LAND AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING

ABE 4237

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING - Agriculture accounts for between 60-80% of total water use
wherein about 40% of the water for irrigation was not
- The application of engineering principles to the solution of soil available to crops
and water management. - In areas where water is limited, soil-water should be
- Conservation practices can be beneficial; however, it can also conserved by modified tillage and crop management
be detrimental to the environment techniques, level terracing, contouring, reservoirs, water
- Soil and water resources is a worldwide problem (Napier et al., harvesting, and other means to reduce evaporative losses.
2000) especially in developing countries where people are
more concerned with survival than conservation (Troeh, F.R,
et al., 2004)
Two ways in Increasing Crop Production
Importance of Soil and Water Conservation Engineering
- To develop new land
 Soil – commonly referred to as earth or dirt, a mixture of - To improve the productivity of present cropland
organic matter, mineral, gases, liquids, and other organisms
that support life.
 Water – primary component of the biosphere, that is vital for Roles of Agricultural Engineers in Soil & Water Conservation
agriculture, domestic use, recreation, wildlife, and others.
- To develop and execute a conservation plan:
*Soil and water is vital for sustaining life and crucial as the soil – plant – water – environment interactions
population is increasing. - Must be familiar on the social economic backgrounds
relating to soil and water conservation
- Have a full understanding and updated on the various
Engineering Problems government structures and mechanisms that have been
developed in implementing soil & water conservation
 Erosion Control programs
- Primary caused by human activities by the removal of - Should be familiar with the principles of mapping and
natural vegetation (urban-rural areas) classifying land use (GSIS), and weather records and
- Important in the maintenance of crop yields (in the USA predictions
the amount of soil eroded annually is estimated to be 1M –
200,000 ha of farmland) Soil and Water Conservation around the World
- Caused by water and wind (climate, soil type, vegetative
- Many countries have developed a conservation energy like
cover, topography, conservation practice)
the Natural Resources Conservation Services in the United
*Erosion Control Practices States within a national department or ministry of
agriculture. There have been good results however, there are
1. Planting, tillage, and harvesting operations on or early still some inconsistency and little information to be done to
on the contour reduce soil deterioration and water losses
2. Planting of intertilled crops in alternate strips - Transfer of conservation technology problems include
3. Constructing of cross-slope channels geographic and cultural differences
4. Trees barriers - Reduce the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and greenhouse
5. Mulching gases – the Paris Agreement
6. Vegetative waterways - Shifting cultivation & Conservation – slash-and-burn
7. Stabilizing gullies

 Drainage and Irrigation

*TAKE NOTE*
*Drainage
Soil and water conservation is not merely to preserve soil and water
- Removal of excess water but to maintain its productivity
- Prevents soil and water salinity maintaining a low water
table

*Irrigation

- Application of water to plant/land having low moisture

content FREQUENCY AND PROBABILITY OF WET AND DRY
- Arid areas required irrigation up to 18% of water available SPELLS
water supply to increase crop production
- Development of reservoirs like storage facilities to provide In most agricultural sector, Rainfall is the main source of water.
water at places and times at which there is unavailability Wherein, absence of rainfall or minimal rainfall results in drought.
- Groundwater extraction and recharge
Dry Spells – is a period where the weather has been dry, for a
prolonged period, resulting in drier-than-normal conditions.
 Flood Control
- Prevention of overflow especially to low land area & Wet Spells – is a period where the weather has been wet or above-
reduction of flow in stream during and after storms. average precipitation, resulting to wetter-than-normal conditions.

*Understanding dry and wet spells is crucial for water management

 Water Resources Development & Conservation of resources, sustainable agriculture, and preparing for the impacts
of climate variability.
 Method of Markov Chain Analysis Groundwater Resources

1. Collect daily rainfall data for a period of ten years or more. For 1. Shallow well areas – 5.1M ha.
each year, get the weekly total rainfall and arrange as WK1
(Jan 1-7), WK2 (Jan 8-14) and so on until WK 52 (Dec 24-31). 2. Deep well areas – 12.3M ha.
2. Decide what a Dry (D) or Wet (W) week is by selecting a
Water Resources
threshold value of rainfall for a dry/wet week. A week is
considered a dry week when rainfall is less than 20mm, and/or Four largest river basins
less than 0.1mm rainfall in a day
3. For each year; 1. Cayagan River Basin (Region 2) – damage area = 25,649 km2
a. Identify the D and W weeks
b. Count the frequency or the number of dry weeks F(D) 2. Mindanao River Basin (Region 12) – DA =23,169 km2
and wet weeks F(W).
c. Count the frequency or the number of times a Dry week is 3. Agusan River (region 10) - DA = 10,921 km2
preceded by another dry week F(D/D). 4. Pampanga River Basin (Region 3) = DA = 9245 km2
d. Count the frequency or the number of times a Wet week
is preceded by another Wet week F(W/W Smallest
4. Calculate and tabulate the following probabilities for each
week of each year: 1. Buayan-Malungon River Basin – DA=1434 km2
a. Initial probabilities:
i. Probability of a dry week, P(D) P(D) = F(D)/n Major Lakes

ii. Probability of a wet week, P(W) P(W) = F(W/n) 1. Laguna de Bay and Taal Lake in Southern Luzon

where: n = number of years of data being used 2. Naujan Lake in Mindoro

b. Transitional probabilities: 3. Lake Mainit and Lanao Lake in Mindanao

i. Probability that it will be a dry week if the preceding
Major River Basins in the Philippines (Environmental
week was dry, P(D/D) =
Management Bureau, 2001-2005)
F(D/D)/F(D)
ii. Probability that it will be a wet week if the preceding RIVER BASIN REGION DRAINAGE
week was wet, ARE
P(W/W) = F(W/W)/F(W) (km2)
iii. Probability that it will be a dry week if the preceding Cagayan River Cagayan Valley 25, 649
week was wet, P(D/W) = 1- Mindanao River Southern Mindanao 23, 169
P(W/W)
Agusan River Northern Mindanao 10, 921
iv. Probability that it will be a wet week if the preceding
Pampanga River Central Luzon 9,759
week was dry, P(W/D) = 1-
Agno River Central Luzon 5,952
P(D/D)
Abra River Ilocos 5,125
c. Probability of y consecutive dry weeks, P(Dy) = P(D) * Pasig-Laguna Lake Southern Luzon 4,678
P(D/D) (y-1 Bicol River Bicol Region 3,771
Abulug River Cagayan Valley 3,372
d. Probability of y consecutive wet weeks, P(Wy) = P(W) * Tagum-Libuganon Southeastern 3,062
P(W/W) (y-1 River Mindanao
Ilog-Hilabangan Western Visayas 1,945
5. For additional reference, calculate and identify the following: Panay River Western Visayas 1,843
a. Annual total rainfall for each year and indicate the Tagaloan River Northern Mindanao 1,704
number of days with rain (Example: 3200 mm (200 days) Agus River Southern Mindanao 1,645
b. Maximum and minimum values of annual total rainfall, Davao River Southeastern 1,623
and the year they concurred. Mindanao
c. Indicate trend of annual rainfall (increasing or decreasing Cagayan River Northern Mindanao 1,521
Jalaud River Western Visayas 1,503
SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT Buayan-Malungon Southeastern 1,434
AND MANAGEMENT River Mindano

