the common element between the
given sets.
Based on the given figure, can you state the elements of U ? What about its
cardinality?
Below is a general Venn diagram for 2 sets sharing some elements.

Photo from: https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12

Operations on Sets
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

1. Complement of a Set
The complement of a set A, denoted by A’, is the set of all elements of the
universal set U that are not elements of A.
Using set-builder notation, the complement of A is
A' = {x|x ∈ U and x ∉ A}
NOTE: The symbol A' can be read as "A prime" or "A complement".

To illustrate, let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and S= { 2, 4, 6, 7}. Let us find S'.

The elements of the universal set are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.
From these elements we wish to exclude the elements of S, which are 2, 4, 6,
and 7. Therefore S’ = {1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10}.

Venn Diagram for Set Complement

Using the Venn diagram, the
complement of a set A is all the things
inside the rectangle that are not seen
inside the circle (Set A).

Share your thoughts:

What is the complement of the
universal set for a given situation?

2. Union of a Set
The UNION of two sets A and B is defined to be the set that contains all the
elements that belong to either A or B or to both A and B.
It is denoted as A ∪ B.
NOTE: The keyword for set union is "or".

Example:
Let set A = {5, 10, 15, 20} and
B = {5, 20, 30, 45}. Then, A union B is:
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

A ∪ B = {5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45} .

3. Intersection of a Set
The intersection of two sets A and B is the set that contains only the common
elements between set A and set B.
It is denoted as A ∩ B.
NOTE: The keyword for set intersection is "and".

Example:
Let A={10, 12, 14, 15}, B= { 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 }, and C = {3, 6, 9 }.

Find a. A Ո B
Note that the elements common to A and B
are 14 and 15.
Thus, A ∩ B = {14, 15}.

b. A ∩ C
Because A and C do not have any elements
in common, so their intersection will give a
null set.
Thus, A ∩ C = { } or Ø.

4. Set Subtraction
(i) The difference between set A and set B is the set
of elements in set A that are not in set B.
In set-builder notation,
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

A - B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∉ B }

https://www.math-only-math.com/

(ii) The difference between set B and set A is the

set of elements in set B that are not in set A.
In set-builder notation, B - A = {x | x ∈ B and x ∉ A }

https://www.math-only-math.com/

Illustrating Set Expressions

Set statements or expressions can be illustrated with Venn diagrams.
To illustrate these statements using diagrams, we follow certain steps.

Venn Diagrams involving two Sets

Suppose we have two sets A and B under

the universal set U. We label the regions in
the Venn diagram by regions I, II, III, and IV.
Region I represents the elements of A
alone. (A not in B)
Region II represents the elements in
both A and B (intersection)
Region III represents the elements in B alone. (B not in A)
Region IV represents the elements in the universal set which are not in the union
of A and B.

Suggested Steps in Illustrating Set Expressions

Step 1 Draw a diagram for the sets, with Roman numerals in each region.
Step 2 Using those Roman numerals, list the regions described by each set.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

Step 3 Find the set of numerals that correspond to the set given in the set
statement.
Step 4 Shade the area corresponding to the set of numerals found in step 3.

Example: Illustrate the set (A ∪ B)' .

Step 1

Step 2

U = {I, II, II, IV} A = {I, II}

B = {II, III}

Step 3

The goal is to find (A ∪ B)'. But, A ∪ B= {I, II, II}. Clearly, region IV is the
only region not in A ∪ B. Thus, the complement of (A ∪ B)'={IV}.

Step 4

Remark:
You can also extend the process of illustrating set statements into 3 sets which
will give you regions I,II,III,...,VII,VIII.

Try This:

Illustrate the following expressions using Venn Diagrams.

1) A ∩ ( B ∩ C)'

2) A' ∪ B'
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

3) A - (B ∩ C)

Problems involving Venn Diagrams

[1] A survey of 275 people was done to find out the preferred fruit to be made into a
fruit shake. The results of the survey are shown below.
84 people like avocados.
72 people like mangoes.
26 people like both avocado and mango.
The figure below shows the Venn diagram that represents the given problem.

Of the people surveyed, how many people

(a) like avocados but not mangoes?
This refers to people who like avocado only (I) ; 84 – 26 =58
(b) like mangoes but not avocados?
This refers to people who like mangoes only (III); 72 – 26 = 46
(c) do not like either of these two fruits?
This refers to people who do not like avocado or mango;
275 – 58 – 46- 26 = 145
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

[2] A fruit shake stand has surveyed 60 students. The results of the survey are listed
below.
26 students like apples.
33 students like mango.
32 students like buko.
11 students like both apples and mango.
13 students like both apple and buko.
15 students like both mango and buko.
5 students like all three.

How many students:

(a) like mango and apple only?
(b) like exactly two of the three flavors of shake
(c) like mango only
(d) like only one of the three flavors of shake

Also, draw a Venn diagram that could represent this problem.

 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE

Evaluate: Venn Diagram Application

Instructions
Read the problem carefully to answer the next set of questions.

CARDINALITY PROBLEM:
In a survey, 160 students were selected and asked to write down their favorite
subjects in high school.
The breakdown of the survey was as follows:
100 students chose Math
110 students chose Biology
90 students chose Chemistry
65 students chose Math and Biology
54 students chose Biology and Chemistry
43 students chose Math and Chemistry
20 students chose Math, Biology and Chemistry

The quiz is not timed, so you can pause it and resume at any time.
If you cancel the quiz, your answers are discarded and they are not counted as a submission.