1/18/24, 11:15 PM 1.

Scope and Closure

This is related to CoderDost Course on Advance JavaScript

1. Scope and Closure

We have 3 types of variable in JavaScript var, let and const

☠️☠️ var is the old one, and should not be used now in any case. As it has many issues
with creating scopes

why it is still there ?

Also there are 4 kinds of scope in Javascript - Block Scope, Global Scope, Function Scope,
Module Scope

Block scope & Global Scope

The scope is the current context of execution in which values and expressions are "visible" MDN

Global Scope : Any variable/expression which is written outside - i.e. not inside any functions,
blocks etc. This is shared across files.

let

this creates a block scope

re-declaration in NOT allowed (in same scope)
re-assignment is allowed

{ // block scope
let x = 0;
let y = 0;
console.log(x); // 0
let x = 1; // Error
}

{
let x = 1;
let y = 1;
x = 2;
console.log(x);// 2
}

console.log(x); // Error in Global Scope

Temporal Dead Zone(TDZ) : the area in which a variable is not accessible. Temporal because it
depends on time of excution not position

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{
// TDZ starts
const say = () => console.log(msg); // hi

let msg = 'hi';

say();
}

const

this creates a block scope

re-declaration in NOT allowed
re-assignment is NOT allowed
must be assigned at declaration time.

{
const x; //Error
const y=0;
}

{
const x=1;
x=2 // Error
}

console.log(x); // Error

Variable Shadowing

let x = 0 // shadowed variable

{
let x = 1;
console.log(x)
}

var

it doesn't have any block scope, and can be re-declared

it only had function scope
var are hoisted, so they can be used before the declaration

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var x = 1;
var x = 2; // valid

console.log(y) // valid
var y = 3

z=4
console.log(z) // valid
var z;

NOTE : You should NOT use var now ❌

let vs var

for(let i=0;i<5;i++){
setTimeout(
()=>console.log(i),
1000)
} // prints 0,1,2,3,4

for(var i=0;i<5;i++){
setTimeout(
()=>console.log(i),
1000)
} // prints 5,5,5,5,5

Module scope

In modern javascript, a file can be considered as module, where we use export and import syntax
to use variable across files. We

<script src="index.js" type="module"></script>

export { someVar, someFunc}

import { someVar} from './app.js'

global Object

The global Object is the variable window in case of browser. This helps you to use
variables across the scopes. Also, it is the this value for global functions

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window.alert
window.Promise
In non-browser environment, window doesn't exist. but other global objects exist.
var affects this global obejct, also function declarations.

function sayHi(){
console.log(this) // this will refer to window
}

// Strict mode can change this behaviour;

`use strict`

function sayHi(){
console.log(window) // this is a better way of code
}

function scope

it is created upon execution a function

function sayHi(name){
return name;
}

sayHi() // this call will create a function scope

sayHi() // this call will create another function scope

Lexical Environment

Every variable in JavaScript (within global / block / or function) has a reference to an

object-like data called Lexical enviroment. This object (kind of object) serves as the basis of
search for value of variable.

let name = 'john'

console.log(name)

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Lexical Enviroment (Global variable)

null

[outer]

LexicalEnviroment

name: 'john'

name

let name = 'john';

function sayHi(){
let greet = "hi"
console.log(greet)
}

sayHi()
console.log(name, sayHi)

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Lexical Enviroment (functions)

null

[outer]

LexicalEnviroment1

name: 'john',
sayHi: function

[outer]

LexicalEnviroment2
name sayHi
greet: 'hi'

greet

let name = 'john';

function sayHi(){
let greet = "hi"
console.log(name)
}

sayHi()

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Lexical Enviroment (functions)

null

[outer]

LexicalEnviroment1

name: 'john',
sayHi: function

[outer]

LexicalEnviroment2

greet: 'hi'

name

Hoisting

The movement of variable declaration to top of scope - before execution

function declarations are properly hoisted (value accessible)

var is hoisted.

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let name = 'john';

sayHi() // valid

function sayHi(){
let greet = "hi"
console.log(name)
}

sayHello() // error
let sayHello = function(){
console.log(name)
}

Temporal Dead Zone(TDZ) :

let x = 1;

{
console.log(x) // Reference error
let x = 2;
}

Closures

we can create nested functions in JavaScript

function createUser(name){
let greeting = 'Hi '
function greet(){
return greeting + name + ' is Created';
}
return greet()
}

createUser('john') // Hi john is created;

Now more useful work is if we can return the greet function itself.

