CEPE19 -Traffic Engineering

and Safety

DR. MARISAMYNATHAN S
A P/C E
NIT T RIC H Y
Course Objectives
1. To understand the fundamentals of traffic stream characteristics
2. To learn the skills of traffic control and management
3. To learn the methods of safe intersection design
4. To learn the importance and methods of accident investigation and
prevention
5. To understand the concepts of road safety audit and safety improvement
methods

2
Course Content
Module 1: Traffic stream characteristics: Road user, vehicle and highway characteristics,
Fundamental parameters and relations of traffic flow, Traffic stream models. Speed data
collection and analysis, Density and travel time measurement and analysis, Moving Observer
Method, Automated Traffic Measurements - Traffic forecasting and growth studies. Capacity
and level of services of roads. Pedestrian studies – flow characteristics - Design principles of
pedestrian facilities.

Module 2: Traffic Management: Parking studies – parking statistics, parking surveys, parking
requirements - on street and off street parking. Lay-byes and bus stops. Principles of Traffic
Control: Basics of traffic management. Traffic Signs, Road Markings. Traffic System
Management – speed, vehicle, parking, enforcement regulations. Mixed traffic regulations –
one way, tidal flow, turning restrictions etc.

3
Course Content
Module 3: Design of Intersections for Safety: Uncontrolled intersection, Conflicts at
intersection, Channelization, Traffic islands, Design of median islands, turning vehicle
templates. Traffic intersection control: Traffic Rotaries – design of traffic rotaries.
Traffic signal design - Design Principles of Traffic Signal, Coordinated Traffic Signal,
Vehicle Actuated Signals and Area Traffic Control. Design of Grade Separated
Intersection - trumpet, diamond, cloverleaf and flyovers.

4
Course Content
Module 4: Accident Investigation and Prevention: Characteristics of road accidents,
causes of accidents: road – driver – vehicle - environment, Significance of accident
data, Accident recording and analysis - Crash reporting and collision diagrams –
Statistical Interpretation and Analysis of Crash Data. Identification of potential sites for
treatment - Safety countermeasures. Monitoring and evaluation. Roadway lighting.

Module 5: Road Safety Audit – Overview, stages of road safety audit, audit process,
checklists, and elements of good road safety audit. Highway safety improvement
program - Safety Education, Traffic Law Enforcement. Road Safety Management
System. Case studies.

5
References
1. Khanna, S. K., Justo, C. E. G. and Veeraragavan A., Highway Engineering, Nem Chand
and Bros, Roorkee, 2014.
2. Kadiyali, L. R., and Lal, N. B., Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering,
Khanna Publishers, 2008.
3. IRC SP: 88 – 2010
4. Rune Elvik, Alena hoye, Truls Vaa and Michael Sorensen, The handbook of Road
Safety Measures, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2009
5. ITE, Highway Safety Manual, ITE, 201

6
Course Evaluation:
Evaluation Pattern
Evaluation Marks (Max of) Duration Remarks
Mid-Semester 30 1Hr 30Min Three Modules
Quiz 10 - -
Assignments 10 - -
Project Work 10 - -
Compensation 30 1Hr 30Min Five Module

End Semester 40 3Hr Five Module

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Module 1 - Traffic stream characteristics
➢ Road user, vehicle and highway characteristics
➢ Fundamental parameters and relations of traffic flow
➢ Traffic stream models
➢ Speed data collection and analysis
➢ Density and travel time measurement and analysis
➢ Moving Observer Method
➢ Automated Traffic Measurements
➢ Traffic forecasting and growth studies
➢ Capacity and level of services of roads
➢ Pedestrian studies – flow characteristics - Design principles of pedestrian facilities
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Module 1 - Traffic stream characteristics
➢ Road user, vehicle and highway characteristics
➢ Fundamental parameters and relations of traffic flow
➢ Traffic stream models
➢ Speed data collection and analysis
➢ Density and travel time measurement and analysis
➢ Moving Observer Method
➢ Automated Traffic Measurements
➢ Traffic forecasting and growth studies
➢ Capacity and level of services of roads
➢ Pedestrian studies – flow characteristics - Design principles of pedestrian facilities
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Traffic Engineering Characteristics
➢ Traffic Engineering – To analyze the behavior of traffic and design the
facilities

➢ Aim – Smooth, Safe and Economical operation of Traffic

➢ Traffic Stream Parameters give the information regarding the nature of

traffic flow like water flow.