Sources of Water Ten Major Lakes in the Philippines

National Water Resources Council in 1978 assigned twelve (12)
Names Of Lakes Location Area (Km2)
water resources regions (WRR) of the Philippines for the purpose
Laguna De Bay Laguna And Rizal 900.00
of planning, development, and water regulation.
Lake Lanao Lanao Del Sur 347.00
From 2008 Taal Lake Batangas 233.56
Lake Mainit Surigao Del 17.43
 623 water bodies Norte/Agusan Del
 283 principal rivers Norte
 Remaining 340 (lakes, bays, and small rivers) Naujan Lake Oriental Mindoro 78.99
Lake Buluan Sulta Kudarat 61.34
National Irrigation Master Plan 2020 - 2030 Lake Buhi Camarines Sur 38.00
Lake Labas Cotabato 21.40
 421 principal rivers.
Lake Cataungan Mindoro 21.11
Lake Bato Camarines Sur 18.00

Philippine Water Resources

Philippine Land Area = 300,000 sq.m or 29, 359,301 ha

29,817,000 ha (based on NIA MP)

 Blessed with abundant water resources.

 Water is regarded as inexhaustible.
 However, recent events greatly influenced the enhancement of 3. Weak water use regulation and enforcement
interest in water resources management, development and
4. Outdated framework plan and research
conservation.
 Water seems to be abundant resource in the Philippines Issues and Problems attendant to soil and water conservation
(National level).

o Projection says that there will be sufficient water

available until 2025 at some water resources regions
while those located at WRR II, III, IV, V, and XI may
experience water deficits. However, water demands in
2018 for WRRs I, IV and VII are already experiencing
water deficits.

 Agriculture accounts for about 80% of all consumptive water

uses with irrigation as the biggest user accounting for 67, 056
MCM/year (Abaño, 2019). and utilization
 2005 (data from the EMB) - 525 water bodies in terms of best
usage and water quality. 1. Land and water resources degradation
National laws and policy that deals with the control and water 2. Allocation
quality management
3. Data availability and availability
1. Philippine Environment Code (PD 1151)
4. Support
2. RA No. 9275 – Clean Air Act of 2004
Programs and Incentives
3. Commonwealth Act 383 – Anti-dumping Law of 1938
1. Enactment of the Philippine Clean Air Act of 2004
4. Presidential Decree 984 – Pollution Control Law of 1976
2. Strengthening of the NWRB
5. RA No. 9003 – Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of
2004. 3. Water resource assessment and planning

Dams (storage capacity exceeds 50M m3 and structural height is 4. Small Water Impounding Projects (SWIPs)
more than 30m).

7 large dams and 54 small dams which has a total capacity of

80m3. Government Institutions Governing Water Resources in the
Philippines (National Level)
 Angat Dam, Bulacan
 Ambukalo Hydroelectric Plant, Benguet
 Pulangi IV-Maramag, Bukidnon
 Magat Dam, IsabelaS
 Pantabangan Dam, Nueva Ecija
 La Mesa Dam, Quezon City
 San Roque Dam, Pangasinan

WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

The Philippines is not big and has never been any small that its
country’s land and water resources has to support a population
growing at an average annual rate of 2.3%.

Our natural resources are in between our needs and wants.

Issues and Problems

1. Weak institutional framework

2. Lack of water allocation

 Normal flow > critical depth = flow is subcritical (Fr<1) - quite
Normal flow < critical depth = flow is supercritical (Fr > 1) - rapid

Example:

1. Determine the specific energy of a channel if the depth is 0.7m,

width of 0.5, and a discharge of 1m3/s.

2. Determine the critical depth given this equation: dc

= 2/3 He

3. Determine Froude number if the velocity is 2m/s;

Fr = v/(gy1/2

4. The flow is in?

SOIL EROSION AND ITS CONTROL

Water and Sediment Control Structures

Conservation of structures is important to avoid scoring and silting

velocities. This is also to provide a stable channel to reduce the
gradient to maintain velocities below erosive level. Conservation
structures are important in transferring runoff from higher to lower
elevation over a short distance without allowing excessive soil
erosion to occur.

Two Types of Water Control Structure

1. Temporary Structures
2. Permanent Structures

Temporary Structures

 Advisable on the availability of materials.

 Inexpensive labor and cheap materials
 Can be constructed with using planks, rocks, woods, logs, root
wads, earth (soil) and other unexpensive materials available.

Permanent Structures

 Use of permanent (hard) materials such as concrete.

 Used in medium to large gullies to control overfall at the head
of it.
 Design to handle run-off from heavy rains
 Helpful where vegetal control or any temporary structures fail
to control the concentration of run-off

Causes of Failure of Permanent Structures

 Insufficient hydraulic capacity ability of a channel to resist the

flow
 Insufficient energy dissipation -depends on your design

Primary Requirements in Designing Control Structures

 Adequate capacity to pass the design discharge

 Provision for dissipation of the energy of the water within the
structure to protect the channel from any damage.

Specific Energy

The total energy of water with respect to the channel bottom. The
discharge of water in an open channel may flow at two depths
known as alternate depth with the same total energy head. Specific
energy is sometimes used than total energy (Henderson, 1966).

Where:

He = specific energy, L y = depth of flow, L

q = discharge, L3/T b = width of flow, L

v = average velocity of flow, L/T2

a = cross-sectional area of flow, L2

 Design Features  Can be converted using a straight apron or a Morris and
Johnson (1942) stilling basin.
The basic components of a hydraulic structure are inlet,
conduit, and outlet. They are classified and named in accordance Chutes
with their form as shown:
 Designed to carry flow down steeps slopes through a
concrete-lined channel rather than by dropping the water
in a free overfall.
 Used for the control of elevation up to 6m
 Requires less concrete than drop-inlet structures of the
same capacity and elevation change.
 Its capacity is not decreased by sedimentation at the
outlet.

Chutes Design Features

Capacity

 Its capacity is controlled by the inlet section.

 Similar to drop spillways straight-inlet or box-inlet

Outlet Protection

 Cantilever outlet should be used where channel grade

below the structure is unstable.
 Straight-apron or St. Anthony Falls (SAF) outlet is
suitable.
 For small structures, straight apron is applicable.