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function createUser(name){
let greeting = 'Hi '
function greet(){
return greeting + name + ' is Created';
}
return greet // returned just definition of function
}

let welcomeJohn = createUser('john')

welcomeJohn() // // Hi john is created;

This is Closure
welcomeJohn function definition has access
to outer params ( name ) which came for createUser function
also any other "variables" declared inside createUser will also be accessible to
this welcomeJohn

Example

function initCounter() {
let count = 0;
return function () {
count++;
};
}

let counter = initCounter();

counter() // 0
counter() // 1

let counter1 = initCounter();

counter1() // 0
counter1() // 1

NOTE : so whenever you have a function which wants to preserve a value over many calls - it's a
time for closure.

Lexical Environment

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function init() {
let name = 'john';

function greet() {
console.log(name)
}
return greet;
}

let sayHi = init();

sayHi();

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Lexical Enviroment (functions)

null

[outer]

LexicalEnviroment1

sayHi: ----
init: function

[outer]

LexicalEnviroment2
init sayHi
name: 'john'
greet: function

[outer]

LexicalEnviroment3

--empty--

name

Real life example 1

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function initCounter(id) {
let count = 0;
return function () {
count++;
document.getElementById(id).innerText = count;
};
}
let count = 10;
let counter1 = initCounter('btnCount1');
let counter2 = initCounter('btnCount2');

// here `btn1` and `btn2` are id of HTML buttons.

<button onclick="counter1()">1</button>
<p id="btnCount1"></p>
<button onclick="counter2()">2</button>
<p id="btnCount2"></p>

Real life example 2

function initAddString(inputId, outputId) {

let str = '';
return function () {
str += ' ' + document.getElementById(inputId).value;
document.getElementById(inputId).value = '';
document.getElementById(outputId).innerText = str;
};
}

let strAdder1 = initAddString('text1', 'text-output1');

let strAdder2 = initAddString('text2', 'text-output2');

<input type="text" id="text1">

<button onclick="strAdder1()">Add String</button>
<p id="text-output1"></p>

<input type="text" id="text2">

<button onclick="strAdder2()">Add String</button>
<p id="text-output2"></p>

IIFE - Immediately Invoked Function Expression

this practice was popular due to var.

Immediately invoking a function avoids - re-declaration of variables inside it

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// Immediately invoked function expressions

(function(){
var x = 1; // this var is now protected
})()

(function(a){
var x = a; // this var is now protected
})(2)

Currying

function sum(a){
return function(b){
return function(c){
console.log(a,b,c)
return a+b+c
}
}
}

let add = a => b => c => a+b+c

let log = time => type => msg => `At ${time.toLocaleString()}: severity ${ty

log(new Date())('error')('power not sufficient')

let logNow = log(new Date())

logNow('warning')('temp high')

let logErrorNow = log(new Date())('error')

logErrorNow('unknown error')

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function op(operation) {
return function (a) {
return function (b) {
return operation === 'add' ? a + b : a - b;
};
};
}

const add3 = op('add')(3);

const sub3 = op('sub')(3);
const add = op('add');

add3(6);
sub3(6);
add(1)(2);

2. Objects

Basic behaviours

Reference Copying

Variable value is not copied in case of object/arrays

let person = {name:'john'}

let human = person;

Reference are point to same value

person

Object

human

let person = {name:'john'} // Object1

person = {name:'wick'}; // Object2

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Reference can be changed for a variable (Garbage collection of Object1)

Object1

person

Object2

it a better to use const always, and whenever you must need to re-assign change it ot let

const person = {name:'john'} // Object1

person = {name:'wick'}; // ERROR

Nested Objects

let person = {
name: 'John',
address: { city: 'delhi', state: 'delhi' },
};

Object properties can point to other objects

person Object

Object_address addressObject

let addressObject = { city: 'delhi', state: 'delhi' }

let person = {
name: 'John',
address: addressObject
};

Copying objects

Shallow Copy

Many methods can be used to copy object without old reference

1. Object.assign()

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let person = {name:'john'}

let newPerson = Object.assign({}, person)

2. Spread Operator[...]

let person = {name:'john'}

let newPerson = {...person}

But problem which these is they just create a copy of properties of that object , but not creating a
copy of their references also.

let addressObject = { city: 'delhi', state: 'delhi' }

let person = {
name: 'John',
address: addressObject
};

let newPerson = Object.assign({}, person)

person === newPerson; // false
person.address === newPerson.address // true

Deep Copy

This is a hard problem to solve in past as there can be multiple level of nested objects and there
can be references to functions etc also. few methods which are there:

1. JSON.stringify and JSON.parse : this method utilizes the fact that every JSON can be
converted to a string value (exception of methods/functions)

let addressObject = { city: 'delhi', state: 'delhi' }

let person = {
name: 'John',
address: addressObject
};

let str = JSON.stringify(person)

let jsonObject = JSON.parse(str);

2. structuredClone : Browser API which work even for circular references (but functions not
supported)

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let addressObject = { city: 'delhi', state: 'delhi' }

let person = {
name: 'John',
address: addressObject,
};

person.me = person

let newPerson = structuredClone(person);

"this" and Methods

we can also defined function as value to properties of objecy. these will be called methods.
Methods are just functions but, it means they have been called in "reference" on an
Object.

let person = {
name:'john',
sayHi: function(){
return "hi";
}
}

person.sayHi() // hi

methods can also access the properties and other methods of same object. To do this we
use this

let person = {
name:'john',
sayHi: function(){
return "hi "+ this.name;
}
}

person.sayHi() // hi john

we can also have used person instead of this but has you know references can be changed.
so that could have created a problem

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let person = {
name:'john',
sayHi: function(){
return "hi "+ this.name;
}
}

person.sayHi() // hi john

you can even have this without an object

function sayHi(){
return "hi "+ this.name;
}
sayHi() // Error
// here this will "undefined" in Strict mode
let obj1 = {name: 'john'}
let obj2 = {name: 'wick'}

// you can add functional property

obj1.say = sayHi;
obj2.say = sayHi;

obj1.say() // hi john
obj2.say() // hi wick

Arrow functions don't have a this. they use outer context

let person = {
name:'john',
sayHi: ()=> {
return "hi "+ this.name;
}
}

person.sayHi() // Error

Symbol

JavaScript also has a Symbol data type. This data type is used as property name in Objects.
Object can only have 2 types of properties - String and Symbol. If you put any other data
type they will convert to String

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let person = {
0:'john',
sayHi: ()=> {
return "hi "+ this.name;
}
}

person["0"] // this number will convert to string

Symbol is used for making hidden (library used properties)

const id = Symbol("id"); // "id" is descriptor

let person = {
name:'john',
[id]:1
}

person[id] // 1

// note that we have put square [] on property so that it is not confused wi

Symbol are always unique - so there is no chance of collision. Even with same "descriptor"
they will be uniquely initialized.

You can get Symbol for some descriptor or key using some methods

// get symbol by name

let sym = Symbol.for("name");
let sym2 = Symbol.for("id");

for..in loop ignore Symbols. Also methods like Object.keys() ignore these properties.

3. Functions

functions are objects

they already have some predefined properties name, length etc

you can also make more properties on functions (but generally it's not required, except for
Constructor function)

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function sayHi(greet){
return greet
}
sayHi.name // name of function
sayHi.length // length of arguments

sayHi.count =0; // function can have properties

sayHi.count++;
sayHi.count;

function declaration are hoisted

sayHi() // works
function sayHi(greet){
return greet
}

sayHello() // Error
let sayHello = function(){ // functional expression

sayHello.name // sayHello

function can be called as constructor

function Person(name){
this.name = name
}

const p = new Person('john') // constructor

Named function expression (NFE)

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let sayHello = function fx(user){ // named functional expression

if(user){
return "hello " + user
} else {
return fx('anonymous')
}
}

// this can help in case where sayHello is re-assiged to something

let sayHi = sayHello

sayHello = null
sayHi()

Decorator (Wrappers)

It's a design pattern in which you modify the functionality of a function by covering it
inside a wrapper.

let modifiedFx = Decorator(preDefinedFx)

Memoization (Caching)

function heavy(x) {
console.log(x + ':heavy');
return x + ':heavy';
}

function memoized(fx) {
let map = new Map();

return function (x) { // wrapper

if (map.has(x)) {
return map.get(x);
} else {
let memoValue = fx(x);
map.set(x, memoValue);
return memoValue;
}
};
}

let memoizedHeavy = memoized(heavy)

memoizedHeavy(2);
memoizedHeavy(2); // take from cache

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Another Problem

if you try to use this on a method of object, this approach can fail

let task = {
name: 'demo',
heavy(x) {
console.log(x + ':heavy:' + this.name);
return x + ':heavy' + this.name;
},
};

function memoized(fx) {
let map = new Map();
return function (x) {
if (map.has(x)) {
return map.get(x);
} else {
let memoValue = fx(x);
map.set(x, memoValue);
return memoValue;
}
};
}
task.memoizedHeavy = memoized(task.heavy)
task.memoizedHeavy(1) // 1:heavyundefined