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Traffic Engineering Characteristics
➢ Three Type –
1. Road User

2. Vehicular

3. Highway

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Road User Characteristics
➢ The various Road user’s characteristics affecting the road design can be
classified as
- Driver Characteristics

- Pedestrian Characteristics

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Road User Characteristics – Driver
➢ Driver Characteristics are involved in
✓ Gap acceptance
✓ Lane changing/overtaking
✓ Crossing junction at the end of green period
✓ Roadway sign design
✓ Street light design
✓ Roadway marking design
✓ Licensing control

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Road User Characteristics – Driver
➢ Factors Affecting Driver Characteristics

1. Physical Factors
✓ Eye-sight vision
✓ Hearing power
✓ Fatigue, alcohol or drugs, illness etc

2. Mental Factors
✓ Intelligence
✓ Education, skill, knowledge
✓ Experience/training of the drivers

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Road User Characteristics – Driver
➢ Factors Affecting Driver Characteristics

3. Psychological Factors
✓ Impatience

✓ Attentiveness

✓ Ability to follow regulation and

✓ Maturity

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Road User Characteristics – Driver

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Road User Characteristics – Driver

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Road User Characteristics – Driver

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Road User Characteristics – Driver

PIEV - Design value is usually

based upon the normal range
of road users
(85th percentile group)
- Rural area- 2.5 sec
- Urban area- 2.25-2.5 sec

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Road User Characteristics – Driver

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Road User Characteristics – Driver

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Road User Characteristics – Driver

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Road User Characteristics – Driver

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Road User Characteristics – Pedestrian
# General:

- Their actions are less predictable than those of drivers

- They are hard to enforce

- Pedestrians are more often disobey traffic control devices than are drivers

# Crossing Characteristics:

- Pedestrian tends to walk in a path that represents the shortest distance

- They often cross at mid-block

- They also have resistance to change grades when crossing roadways

- They don’t voluntarily make use of pedestrian facilities such as underpasses or overpasses

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Vehicular Characteristics
➢ The various Vehicular Characteristics affecting the road design can be
classified as
- Static/Physical Characteristics

- Dynamic Characteristics

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Vehicular Characteristics - Static/Physical
➢Axle Load: Weight of vehicle affects
✓ Structural design of pavement (number of layers, thickness of each layer, material
requirements etc) and bridge/fly-over/grade separator

➢Width: Width of vehicle affects

✓ Lane width - Shoulder width - Width of parking bay

➢Length: Length of vehicle affects

✓ Design of horizontal alignment - Passing sight distance – Parking facilities

➢Height: Height of vehicle affects

✓Clearance to be provided under the structures e.g. under-bridge, over-bridge etc

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Vehicular Characteristics - Dynamic
➢Speed
✓ Horizontal and vertical alignment design
✓Limiting radius
✓Grade and Superelevation
✓Stopping/overtaking sight distance
✓Intersection design and control

➢Acceleration/Deceleration (braking) performance

✓ Acceleration capability influences junction capacity, safe passing distance etc
✓Maximum deceleration rate is required to know safe stopping distance

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Highway Characteristics
➢ The various Road/Highway Characteristics affecting the road design can
be classified as
- Friction coefficient
- Surface conditions

- Road geometry

- Markings

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Module 1 - Traffic stream characteristics
➢ Road user, vehicle and highway characteristics
➢ Fundamental parameters and relations of traffic flow
➢ Speed data collection and analysis
➢ Density and travel time measurement and analysis
➢Traffic stream models
➢ Moving Observer Method
➢ Automated Traffic Measurements
➢ Traffic forecasting and growth studies
➢ Capacity and level of services of roads
➢ Pedestrian studies – flow characteristics - Design principles of pedestrian facilities
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Traffic Stream Parameters
➢ The traffic stream includes a combination of driver and vehicle behavior.

➢ The driver or human behavior being non-uniform, traffic stream is also non-
uniform in nature.

➢ It is influenced not only by the individual characteristics but also by the way a
group of such units interacts with each other.

➢ Thus a flow of traffic through a street of defined characteristics will vary both
by location and time corresponding to the changes in the human behavior.

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Traffic Stream Parameters
➢ For the purpose of planning and design, assumes that these changes
are within certain ranges.

➢ For example,

if the maximum permissible speed of a state highway is 60 kmph,

the whole traffic stream can be assumed to move on an average

speed of 40 kmph rather than 100 or 20 kmph.

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Traffic Stream Parameters
➢ The traffic stream have some parameters on which the characteristics
can be predicted.

1. Measurements of quantity - Density and Flow

2. Measurements of quality - Speed.

➢ The traffic stream parameters can be macroscopic which characterizes

the traffic as a whole or microscopic which studies the behavior of
individual vehicle in the stream with respect to each other.