Design Features Pipe Spillways

1. Suitable wing walls  Used as a culvert has the simple function of providing for
passage of water under an embankment.
2. Side walls
 Serves to lower water through a considerable change in
3. Head wall extension elevation and to decrease the energy of the falling water
when combined with a riser or drop-inlet.
4. Toe walls
 Drop-inlet is used as gully control structures
Three Types of Permanent Structures  Withstand hydraulic pressures and require special
attention to structural design (inverted siphon)
1. Drop Spillway
 Its capacity structures are relatively low
2. Drop inlet (Pipe spillway)  Only desirable when the discharge from the structure is to
be restricted.
3. Chute Spillway

Drop Spillways Pipe Spillways Design Features

Culverts
 Is a weir structure which flow passes through the weir opening
and falls on an apron and then passes into the downstream  It may be controlled by inlet section or conduit, depends
channel. on the type of flow.
 Installed in channels to establish a permanent control elevation  Headwater may be above or below the top of the inlet
below which an eroding stream cannot lower the channel. section
 It controls the stream grade from the spillway crest through the  Pipe flow will occur when the slope is less than neutral
entire ponded reach stream. slope and entrance capacity is not limiting
 Drop limited at 3m. Flumes or drop-inlet pipe spillways are  If the inlet is submerged and outlet is not, the slope of the
used for greater drops. conduit is greater than neutral slope, then orifice flow will
prevail.
The drop spillway capacity is given by the weir formula:

q = CLh3/2 = 0.55 CLh3/2 Hf v

2
Sn= =K c
L 2g
where: Sn = neutral slope, = tanθ=sinθ
Hf = friction loss in conduit of length, m
q = discharge, m3/s
L = length of conduit, m; V = velocity of flow, m/s
C = weir coefficient, ~1.8 accurate +-20% (maybe used with the Kc = conduit friction loss coefficient
G = gravitational acceleration, m/s2
accuracy of). This can already give a satisfactory results for the
straight inlet of a flood spillway
The capacity of the culvert under full pipe flow is given by:
L = weir length, m
A √ 2 gH
q=
H = depth of flow over crest, m
√1+ K e + K b + K c L
Where:
Apron Protection
q = discharge capacity
 The kinetic energy must be converted to potential energy A = conduit cross-sectional area
before it exits the structure.
H = head causing flow, h = 0.6d, H = h-(Outx0.6d) Calculate the settling velocities of the following soil particles:

Ke = entrance loss coefficient

Kb = bend loss coefficient Particle Diameter, Velocity, Time to settle

Mm cm/s 1m
Kc = conduit loss coefficient Fine sand 0.2
Silt 0.01
Kb can be omitted since most culverts do not haven bends. Clay 0.001

Erosion
Discharge capacity for Orifice flow
A geomorphic process that detaches and removes materials from its
q= AC √ 2 gH primary location by natural erosive agent.
Where: Mechanics of Soil Erosion
q = discharge capacity The soil erosion process undergoes three main processes
(mechanisms) such as the detachment, transport, and deposition.
A = conduit cross-sectional area
Three main mechanisms of Soil Erosion
H = head causing flow, 0.6
1. Detachment (without it, erosion will not even start)
C = orifice discharge coefficient, 0.6 for a sharp-edged
2. Transport (without it, erosion will be much limited
3. Deposition (there will be no deposited soil particle/materials)

Discharge capacity for Orifice flow Causes of Soil Erosion

Note: if an orifice plate is installed in a pipe the differential head 1. Idle bare land areas are prone to wind and rain erosion
measurements are used to calculate the flow rate, however, if an 2. Growing of more crops accelerate soil erosion
orifice is configured as an end-cap, a head measurement taken 3. Cultivation along slope of land
about 0.6 m upstream can be used. 4. Faulty and inefficient methods of irrigation
5. Removal of organic matter and plant nutrients by inappropriate
SAMPLE PROBLEM cropping pattern
A 457 mm diameter that is 20 m long galvanized iron culvert with a 6. Deforestation
square-edged entrance will be using in constructing a control 7. Forest fire
structures. This have an inlet elevation of 150 m, outlet invert 8. Overgrazing (pasture-patches)
elevation of 149.10 m, headwater elevation of 152.30 m, and the Types of Soil Erosion
tailwater elevation is 148.50 m. Determine the capacity of a full
pipe flow and compared the value of actual slope to the neutral 1. Geological Erosion
slope. 2. Accelerated Erosion

Geological Erosion

 Caused by natural phenomena

 The result of the action of water, wind, gravity, and glaciers.
 The rate of formation of soil is equal to the rate of loss of soil.
 Responsible for the formation of topographical features such
as valley, channel, and others

Accelerated Erosion

 Man-induced erosion (anthropogenic erosion)

 The rate of soil formation is not equal to the rate of soil loss.
 Can lead to a loss of soil productivity and adversely affect the
surface water quality and flood flows.
 Considered in conservation activities

Involves two forces:

1. Attacking forces – remove and transport the soil

particles.
SEDIMENT CONTROL STRUCTURES 2. Resisting forces – retard erosion (delay)
 First concern in sediment management is to minimize Geological Erosion Mechanism
detachment and possibility to transport.
 Management of the energy of flowing water 1. Water erosion – is the detachment and transport of soil from
the land by water. It is divided into raindrop, sheet, rill, gully,
and stream channel erosion.
u = 89.9d² 2. Wind Erosion – natural erosion in which soil particle moves
from one place of another place under the influence of wind.
where:
Factors influencing Erosion
u = velocity in cm/s
 Climate
d = particle diameter in mm
 Soil type
 Vegetative cover
Example:  Topography
  Conservation and management practices o Depends on rainfall intensity, infiltration rate, slope steepness,
soil properties, and vegetative cover.
Climate
Rill Erosion
1. Climatic factors such as precipitation, temperature, wind,
humidity, and solar radiation o Removal of soil by running water forming a small branch of
2. Raindrop affect the erosivity of rainfall channels.
3. Formation of gullies and channel are dominated by runoff o Scouring of soil is more pronounced along certain paths of
rates. flow than others, resulting in the formation of rills.
o Rills are shallow and narrow that can be easily removed by
Soil Type
normal tillage operation.
1. Soil physical properties such as soil structure, texture, water
Gully Erosion
content, organic matter can affect the infiltration capacity that
leads to the detachment and transportation of soil particles o Produce channels from rill erosion, thus it cannot be
making it susceptible to erosion. obliterated by tillage.
2. Cohesive soil will resist splash erosion more readily than loose o Advanced stage of rill erosion
soils. o Flows have high erosive power
Vegetation Cover o Requires costly structure and practices to control the further
advancement
1. Provides protection against erosion by absorbing the energy of o Gullies are steep-sided trenches formed by the coalescence of
falling drops and reducing the sizes of raindrops which reach many rills
the ground. o Gullies may develop into more stable waterways such as
2. Provides mechanical protection to the soil against gully streams and rivers
erosion.
3. Improves infiltration capacity by increasing organic matter in Four processes involved in gully formation
the soil: higher infiltration capacity = lesser runoff and
1. Waterfall erosion (head-cutting at the gully head)
erosion.
2. Channel erosion
Topography
3. Alternate freezing and melting of snow
1. Erosion rates are greater on steep slopes than on flat slopes
2. Runoff velocities are greater on steep slopes and mass 4. Undercutting, landslides, mass movements of soil
movements are more likely to occur in steep terrain.
Four stages in gully development
Conservation and Management Practices
1. Formation stage – the slow deepening of the gully where the
1. Adoption of one or more conservation practices considerably topsoil is fairly resistant to erosion.
reduced the soil erosion rates.
2. Development stage – enlargement of the gully in depth and
Types of Water Erosion width which it cuts to the C-horizon of soil and the parent materials
are removed rapidly as water flows.
1. Splash Erosion
3. Healing stage – vegetation starts growing
2. Sheet Erosion
4. Stabilization stage – reach a stable slope and gradient. (angel of
3. Rill Erosion
inclination)
4. Gully Erosion
Gully classification based on size:
Splash Erosion