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Traffic Stream Parameters
➢ The macroscopic characteristics are grouped as measurement of
quantity or quality, i.e. flow, density, and speed.

➢ The microscopic characteristics include the measures of separation, i.e.

the headway or separation between vehicles based on time or space
headway.

➢The fundamental stream characteristics are speed, flow, and density

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Speed
✓ Speed – Quality measurement (Driver and Passenger)
✓ Rate of motion in distance per unit of time
𝑑
𝑉=
𝑡

✓ d = distance in m, t = time in seconds, and v = speed in m/s

✓ It varies based on time and space
✓ Type of Speed
✓ Spot speed
✓ Running speed
✓ Journey speed
✓ Time mean speed
✓ Space mean speed

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Spot Speed
➢ Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location
➢ Used
➢ To design the geometry of road like horizontal and vertical curves, super elevation etc.
➢ Location and size of signs, design of signals, safe speed, and speed zone determination
➢ Accident analysis, road maintenance, and congestion
➢ Methods of Spot Speed Collection
➢ Enoscope
➢ Pressure contact tubes
➢ Direct timing procedure
➢ Radar speedometer
➢ By time-lapse photographic methods
➢Videographic survey

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Running speed
➢ Average speed maintained by vehicle over a particular course while the
vehicle is moving

➢ Length/Time duration vehicle in motion

➢ Doesn’t consider the stop or waiting time

➢ It is always more than or equal to journey speed

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Journey speed
➢ Effective speed of the vehicle on a journey between two points

➢ Distance/Total time to complete the journey

➢ Spot Speed: Zero to some maximum value

➢ Journey speed is less than running speed – Stop and Go with

acceleration and deceleration

➢ Comfortable travel conditions: Uniformity between journey and running

speed

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Time Mean Speed and Space Mean Speed
➢ Time Mean Speed (TMS) – Average speed of all the vehicles passing a point on
a highway over some specified time period

➢ TMS – Point measurement

➢ Space Mean Speed (SMS) – Average speed of all the vehicles occupying a given
section of a highway over some specified time period

➢ SMS – Length or lane measurement

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Flow
➢ Counting the number of vehicle on a road – Flow or Volume

➢ Number of vehicles pass a point on a road or a given lane or direction of a road

during a specific time interval
𝑛𝑡
➢𝑞 =
𝑡

➢ Variation of Volume:
➢ Monthly, Daily, Hourly (Peak hour, 8-10% of total daily traffic or 2-3 times of avg hourly
volume), and Within Hour
➢ Seasonal Effect
➢ Weekdays and Weekends

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Type of Volume Measurements
1. Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) – Total volume in a year / 365

2. Average Annual Weekday Traffic (AAWT) – Total weekday traffic volume in

a year / 260

3. Average Daily Traffic (ADT) – Six months, a season, a month, a week, or two
or little days

4. Average Weekday Traffic (AWT) – Average of 24hr occur on weekdays less

than one year

✓ AAWT and AWT is analogous to AADT and ADT

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Volume Measurement
➢ Manual counting

➢ Detector/Sensor counting

➢ Moving-car observer method

➢ Video graphic

➢ TIRTL

✓ Gives the distribution of traffic on road, determines the design of a road and related
facilities

✓ Most important of all the parameters of traffic stream.

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Density
➢ The number of vehicles occupying a given length of road or lane and is generally
expressed as vehicles per km

➢ Length of road 𝑥, number of vehicles 𝑛𝑥 , and density

𝑛𝑥
➢𝑘 =
𝑥

➢Measures traffic demand

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Derived characteristics
➢ Time Headway, Distance Headway, and Travel Time

➢ Time headway/ Headway

➢ Microscopic character related to volume

➢ Time difference between any two successive vehicles when they cross a given point

➢ If all headways h in time period, t, over which flow has been measured are added then,
𝑛
✓ σ1 𝑡 ℎ 𝑖 = 𝑡

➢ Flow is defined as the number of vehicles 𝑛𝑡 measured in time interval t, that is,

𝑛𝑡 𝑛𝑡 1
✓𝑞 = = 𝑛 =
𝑡 σ1 𝑡 ℎ𝑖 ℎ𝑎𝑣

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Derived characteristics
➢Distance headway
➢ Distance between corresponding points of two successive vehicles at any given time

➢ If all the space headways in distance x over which the density has been measured are
added,
𝑛
✓ σ1 𝑥 𝑠𝑖 = 𝑥

➢ Density (k) is the number of vehicles 𝑛𝑥 at a distance of x, that is,

𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑥 1
✓𝑘 = = 𝑛𝑥
σ1 𝑠𝑖
=
𝑥 𝑠𝑎𝑣