o Is the soil detachment and transport resulting from the impact

of water droplets directly on soil particles or on thin water
surfaces
o Precipitation is absorbed, fills the pore spaces, loosen soil
particles and drive them apart
o The impact of subsequent rain drops transport soil particle
away from the point of impact
o Impact is determined by raindrop mass, size distribution, Gully classification based on shape:
shape, velocity, and direction
o In Ellison’s study, found out that the relative soil loss for a 30 1. U-shaped – topsoil and subsoil have uniform resistance
min rainfall period varied as the 4.33 power of the velocity. against erosion.
Soil Loss α Vt^4.3 2. V-shaped – subsoil is more resistant than the topsoil against
Vt = terminal velocity of the rain drop. erosion.

Sheet Erosion Soil erosion by water may be grouped in those that are due to:

o Uniform removal of soil in thin layers resulting from sheet or 1. The action of rainfall (splash erosion)
overland flow. 2. Detaching and transporting actions of runoff (overland flow
o During overland flow, detached soil particles in the flowing scour, rill, gully, and channel erosion)
water will scour other soil particles and transport them further Agronomical Measures to control water erosion
down slope.
o uniform removal of soil in thin layers resulting from sheet or Soil conservation is a preservation technique in which the soil
overland flow. disturbance and losses are minimized by applying conservation
o Its soil detaching and transporting capabilities are small techniques as well as improvement of the soil (or by using it within
its capabilities). Agronomical measures is one of the more m1 and m2 = exponents with estimated values of 1.4 and 0.6,
economical, long lasting, and effective technique. This type of respectively
conservation measures function by reducing the impact of
raindrops, thus reducing soil erosion as well as the surface runoff  Ellison (1945 and 1947) – advocated the development of
and enhance infiltration rates. erosion research on splash and erosion. He suggested that
splash erosion is a function of soil and rainfall properties
Widely used agronomical measures for water erosion control
4.33 1.07 0.65
1. Contour cropping – used in sloppy condition to control soil SS= A V D I
losses due to water erosion) Where:
2. Strip cropping (contour strip cropping) – alternate
cropping, best potential for erosion control SS = soil splash in grams in 30 minutes
3. Mulching – minimize rain splash, decrease evaporation, A = soil constant
control weeds, reduce temperature. I = intensity of rainfall in inches per hour, and
D = drop diameter in mm.
Wind Erosion

Processes involves in Wind Erosion

1. Surface creep (7-25%) – larger diameter soil particles (0.2-  Musgrave equation – known as the slope-practice equation
2mm) moves very close to the ground surface and roll along. which was formulated by a committee which was formed at
(collision) about the same time to integrate the results of previous studies.
2. Saltation – (55-72%) – fine textured soil particles (0.1 –
m1 m2 m3
0.5mm) bouncing over the surface causing abrasion and E=0.0053 IRS L P30
attrition or an avalance effect. (breaking of particles into
smaller particles). Where:
3. Suspension (3-10%) – transport of finer particles (0.02-0.1
E = soil loss in mm per year
mm) in the atmosphere forming dust storm due to turbulent
action of the wind. I = inherent erodibility of a soil at 10% slope and 22m slope length
Three phases of wind erosion R = vegetal cover factor
1. Initiation of movement and air velocity and turbulence S = slope in percent
2. Transportation and particle size, wind velocity and range
of sizes L = slope length, m
3. Deposition occurs when weight>others and lower wind
P30 = maximum rainfall in mm over a 30-minute period m1, m2,
velocity, barrier etc
and m3 = constant exponents
Factors affecting Erosion by Wind
 Smith and Whitt (1947 and 1948) – developed an expression
1. Climate – precipitation, temperature, wind, humidity, and for the claypan soils of Missouri, expressed sheet erosion as:
the air density
𝐸 = 𝐶𝑆𝐿𝐾𝑃
2. Soil – texture, structure, density of particles, density of
soil mass, organic matter, moisture content. Where:
3. Vegetation – height, density of cover, type of vegetation,
seasonal distribution. E = average annual sheet erosion loss
4. Topography – degree of slope, slope length, size and
C = average annual rotation soil loss from plots
shape of watershed
S,L,K and P = factors to adjust the plot soil loss C for slope
Soil Loss Estimation
steepness, slope length, soil group and conversation practices,
 Soil losses vary considerably with the type of erosion. respectively.
 There are several investigation and studies that have attempted
to relate the physical characteristics of rainfall (e.g. raindrop
size, and kinetic energy) and soil characteristics to soil splash. Note: The above equations are of empirical nature and were found
Others include the effect of cover, winds, slope, surface to be too localized or regional in applicability. As a result, the
configuration and all other sub-processes as identified by erosion research efforts in the US were consolidated starting in
Ellison (1945). 1954 (more erosion data were collected and all available
 Several methods have also been proposed for estimating information were compiled).
erosion by water, however, there’s no suitable method found
for predicting wind erosion losses.
 Most of the soil erosion equations were developed in US, The Universal Soil Loss Equation
basically, splash and sheet erosion estimation.
 First equation proposed by Zingg (1940) who expressed soil  Developed in the period from 1945 until 1965 to estimate
loss from cropped areas as follows: losses based on statistical analyses of field plot data from
small plots.
m1 m2  Gained wide acceptance in the United States and has been
E=C S L
adopted by soil conservationists in other countries
Where:  Its popularity is due to its simplicity and the absence of
alternative equations allowing a wider range of variations of
E = soil loss per unit area from a land slope of unit width
the parameters that are contributing to soil erosion
C = constant reflecting the combined effect of rainfall, soil cover
and cover management practices  The USLE is very simple to use
S = slope
L = horizontal length of slope and
 It estimates sheet erosion as the product of a series of terms for  Important elements of it are the quantity (duration and
rainfall, soil, slope gradient, slope length, crop and cover distribution) and intensity of precipitation
management and conservation factors
Energy of Rainfall
 This permits the extensive tabulations of individual factors,
incorporating vast amounts of research data.  KE of falling raindrops is 0.5mV2
 In fact, extensive tables and nomographs recommending the  Erosive energy of raindrop is reached after 5m fall
range of values for the different field conditions for the various
 Maximum energy is reached after a 20m
parameters in the equation are now available (including from
the Philippines) Quantity of Rainfall
 The USLE was developed from standard agricultural plots
which has recommended dimension of 72.6 feet long and 6  The higher the rainfall, the higher the erosion hazard
feet wide, with 9% slope bare and cultivated fallow, and
plowed up and down the slope.
 The validity of the USLE depends on how close the conditions Intensity of Rainfall
from which it is being applied at are to the range of conditions
 30-360 mm/hr intensities ~ 10% of rain is erosive
from which it was developed.
(approx.)
 However, applying the equation in areas with conditions very
 >100 mm/hr, all the rain is erosive
much different from those where it was developed or in areas
 5% is erosive in temperature; 40% in tropical
with somewhat similar conditions but with factor values not
yet determined is somewhat dangerous. Calculating Rainfall Erosivity
 In areas where the USLE applies, it serves as a useful tool
for soil conservation. Among these are:  rainfall erosivity is related to the kinetic energy of
1. Predict soil erosion losses rainfall.
2. Guide the selection of agricultural practices such as  two methods are widely used for computing the erosivity
cropping and management systems of rainfall: EI30 Index Method and KE>25 Index Method.
3. Guide in determining the on-site effects of land use and 1. Calculating Rainfall Erosivity
crop management changes. EI30 Index (Wischmeier et. al., 1958) found that rain KE is
4. Provide baseline data for conservation planning the factor most closely related to erosion after analyzing 8250
plot-year records from 35 conservation stations in the US.
• Based on the fact that the product of KE of the storm
and the 30-min max rainfall intensity gives the best soil
USLE was first developed by by Wischmeier and Smith (1965).
loss estimation
A=RKLSCP • Rainfall erosivity factor value can be computed using:

Where: E I 30=KE x I 30
A = average annual soil loss, t/ha/yr Where:
R = rainfall erosivity factor, mm KE = rainfall kinetic energy
K = soil erodibility factor, t/ha/hr/in
I 30= maximum rainfall intensity for a 30-minute period.
L = slope length factor, dimensionless
*Kinetic energy can be computed using:
S = slope steepness factor, dimensionless
KE = 0.119 + 0.0873log I
C = cover management factor. dimensionless
Where:
P = conservation practice factor, dimensionless
KE = kinetic energy, MJ/ha-mm
USLE was modified by William in 1975 to MUSLE by replacing
the rainfall energy factor (R) with another factor called as runoff I = intensity of rainfall, mm/h
factor. USLE was also modified by David (1986), and David and
Collado (1987) to suite locally available information and prevailing Note: I 30 index method was developed under American
environmental conditions in the absence of any applicable method condition and is not suitable for tropical and sub-tropical
for estimating soil erosion rates. zones for estimating the erosivity.

E=RKSCP

Where: 2. KE>25 Index Method – developed by Hudson for computing

the rainfall erosivity of tropical storms.
S = length-slope factor which may be approximated on the basis of  Procedure is in same manner with the EI30, however, it
%slope does not take into consideration the rainfall intensities
less than or equal to 25mm/hr.
 Rainfall with intensities less than 25mm/hr was observed
Rainfall Erosivity Factor (R) to not able to yield soil erosion.
 The rainfall intensity of 25 mm/hr can be taken as a
 The ability of the rainfall to erode the soil particles from
practical threshold separating erosive and non-erosive
an unprotected field.
rain.
 Allows for spatial estimation of basic erosion risk in
different areas
 A function of the physical characteristics of rainfall: 3. A 1m (Lal, 1976), Nigeria – tested I 30 and KE>25 and found
kinetic energy of the storm and its 30-minute maximum out the following:
intensity which is called as rainfall erosivity (EI30). 1. I 30 may underestimate the KE of tropical storms
 2. The correlation coefficient of soil loss with KE>25 is not It was suggested by Bouyoucos (1935) that the soil erodibility
a continuous function depends on the mechanical composition of soil, such as sand, silt,
3. Product of rainfall amount, A, and max. intensity over a clay and represented by the ratio:
7.5 min period (if I m) is significantly correlated with soil
loss %sand+% silt
Erodability , E=
4. I 30 and A 1m are numerically alike, and a soil erodibility % clay
(K) will not differ significantly if A 1m is used instead.
 All these methods depends upon calculations of rainfall Wischmeier and Mannering, 1969 estimated the soil erodibility
for each storm and summation to give annual value factor:
 Require sufficient amount of data, which are not available
in the Philippines

4. Fournier index (Fournier, 1960)

K=
( 0.043 pH ) + ( 0.62
OM )
+ ( 0.0082 S )−(0.0062C)

Correlated rainfall with sediment load measured in >140 major

Si
rivers in Europe, Asia and US and found strong correlation between Where:
specific degradation (D) or total annual erosion (tons/km2) and K = soil erodibility factor
rainfall distribution coefficient, C: OM = organic matter content, %
D = aC - b ; C= p²/P S = % sand
C = clay ration = % clay / (%silt + % sand)
Where: Si = % silt / 100

D = specific degradation Range of particle diameter of clay, sand, and silt:

a,b = coefficient whose values depends on the orographic
Clay ≦0.002 mm
coefficient: H2/S
p = monthly rainfall in wettest month of the year Silt = 0.002-0.006 mm
P = mean annual rainfall Sand = 0.06-2.0 mm
H = mean height of the terrain above its base
S = projected area Classes of soil properties that influence soil erodibility:
• D cannot be used as substitute for R in USLE 1. Properties that affect infiltration rate and permeability
2. Those that resist the dispersion, splashing, abrasion and
5. Modified Fournier index (Arnoldus, 1980) transporting forces of rainfall and runoff.
2
pi
∑ P Slope Factor (LS)
 Ratio of soil loss expected per unit area from a particular
Where:
slope condition of the field compared to what will happen
pi = monthly precipitation
from a 9% slope 72.6 ft (22.1m) long.
P = annual precipitation
 All the erosion subprocesses are influenced by slope in
- Tried on 22-yr period data from Brazil and some in Belgium and
wherein increasing slope will increase their rates.
the correlation between the monthly values of the index with those
 For large catchments, an average slope value is taken.
computed using I 30 was highly significant.
 Runoff flow regimes change with increasing slope length
wherein on a long slope, there is a bigger build-up of
Rainfall erosivity index, R (David amd Collado, 1987) surface runoff or deeper runoff depth.
 As the hydraulic radius increases with increasing flow
depth, detachment by runoff increases with increasing
slope length.
 Smith and Wischmeier (1957); Wischmeier and Smith,
(1958); and Wischmeier et al., (1958) led to the
development of the expression for the slope length factor:
Where:
Rj = rainfall erosivity (number of erosion index units) for year j