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Derived characteristics
➢ Travel Time
▪ Time taken to complete a journey

▪ Speed increases, travel time decreases

▪ Travel time inversely proportional to speed

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Time-space diagram
➢ Trajectory of vehicles in the form of a
two dimensional plot

➢ Used to determine the fundamental

parameters and derived characteristics

➢ Single Vehicle
▪ The trajectory provide an intuitive, clear,
and complete summary of vehicular
motion in one dimension

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Time-space diagram
➢ Multiple Vehicles
▪ Vehicles travel in constant speed

▪ Density between X1 and X2:

▪ n=4
𝑛
𝐾=
𝑋1 −𝑋2

▪ Flow between t1 and t2

▪N=3

𝑛
𝑞=
𝑡1 − 𝑡2
▪ Time headway and Space headway

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Time Mean Speed (Vt)
➢ The average of all vehicles passing a point over a duration of time

➢ Simple average of spot speed

1
✓ 𝑣𝑡 = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑣𝑖
𝑛

➢ 𝑣𝑖 = spot speed of ith vehicle, n = number of observations

➢ For frequency table of speed – Arithmetic mean

σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑞𝑖 𝑣𝑖
✓𝑣𝑡 = σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑞𝑖

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Space Mean Speed (Vt)
➢ The average of all vehicles based on spatial weightage instead of temporal
➢ 𝑣𝑖 = spot speed of ith vehicle, n = number of observations, 𝑡𝑖 =
time to complete unit distance, 𝑡𝑠 = average travel time
1
σ
σ 𝑡𝑖 𝑣𝑖
✓ 𝑡𝑠 = =
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛
✓ 𝑣𝑠 = 1
σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑣𝑖

➢ For frequency table of speed – Harmonic mean

σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑞𝑖
✓ 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑞𝑖
σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑣𝑖
𝑖

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Example Problem - 1
➢ If the spot speeds are 50, 40, 60, 54 and 45, then find the time mean speed
and space mean speed.

50
Example Problem - 1
➢ If the spot speeds are 50, 40, 60, 54 and 45, then find the time mean speed
and space mean speed.

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Example Problem - 2
➢ The results of a speed study is given in the form of a frequency distribution
table. Find the time mean speed and space mean speed.

Speed Range Frequency

2-5 1
6-9 4
10-13 0
14-17 7

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Example Problem - 2
➢Find the time mean speed and space mean speed.

53
Relation between time mean speed and space mean speed
✓ Relation between time mean speed and space mean speed

✓ Standard deviation of the spot speed

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Numerical Example
✓For the data given below, compute the time mean speed and space mean
speed. Also verify the relationship between them. Finally compute the
density of the stream.

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Numerical Example – Solution
✓For the data given

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Fundamental relations of traffic flow
✓ Flow-density curve

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Fundamental relations of traffic flow
✓ Speed-density diagram

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Fundamental relations of traffic flow
✓ Speed flow relation

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Fundamental relations of traffic flow
✓ Combined diagrams

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Module 1 - Traffic stream characteristics
➢ Road user, vehicle and highway characteristics
➢ Fundamental parameters and relations of traffic flow
➢ Speed data collection and analysis
➢ Density and travel time measurement and analysis
➢ Traffic stream models
➢ Moving Observer Method
➢ Automated Traffic Measurements
➢ Traffic forecasting and growth studies
➢ Capacity and level of services of roads
➢ Pedestrian studies – flow characteristics - Design principles of pedestrian facilities
61
Traffic Stream Models
1. Greenshield’s model
2. Greenberg’s logarithmic model
3. Underwood’s exponential model
4. Pipes’ generalized model
5. Multi-regime models

62
Traffic Stream Models - Greenshield’s model

➢ Macroscopic stream models represent how the behaviour of one

parameter of traffic flow changes with respect to another.

➢ Most important among them is the relation between speed and density.

➢ The first and most simple relation between them is proposed by

Greenshield.

➢ Greenshield assumed a linear speed-density relationship to derive the

model.

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Traffic Stream Models - Greenshield’s model
➢ The equation for this relationship is shown below

➢ where v is the mean speed at density k,

➢ vf is the free speed and kj is the jam density.

➢ This equation is often referred to as the Greenshield’s

model.

➢ It indicates that when density becomes zero, speed

approaches free flow speed (ie. v → vf when k → 0).

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Traffic Stream Models - Greenshield’s model

➢ Fundamental relationship with flow

➢ Now substituting equation 1 in equation 2, we get

➢ Similarly we can find the relation between speed and flow. For
this, put k = q/v in equation 1 and solving, we get

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Traffic Stream Models - Greenshield’s model
➢ Density corresponding to maximum flow is half
the jam density
𝑘𝑗
✓ 𝑘0 =
2

➢ The maximum flow is one fourth the product of

free flow and jam density
𝑣𝑓 𝑘𝑗
✓ 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4

➢ Speed at maximum flow is half of the free speed

𝑣𝑓
✓ 𝑣0 =
2

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Traffic Stream Models – Calibration of Greenshield’s model
➢Calibrated using free flow speed and jam density which has to be obtained from
field
➢ Let linear equation be y = a + bx such that y is density k and x denotes the speed v.
Using linear regression method, coefficients a and b can be solved as,

➢ Or

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Traffic Stream Models – Calibration of Greenshield’s model
➢ For the following data on speed and density, determine the parameters of the
Grenshield’s model. Also find the maximum flow and density corresponding to a
speed of 30km/hr.
➢
k v
171 5
129 15
20 40
70 25

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Traffic Stream Models – Calibration of Greenshield’s model
➢ Solution
✓ y = v and x = k
➢

𝑣𝑓 𝑘𝑗
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4

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Traffic Stream Models – Greenberg’s logarithmic model
➢ Greenberg assumed a logarithmic relation between speed and density. He
proposed,

✓ This model has gained very good popularity

because this model can be derived analytically.
✓ However, main drawbacks of this model is that
as density tends to zero, speed tends to infinity.
✓ This shows the inability of the model to predict
the speeds at lower densities.
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Traffic Stream Models – Underwood’s exponential model

➢Trying to overcome the limitation of Greenberg’s model, Underwood put forward an

exponential model as shown below.

✓ In this model, speed becomes zero only when

density reaches infinity which is the drawback
of this model.
✓ Hence this cannot be used for predicting speeds
at high densities.

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Traffic Stream Models – Pipes’ generalized model

➢ Further developments were made with the introduction of a new parameter (n) to
provide for a more generalized modeling approach.

➢ Pipes proposed a model shown by the following equation.

➢ When n is set to one, Pipe’s model resembles Greenshield’s model.

➢ Thus by varying the values of n, a family of models can be developed.

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Traffic Stream Models – Multi-regime models

➢ All the above models are based on the assumption that the same speed-density
relation is valid for the entire range of densities seen in traffic streams.

➢ Therefore, these models are called single-regime models.

➢ But field conditions, the speed-density relation will also be different in different
zones of densities

➢ Based on this concept, many models were proposed generally called multi-regime
models.

➢ The most simple one is called a two-regime model, where separate equations are
used to represent the speed-density relation at congested and uncongested traffic.
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Module 1 - Traffic stream characteristics
➢ Road user, vehicle and highway characteristics
➢ Fundamental parameters and relations of traffic flow
➢ Speed data collection and analysis
➢ Density and travel time measurement and analysis
➢ Traffic stream models
➢ Moving Observer Method
➢ Automated Traffic Measurements
➢ Traffic forecasting and growth studies
➢ Capacity and level of services of roads
➢ Pedestrian studies – flow characteristics - Design principles of pedestrian facilities
74
Moving Car Observer

➢ From the field, difficult to measure three fundamental parameters – v, q, and k

➢ Measure any two and derive one from relationship

➢ Method – Moving car observer: It has the advantage of obtaining the complete state
with just three observers, and a vehicle

➢ In this method, the observer moves in the traffic stream unlike all other previous
methods

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Moving Car Observer - Theory

➢Consider a stream of vehicles moving in the north bound

direction. Two different cases of motion can be considered.

➢ The first case considers the traffic stream to be moving and the
with against
observer to be stationary.

➢ If No is the number of vehicles overtaking the observer during a

period of T, then

✓ No = qT

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Moving Car Observer - Theory

➢ The second case assumes that the stream is stationary and the observer moves
with speed vo.

➢ If Np is the number of vehicles overtake by observer over a length L, then

✓ Np = kL

Or

✓ Np = kVoT

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Moving Car Observer - Theory

➢ Now consider the case when the observer is moving within the stream. In that
case Mo vehicles will overtake the observer and Mp vehicles will be overtaken by the
observer in the test vehicle.