( )
m
Pi = daily rainfall total greater than 25mm x
L=
A = 0.002 (to be compatible with R using USLE 22.13
m=2
Soil Erodibility Factor (K) Where:
 It is the rate of soil loss on a standard plot of 9% slope, 72.6 ft L = length factor
long. x = slope length, m
 Few K values were obtained from studies on the soil m = an exponent = 0.5 for S ≥ 5
conservation experiment from follows plots and from row- = 0.4 for 5 < S > 3
crops, corrected for vegetative cover while many were = 0.3 for 3 ≤ S ≥ 1
obtained from small plots using a rainfall simulator. = 0.2 for S < 1
 Soil that are high in silt, low in clay and low in organic matter S = percent slope
content are the most erodible
 Soil becomes less erodible with decrease in its silt fraction,
regardless of whether sand or clay increases Combining the effects of slope and slope length yields:
 OM improves soil aggregation and the infiltration capacity of
soils

( )
m
x 2
L= (0.065+ 0.045 S +0.0065 S )
22.13
  This equation was normalized to a standard plot 22.12 m
in length with 9% slope
 As USLE gains wide acceptance and applications, so does
the LS factor.

Slope and slope length, LS (Smith, 1947 and Whitt, 1948

m
LS=a+ bS
Where:
LS = slope-slope length factor
S = land slope, %
a, b = constant equal to 0.1 and 0.21, respectively
m = exponent equal to 4/3

Crop Cover Coefficient (C) – David and Collado, 1987

 Good soil cover reduces soil erosion and surface runoff
 Soils with good cover have better structure, more stable
aggregates, higher infiltration rates and higher moisture
holding capacities.

Effect of Cover
1. Interception of rainfall
2. Decrease runoff velocity and the eroding action of water
3. Root effects in increasing granulation and porosity
4. Vegetative biological activities – influence on soil
porosity
5. Transpiration of water – subsequent drying out of the soil

Conservation and Management Factor (P)

 Soil erosion rates may be reduced with adaptation of one
or more conservation practices
 Contour farming and mulch tillage in areas with 21-25%
slope will give an overall multiplier of 0.23 (0.9*0.26), a
4 fold reduction in soil-loss rate SOIL EROSION CONTROL
 Expressed as correction factors to the estimated soil loss ENGINEERING MEASURES FOR SOIL AND WATER
rate under condition of no conservation practice CONSERVATION

Various techniques and practices to control erosion:

 Contour farming
Examples of Process-based Models
 Strip cropping
1. EUROSEM (European/soil Erosion Model)
2. CREAMS (Chemical, runoff, and erosion from  Cropping System (tillage)
Agricultural Management Systems) – USA  Reforestation
3. ANSWER (Areal Non-point Source Watershed  Agroforestry
Environment Response Simulation) – USA  Mulching
4. WEPP (Water Erosion Prediction Project) – USA  Cultivation

Example Problem: Erosion Control Measures

A field in Nueva Ecija practices a contour strip cropping 1. Vegetated waterways (grassed)
with a conservation factor of 0.45 is cultivated for growing peanut 2. Terraces
that have a vegetal cover index of 0.5. The said peanut was planted 3. Water impounding dam
on a clay loam soil with a soil erodibility factor of 0.24. Near 4. Diversion canal
weather station recorded a rainfall erosivity of 138 tons/ha and a 5. Gabions
slope length of 0.70. Determine the value of soil loss. 6. Stone wall

Vegetated Waterways
 Are constructed to protect the soil from erosive resistant
of runoff from sloping lands in order to prevent the
formation of rill to gully channel.
 May be used route storm runoff from structures including
building roofs, highways. (may be used to lessen the
impact of storm to runoff)
 Filtered the water passing through the soil surface.
 More complex design as compared to the concreted
channel line.

Design consideration
1. Design flow – dependent on the type of channel,
condition and density of vegetation, and erosive factor.
 2. Soil properties – texture, structures, porosity.
3. Topography
4. Channel capacity – based on the estimated runoff – 10
year storm record
5. Channel shape
A. Parabolic – usually selected for channels in
natural waterways
B. Trapezoidal is most easily constructed on
artificial waterways that is in a terrace outlet
along a fence line.
C. Triangular reduce sedimentation but with a
high velocity can damage the bottom of the
waterway.

Runoff Estimation

CIA
Q p=
360
Where:
Qp = peak runoff rate, m3/sec
C = coefficient
I = intensity of rainfall, mm/hr
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND SEDIMENTATION
A = area, hectare

Sediment is naturally formed by weathering and erosion that is

Area-Velocity Method (Velocities Estimation
transported by the action of wind and water.
Q
𝑄=𝐴V, V= Where:
A Sediment can be sourced from:
Q = runoff, m3/sec 1. Sheet erosion from agricultural, forest and waste land
A = cross-sectional area, m2 2. Mass movements of soil from landslides and soil creeps.
V = velocity flow, m/sec 3. Gullying by concentrated runoff.
4. Stream channel erosion including bank cutting and bed
Using Manning Formula degradation.
1 2/ 3 1/ 2 5. Erosion caused by floods.
V= R S 6. Erosion incident to activities like roads, rail roads,
n
clearing for housing and industries etc.
Where:
7. Mining and dump left as wastes.
V = average velocity, m/sec
n = roughness of coefficient
R = hydraulic radius, A/P, m
S = hydraulic gradient (slope), % Three processes of sediment transport in the streams
1. Suspension – flowing water
Note that the flow velocity in waterway is dependent on the 2. Saltation –sediment bounce
condition of the vegetation and soil erodibility. A uniform 3. Surface Creep (bed load movement) – in contact
vegetation cover over the channel surface is important to ensure its
stability. Waterways have different erosion resistivity, however an
average velocity of 1.0 m/sec to 2.5 m/sec are usually used for Bed
design purposes. The average velocity of flow is higher than the
actual velocity in contact with the bed of the channel.

Example Problem:
1. A concrete lined canal will be conveying a water from the well to
a tomato farm with a distance of 150 meters. It has a design of 0.5
m drop elevation over the 150 m canal length and roughness
coefficient of 0.018. Determine the velocity of water given the
bottom width of a rectangular canal of 0.5 m with a depth of 0.25
Load
m.
 one of the most important sediment of stream flow that
moves along the channel bed and in almost contact with
2. The peak runoff rate for a 0.5 cm/hr rain intensity at 267 ha
the stream bed.
watershed was observed as 2.5 m3/sec. Estimate the runoff
coefficient.  Represents the armor that resists erosion

Suspended Load
 is carried in the fluid away from the bed.
 Materials that are carried by the turbulent forces of the
flowing water
 Coarse sediment: Particles diameter > 0.20 mm
 Medium sediment: Particles diameter between 0.20 to
0.075mm
 Fine sediment: Particle diameter < 0.075mm
Sediment Load of a Stream as per Grain Size Soil Loss, t/ha for 18 River Basins in the Philippines
Wash load
 The fine fraction which is mostly in suspension
Bed Material Load
 coarse fraction that normally found in the bed
Estimation of Sediment Discharges
 Actual monitoring of the sediment load through sediment
sampling
 Using sediment discharge formulas
 Pumping samplers
 Use of photocell to measure the attenuation of light beam
by the suspended particles
 Use of x-ray probe

Consider the following:

 Location of sampling (measurement)
 Frequency of sampling
 Number of sediment monitoring stations
 Observation and collection of sediments samples
 Estimation of different loads from samples
Sediment Sampling
 Sampling can be depth-integrated or taken at fixed depths
from the river bottom, the point of sampling
 Good sampler must cause minimum disturbance of
streamflow, avoid errors from short-period fluctuations in
sediment concentration, and give results which can be
related to velocity measurements
 The relative quantity collected at any depth is in
proportion to the velocity at that depth
 The collected samples are filtered and the sediment dried
 The ratio of the dry weight of sediment to total weight of
Oriental Mindoro Watershed: <7 t/ha/yr
the sample is the sediment concentration, usually
 Good cover; sediments usually low in wash load Magat
expressed in ppm or milligrams per liter
River: ~29 t/ha/yr (1976 samples)
 A rating curve relating suspended-sediment discharge and
 Mostly from sheet erosion Occidental Mindoro
water discharge is also used to estimate discharge and
Watersheds: extremes even under Philippine conditions
water discharge. It is also used to estimate the sediment
 Estimated qs vs q relations were not withing the range
loads on days when no measurements are available.
predicted by the various sediment transport equations
Sediments Loads of Selected Rivers in The Philippines  Qs and q relations for various watersheds in the
Most of the rivers in the Philippines are characterized by Philippines suggest that the exponent of q increases with
extremes in sediment and flow conditions. Therefore, large decreasing cover conditions (or increasing soil erosion).
variations in the relationship of qs vs q are expected.
Reservoir Sedimentation
 Sediments from densely forested watersheds in the
Philippines can be as low as 0.02 t/ha/yr (Serrano et al.)  The rate at which the capacity of a reservoir is reduced by
sedimentation depends on
 In Occidental Mindoro, some badly distributed and
a. Quantity of sediment inflow
overgrazed watersheds has an annual qs > 340 t/ha/yr
b. Percentage of this inflow trapped in the
 Pollisco (1975) reported annual qs of 74 and 13 t/ha/yr
reservoir (trap efficiency)
for the Agno and Pampanga river basins, respectively.
c. Density of the deposited sediment
 David (1982) estimated that the annual qs inflow into the
 Volume occupied by the sediment in the reservoir will
Magat reservoir from its 407,000 ha catchment ranged
depend on the specific weight of the deposited material
from 4.6 to 50.1 t/ha/yr., averaging about 17.9 t/ha/yr
 Specific weight varies with the kind of sediment and the
 Over 95% of the suspended sediment discharge into the
age of the deposits
Magat reservoir are attributable to the extreme 2% of the
flow.
 If a mixture of materials is present in the sediment, a
 Analysis of bed material load and high flow regimes
weighted average specific weight should be calculated
indicated a bed load of at least 50% of the suspended
load.
 Since deposition occurs during the life of the reservoir, to
 Mean annual total sediment yield of around 30 t/h was
estimate the total volume occupied by the deposited
estimated for the Magat watershed (1971- 1981).
sediments, values of wt¬ must be calculated for each
 De Vera (1981) compared the reported sediment yields of
year.
18 watersheds scattered in Luzon, Philippines (shown in
the table)
Dry specific weight (wt at any time t:
 This sediment yield range seems to be low in the
feasibility reports for 10 river basin development projects
W t =w1 + K log t
by NIA. Where:
w 1 = initial specific weight
K = consolidation coefficient
T = time in years  Table 1, for example show the estimated C values (ratios of
the sheet erosion loss rates to that of a standard erosion plot
used in the derivation of the USLE) for various cover and
cover management

Table 1. Values of C for selected cover conditions and cultural

practices for West Africa (Roose, 1977).
COVER AND CULTURAL ANNUAL C
PRACTICE VALUE
Bare soil 1
Forest or dense shrub, high mulch crop
0.001
Sample Exercise
Sediments deposited in the reservoir consists of 5% sand, 43% silt Savanah, prairie in good condition 0.01
and 52% clay. What is the in-place density of these materials after Overgrazed Savanah or prairie 0.1
30 years assuming the sediments are always submerged? Crop cover of slow development or late
0.3 – 0.8
planting; 1st year
Crop cover of rapid development or early
0.1 – 0.1
planting; 1st year
Crop cover of slow development or late
0.1 – 0.1
planting; 2nd year
Corn sorghum or millet 0.4 – 0.9
Rice with intensive fertilization 0.1 – 0.2
Cotton, tobacco (2nd cycle) 0.5 – 0.7
Peanuts 0.4 – 0.8
1st year cassava and yam 0.2 – 0.8
Palm tree, coffee, cocoa with cover crop 0.1 – 0.3
Pineapple on contour with burned residue 0.2 – 0.5
Pineapple on contour with buried residue 0.1 – 0.3
Pineapple on contour with surface residue 0.01

 effective biological means of erosion control (e.g.,

reforestation) have always been within the grasps of man,
 but his ever increasing demand for food, energy, clothing,
shelter and other amenities forces him to move into steeper
slopes that are unfit for farming and ecologically unsustainable
and unsuitable for timber and fuel wood extraction and human
settlement without other means of erosion control other than
cover manipulation
 our ancestors demonstrated that some mechanical forms of
erosion control can be combined with biological erosion
control measures to make even very steep slopes amenable to
farming
 the Ifugao Rice Terraces are a testament to this feat
 terraces and other mechanical means of erosion control modify
some of the parameters that tend to favor sheet erosion
 the modifying effects of these measures on sheet erosion are
summarized in Table 2 in terms of the conservation practice
factor P in the USLE