➢ Let the difference M is given by Mo - Mp, then

➢ M = Mo - Mp = qT - kVoT

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Moving Car Observer - Theory

➢The test vehicle is run twice once with the traffic stream and another one against
traffic stream, so

➢ Mw = qTw – kVwTw

➢ Ma = qTa + kVaTa

𝑀𝑤 +𝑀𝑎
➢𝑞=
𝑇𝑤 +𝑇𝑎

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Moving Car Observer – Numerical 1: Problem

➢ The length of a road stretch used for conducting the moving observer test is 0.5
km and the speed with which the test vehicle moved is 20 km/hr. Given that the
number of vehicles encountered in the stream while the test vehicle was moving
against the traffic stream is 107, number of vehicles that had overtaken the test
vehicle is 10, and the number of vehicles overtaken by the test vehicle is 74, find the
flow, density and average speed of the stream.

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Moving Car Observer – Numerical 1: Solution

81
Moving Car Observer – Numerical 2: Problem

➢ The length of a road stretch used for conducting the moving observer test is 0.5
km and the speed with which the test vehicle moved is 20 km/hr. For the given data,
find the flow, density, and average speed of the stream.

Trail No Ma Mo Mp
1 107 10 74
2 113 25 41
3 30 15 5
4 79 18 9

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Moving Car Observer – Numerical 2: Solution

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Module 1 - Traffic stream characteristics
➢ Road user, vehicle and highway characteristics
➢ Fundamental parameters and relations of traffic flow
➢ Speed data collection and analysis
➢ Density and travel time measurement and analysis
➢ Traffic stream models
➢ Moving Observer Method
➢ Automated Traffic Measurements
➢ Traffic forecasting and growth studies
➢ Capacity and level of services of roads
➢ Pedestrian studies – flow characteristics - Design principles of pedestrian facilities
84
Automated Traffic Measurements
Types
1. In-situ technologies – Using detectors located along the roadside
2. In-vehicle technologies – Floating car method (FCD)

Purpose

➢ Enhance public safety;

➢ Reduce congestion;

➢ Improved access to travel and transit information;

➢ Generate cost savings to motor carriers, transit operators, toll authorities, and government
agencies; and

➢ Reduce detrimental environmental impacts.

85
Automated Traffic Measurements

Measurements
1. Vehicle count

2. Vehicle classification

3. Vehicle occupancy

4. Travel time

5. Delay

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Automated Traffic Measurements - In-situ technologies

Types
1. Intrusive technologies that are physically
mounted at, or below, the road surface,
installation of which causes potential disruption
to traffic

4. Weigh-In-Motion Detector system

87
Automated Traffic Measurements - In-situ technologies

Types
2. Non-intrusive technologies are mounted at, or
above the road surface, and their installation
causes little or no disruption to traffic

✓Video Image Detection

✓Infrared Sensors
✓Microwave – Doppler and Radar
✓Pulsed and Active Ultrasonic
✓Passive Acoustic Array Sensors

88
Automated Traffic Measurements - In-Vehicle Technologies

Types

1. GPS-based FCD

2. Radio-frequency identification (RFID)

or Transponder Systems

89
Module 1 - Traffic stream characteristics
➢ Road user, vehicle and highway characteristics
➢ Fundamental parameters and relations of traffic flow
➢ Speed data collection and analysis
➢ Density and travel time measurement and analysis
➢ Traffic stream models
➢ Moving Observer Method
➢ Automated Traffic Measurements
➢ Traffic forecasting and growth studies
➢ Capacity and level of services of roads
➢ Pedestrian studies – flow characteristics - Design principles of pedestrian facilities
90
Traffic Forecasting and Growth Studies

✓Traffic forecasting is the process of estimating the number of people or

vehicles that will use a specific transportation facility in the future.

✓ Traffic forecasts can be utilized in a variety of different situations and

with different modes of transport, from estimating traffic volumes on a
specific segment of road or highway to estimating passenger volumes on a
city’s buses.

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Traffic Forecasting and Growth Studies

✓Forecasts explain what the needs of the future might be and provide
benchmarks for proper design and efficient transportation system
operation.

✓Traffic forecasts are fundamentally important inputs in developing

infrastructure – from developing overall transportation policy, to
planning studies, to the engineering design of specific projects.

✓ Example applications of forecast information include:

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Traffic Forecasting and Growth Studies

✓Example applications of forecast information include:

➢ Development of infrastructure capacity and design calculations

➢ Estimation of the financial and/or social viability of projects

➢ Calculation of environmental impacts, such as air and noise pollution

➢ Review of Existing Situation

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Traffic Forecasting and Growth Studies

✓Forecasting Methods:
➢ Time Series

➢ Naïve

➢ Simple Average Factor Method

➢ Weighted Average Method

➢ Regression Method

➢ Exponential Method

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Module 1 - Traffic stream characteristics
➢ Road user, vehicle and highway characteristics
➢ Fundamental parameters and relations of traffic flow
➢ Speed data collection and analysis
➢ Density and travel time measurement and analysis
➢ Traffic stream models
➢ Moving Observer Method
➢ Automated Traffic Measurements
➢ Traffic forecasting and growth studies
➢ Capacity and level of services of roads
➢ Pedestrian studies – flow characteristics - Design principles of pedestrian facilities
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Capacity and LOS
✓Often it is required to ascertain how much a transport facility can
accommodate. Such information is useful in the design of traffic facility.

✓ Capacity analysis helps in answering the question.

✓ It is a quantitative assessment of the ability of a traffic facility to handle

vehicles or people for which it is designed.

✓ What is the performance level of the system at various operating

conditions? – Answer: LOS

96
Capacity
✓The maximum number of vehicles, passengers, or the like, per unit time
which can be accommodated under given conditions with a reasonable
expectation of occurrence.

✓ Capacity is usually defined for a point or a uniform segment where

operating conditions do not vary.

✓ It is probabilistic measures and analytical derivations are possible for

getting the maximum flow rate.

97
Capacity
✓Capacity depends on operating conditions.

1. Traffic Conditions - Vehicle composition, turning movements, etc.

2. Roadway Conditions - Lane width, shoulder width, horizontal

alignment, vertical alignment

3. Control conditions - Traffic signal timings, round-about characteristics

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Capacity - Roadway Conditions
✓Lane Width
✓ Width of Shoulder
✓ Lateral Clearance
✓Commercial vehicles
✓Road alignment and geometry
✓Existence of intersections
✓Oneway or two way traffic and number of lanes
✓Drivers and vehicular characteristics
✓Single type or mixed traffic
✓Flow speed
✓Weather conditions
✓Road side parking
✓Presence of pedestrians

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LOS
✓ Concept introduced to relate the quality of traffic service to a given flow
rate

✓ LOS is introduced by HCM to denote the level of quality based on

different operation characteristics and traffic volume.

✓ HCM proposes the six letters to define LOS (A to F).

✓ Measures of Effectiveness(MoE) of that facility – Speed, Delay, Density,

Travel Time

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LOS – Type of Facilities
Three Types of Facilities
1. Uninterrupted facilities
✓ Freeway (basic freeway, weaving sections, and ramps) – Density
✓ Multi-lane highways (unidirectional) – Delay or Speed
✓Two-lane highways(bidirectional) – Delay or Speed

2. Interrupted facilities – Control Delay, Total Delay, and Average Travel Speed
✓ Un-signalized intersection
✓ Signalized intersection
✓ Arterials or Corridors

3. Others - Pedestrian pathways, Bicycle tracks, Bus-transit system, Rail-transit system

and Air-transportation system

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LOS – At a Mid-Block Section
✓

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Module 1 - Traffic stream characteristics
➢ Road user, vehicle and highway characteristics
➢ Fundamental parameters and relations of traffic flow
➢ Speed data collection and analysis
➢ Density and travel time measurement and analysis
➢ Traffic stream models
➢ Moving Observer Method
➢ Automated Traffic Measurements
➢ Traffic forecasting and growth studies
➢ Capacity and level of services of roads
➢ Pedestrian studies – flow characteristics - Design principles of pedestrian
facilities
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Pedestrian

✓ Walking – Trips, Recreational, Health, Transit

✓ Accidents at Two Circumstances –

1. Darting: It is used to indicate the sudden appearance of a pedestrian from behind
a vehicle or other sight obstruction.

2. Dashing: It refers to the running pedestrians.

Specific Problems
✓Age
✓Intoxication and Drug effects
✓Dusk and Darkness

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Pedestrian

✓ Any person afoot is the definition of Uniform Vehicle Code of pedestrian

✓ At the beginning and end of every motorist’s trip, he or she is pedestrian. Or

Reaching parking point

✓Urban Area – Design the facilities considering pedestrians

✓ Pedestrian safety is major concern, particularly at intersections

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Factors affecting pedestrian demand

1. The nature of the local community – Proportion of young people

2. Car ownership – Domination of private cars

3. Local land use activities – Short distance trips

4. Quality of provision

5. Safety and security

106
Data Collection

1. Manual Counts – Manual Clicker and Tally Marking Sheet

2. Video Survey

3. Attitude Survey

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Pedestrian Flow characteristic
✓ Similar to vehicular flow – Speed, Volume, Rate of flow, and Density
✓ Pedestrian Speed-Density Relationships

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Pedestrian Flow characteristic
✓Flow-Density Relationships

✓ 𝑄𝑃𝑒𝑑 = 𝑆𝑃𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑃𝑒𝑑

𝑆𝑃𝑒𝑑
✓𝑄𝑃𝑒𝑑 =
𝑀

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Pedestrian Flow characteristic
✓Flow-Density Relationships

✓ 𝑄𝑃𝑒𝑑 = 𝑆𝑃𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑃𝑒𝑑

𝑆𝑃𝑒𝑑
✓𝑄𝑃𝑒𝑑 =
𝑀

✓ Average space per pedestrian varying between 0.4 and 0.9 m2/p
✓ All movement effectively stops at the minimum space allocation of 0.2 to
0.3 m2/p.