Table 2. Conservation practice factor1

LAND CONTOURIN CONSERVATIO TERRACIN
SLOPE G N PRACTICE G2
% Contour Strip
Cropping &
Irrigated Furrows
1-2 0.60 0.30 0.12
3-8 0.50 0.15 0.10
9-12 0.60 0.30 0.12
13-16 0.70 0.35 0.14
17-20 0.80 0.40 0.16
TERRACES 21-25 0.90 0.45 0.18
1
Wischmeier and Smith, 1978
2
 it is generally recognized that good cover and cover Broad-based terraces. The corresponding factors for bench
management provide effective erosion control practices terraces such as rice paddies are much lower
 primary forests and even undisturbed grasslands keep the sheet
erosion soil loss rates even in areas with intense rainfall well
within the threshold level for sustained productive capability Functions of a Terrace
of say, 8 tons/ha/yr 1. reduce sheet and rill erosion
2. prevent gully formation  the allowable soil loss should be first estimated
3. moisture conservation using relevant information on soil depth, fertility,
4. moderate flood or overland flows land value, siltation damage downstream, etc.
 in the absence of soil loss information, the spacing
Types of Terraces may also be estimated from appropriate erosion
1. Bench – e.g. Banaue Rice Terraces equations such as the universal soil loss equation
 used for maximum moisture conservation  For example, if it has been established that the
 used where land is at a premium allowable soil loss (Xa) for a given area is 3.0 tons
 conventional per acre per year.
 difficult to farm
Xa=IKLSCP=3.0
2. Zingg or conservation bench terrace
 easier to farm than conventional 3.0
 used for maximum soil and water conservation LS=
IKCP
3. Broad-based terrace
where:
 a broad-based terrace may either be graded or level
LS = length-slope factor
a. graded or channel type
C = cropping management factor
- grade – fall in channel
P = conservation factor
- slope – fall on natural land surface
I = rainfall factor
i. primary purpose is to remove excess water in
K = soil erodibility factor
such a way as to minimize erosion
ii. reduces slope length, conduit intercepted runoff
 the main limitation of such an equation rests in the
water to outlet at non-erosive velocity
difficulty of estimating the various parameters under
iii. outlet is either surface or subsurface type
Philippines conditions
b. level or ridge type
i. no grade in channel  available information are mostly from the mid-western
ii. primary purpose is moisture conservation areas of the United States.
iii. erosion control is secondary
iv. channel is normally closed at both ends to assure Spacing of terraces on widely varying slopes
maximum detention  a variation in slopes in a field to be terraced will result in
v. adopted to deep, permeable soils a variation in spacing between terraces
vi. more farmable than bench types  for example, assume that the slope between two terraces
vii. used where outlets are a problem of equal length varies from 2 to 8%
viii. usually designed for 10-year frequency, 24-hour  the average slope would be 5% and the vertical interval
duration between the terraces would be 4.0 ft
 the spacing between terraces would then be 50 ft on the
Terrace Design 8% slope, 80 ft of the 5% slope, and 200 ft on the 2%
slope
A. Objectives of a well-planned terrace system  if the terraces are too close together on the steeper slopes,
1. erosion control the difficulty of operating farm machinery in this area
2. farmability will be materially increased
3. topography improvement – set stage for better  if the terraces are too widely spaced on the flat slopes,
operation as time goes by excessive erosion will occur between terraces and fill in
4. water conservation the terrace channel, reducing its capacity and causing
ponding in the channel above
B. Spacing - expressed as vertical interval between  this variation in spacing also results in the necessity of
successive terraces farming many point rows and irregular areas
 in the design of a terrace system the outlets should, if
1. For graded terraces: possible, be located so that there will not be a wide
VI = aS + b variation in the slope of the land draining into the terraces
where:  if terraces need to be constructed across land that has a
VI = vertical interval between corresponding points on wide variation is slope, a spur terrace may be used
successive terraces or from top of slope to the bottom of  this is a short terrace that is located midway between the
first terrace in feet long terraces in those areas where the spacing between
a = constant for geographic location (value ranges from long terraces is too wide
0.3 to 0.8 depending on the intensity of rainfall)  the longer terraces are spaced using the vertical interval
S = average land slope above the terrace in percent for the steepest slope between the terraces
b = constant for soil erodibility and cover conditions  the terraces will then be properly spaced on the steep
b = 1 erodible soil and poor cover slope but will be much too wide on the flat slope
b = 2 resistant soil and good cover
 a spur terrace is then located midway between the long
terraces on the flat slope
2. For level terraces:
 no hard and fast rules can be laid down to follow in
VI = aS + 0.85b
terrace layout because every field has its own individual
 to determine the horizontal interval for parallel
problems
terraces,
 good judgment and consideration of all factors are
HI = VI x 100/S
required to obtain the best possible layout terraces on
or HI = a(100) + b (100)/S
each field
 when soil loss formation for various spacing are
available, the desired terrace spacing may be directly
Terrace Channel Grades and Length
inferred from such information
 • Setting stakes at 50-ft interval
1. For recommended constant or variable minimum grades • Adjust stakes to provide smooth curvature of the terrace.
0.1% - soils with good drainage e. Stake other terraces parallel to key terrace at proper
0.2% - soils with poor drainage spacing (HI’s)
f. Check elevations along each terrace line to see what
2. Maximum grades (from Schwab, et al.) adjustments in grade and depth of cut will be required.
Terrace length Grade in Percent
(ft.) Erosive soil Resistant soil
(loam) (coarse)
> 500 0.35 0.50
200 – 500 0.50 0.65
100 – 200 1.00 1.50
< 100 2.00 2.50 
Excavation:
3. Variable Graded Terrace Maximum cut: 0.5ft
Distance from upper end Maximum grade in percent Minimum ridge height: 3ft
of terrace in feet
100 2.0
200 1.2
300 0.8
400 0.8
500 0.5
600 – 800 0.4
900 – 1300 0.35
1400 – 1600 0.30
*with variable graded terraces, one can design for either
constant grade for different sections or constant capacity by
varying the grade in the channel

Terrace Cross Section

 maximum terrace length: graded: 1000 – 1800 ft.

 level: no maximum
 minimum cross-section: level: 12 ft2
 maximum design velocity: 2 ft/sec
 n = 0.04 for tillable land
 free board: 20% of design depth

Terrace Layout
1. Select suitable outlet – such as permanent
features, densely wooded areas
2. Locate terraces – usually lay out top terrace first
a. Drainage area above top terrace should be
less than 3 acres
b. If the top of the hill comes to a point, the VI
may be increase to 1.5 times the regular VI.
c. If short abrupt changes in slope occur, the top
terrace should be placed just above the break

Method of layout (parallel, graded terraces)

1. Using a key terrace (uniform slope necessary)

a. Stake out top terrace using 0.3% for entire line of terrace
b. Determine spacing for each of the remaining terraces
• Mark each terrace with single stakes
c. Select key terrace
• criteria for selection: other terraces may be made parallel
to it with minimum correction
d. Stake out key terrace (0.3% grade)