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Pedestrian Flow characteristic
✓Speed-Flow Relationships
✓

111
Pedestrian Flow characteristic
✓Pedestrian Speed and Space Relationships
✓

112
Pedestrian Flow characteristic

✓Pedestrian Walking Speed

✓ Elder - 0 to 20%, the average walking speed is 1.2 m/s on walkways

✓ Elderly people - > 20% of the total pedestrians, the average walking speed
decreases to 1.0 m/s.

✓ A walkway upgrade of 10 per cent or more reduces walking speed by 0.1 m/s

✓ On sidewalks, the free-flow speed of pedestrians is approximately 1.5 m/s

✓ Child Pedestrians

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Pedestrian LOS

✓Research indicates that the average delay of pedestrians at signalized

intersection crossings is not constrained by capacity, even when
pedestrian flow rates reach 5,000 p/h.

114
Pedestrian LOS

115
Pedestrian LOS

✓ Calculate time delay of pedestrian crossing at a signalized intersection

operating on a two phase, 80.0-s cycle length, with 4.0-s change interval,
and no pedestrian signals. Major street: Phase green time, Gd = 44.0 s;
Crosswalk length, Ld = 14.0 m; Minor street: Crosswalk length, Lc = 8.5 m;
Phase green time, Gc = 28.0 s;

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Design principle of pedestrian facilities

1. Side walk
➢ Width – Min 1220 mm exclusive of the width of curb

➢ Cross Slope - Maximum 1:48

➢Surfaces - Firm, stable, slip resistance and prohibit openings & avoid service
elements i.e. manholes etc.

➢ A buffer zone of 1.2 to 1.8 m (4 to 6 ft) is desirable

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Design principle of pedestrian facilities
2. Cross Walk
➢ It should be located at all open
legs of signalized intersection.
➢ It should be perpendicular to
roadway.
➢ The parallel line should be 0.2-0.6
m in width and min. length 1.8 m
(standard 3m).
➢ Marking may be of different type
to increase visibility like as solid,
standard, continental, dashed,
zebra, ladder.

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Design principle of pedestrian facilities

3. Traffic Islands
➢ Refuse area median is greater than cross walk width or 3.6 m

➢ Refuge area width should be at least 1.2 m wide

✓ 1.5m wide on streets with speeds between 40-48 kmph,

✓ 1.8 m wide(48-56 kmph)

✓ 2.4 m (56-72 kmph).

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Design principle of pedestrian facilities

4. Pedestrian Overpass and Underpass

✓ Overpasses are less expensive than underpass

✓ Minimum width is required 1.22 m, although 1.83 is preferred.

✓ Ramps slopes not greater than 1:12 (8.33%)

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Design principle of pedestrian facilities

5. Pedestrian Signals

✓ Minimum time gap required for crossing the pedestrians

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Design principle of pedestrian facilities

Calculate time gap for a platoon of 27 school children 5 in a row, consecutive time 2 sec
width of crossing section is 7.5 m and walking speed of children .9 m/s start up time 3
sec

122
Design principle of pedestrian facilities

Calculate time gap for a platoon of 27 school children 5 in a row, consecutive time 2 sec
width of crossing section is 7.5 m and walking speed of children 0.9 m/s start up time
3 sec

123
Design principle of pedestrian facilities

6. Traffic signage

1. In-Pavement Flashers

2. Overhead Signs

3. Animated Pedestrian Indications

4. School Zone Symbol

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Module 1 - Traffic stream characteristics
➢ Road user, vehicle and highway characteristics
➢ Fundamental parameters and relations of traffic flow
➢ Speed data collection and analysis
➢ Density and travel time measurement and analysis
➢ Traffic stream models
➢ Moving Observer Method
➢ Automated Traffic Measurements
➢ Traffic forecasting and growth studies
➢ Capacity and level of services of roads
➢ Pedestrian studies – flow characteristics - Design principles of pedestrian
facilities
125