Solution : use function.call()

changing 'this'

Call

person = {
name: 'demo',
age: 12,
location: 'delhi',
};

function checkName(a) {
return !!this.name;
}

checkName() // Error
checkName.call(person)
checkName.call(person, 1) // a = 1

apply

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person = {
name: 'demo',
age: 12,
location: 'delhi',
};

function checkName(a) {
return !!this.name;
}

checkName() // Error
checkName.apply(person)
checkName.apply(person, [1]) // a = 1

bind

person = {
name: 'demo',
age: 12,
location: 'delhi',
};

function checkName(a) {
return !!this.name;
}

checkName() // Error
let boundCheckName = checkName.bind(person)
boundCheckName();

Solution

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let task = {
name: 'demo',
heavy(x) {
console.log(x + ':heavy:' + this.name);
return x + ':heavy' + this.name;
},
};

function memoized(fx) {
let map = new Map();
return function (x) {
if (map.has(x)) {
return map.get(x);
} else {
let memoValue = fx.call(this,x);
map.set(x, memoValue);
return memoValue;
}
};
}
task.memoizedHeavy = memoized(task.heavy)
task.memoizedHeavy(1) // 1:heavydemo

Debounce

Run a function only when - if it has not been called again for a fixed period
Suppose you are typing and take a pause of 1 second. Only then that function should be
called.

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let count = 1;
function showCount() {
count++;
console.log({ count });
}

function debounce(fx, time) {

let id = null;
return function (x) {
if (id) {
clearTimeout(id);
}
console.log({ id });
id = setTimeout(() => {
fx(x);
id = null;
}, time);
};
}

let showCountD = debounce(showCount, 2000);

setTimeout(showCountD, 1000);
setTimeout(showCountD, 1500);
setTimeout(showCountD, 2000);
setTimeout(showCountD, 2500);
setTimeout(showCountD, 5000);

Real Example

const el = document.getElementById('text1');
const logo = document.getElementById('text-output1');
el.addEventListener(
'keyup',
debounce(function (e) {
logo.innerText = e.target.value;
}, 1000)
);

<input type="text" id="text1">

<p id="text-output1"></p>

Throttle

when you have to only allow 1 execution of a function within a period of time
for example you are scrolling fast but only 1 scroll per 100 millisecond is considered.

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let count = 1;
function showCount() {
count++;
console.log({ count });
}

function throttle(fx, time) {

let id = null;
let arg = [];
return function (x) {
arg[0] = x;
if (!id) {
id = setTimeout(() => {
fx(arg[0]);
id = null;
}, time);
}
console.log({ id });
};
}

let showCountT = throttle(showCount, 2000);

setTimeout(showCountT, 1000);
setTimeout(showCountT, 1500);
setTimeout(showCountT, 2000);
setTimeout(showCountT, 2500);
setTimeout(showCountT, 5000);

Real Example

function throttle(fx, time) {

let id = null;
let arg = [];
return function (x) {
arg[0] = x;
if (!id) {
id = setTimeout(() => {
fx(arg[0]);
id = null;
}, time);
}
};
}

function sayHi(){console.log('hi')}
document.addEventListener('scroll',throttle(sayHi,1000))

Arrow functions

Differences

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they don't have this

they don't have arguments,
they can't be called with new (as constructor)

Similarities

they have properties like name, length

4. Iterables, Generators

Iterables and Iterators

Iterable (protocol)

Iterables are objects in which we can make array like iteration (Example using for..of loop of
spread operators)

Array are iterables

String are iterables

To make any object iterable we have these conditions

implement a Symbol.iterator property, which should be a function which return an

Iterator Object

iterable[Symbol.iterator]() => Iterator

Iterator (protocol)

Iterators are objects which have :

a next() method which return a object which is of format {value:-some-value-, done:-

boolean-} e.g. *{value: 1, done: false}
value is the value we are interested in, while done tells us when to stop. Generally when
done:true the value:undefined

Now, making an Iterable is like this:

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let iterator = {
i: 0,
next: function () {
return { value: this.i, done: this.i++ > 5 };
},
};

let iterable = {
name: 'john',
age: 34,
[Symbol.iterator]() {
return iterator;
},
};

Example - Range :

let range = {
start: 0,
end: 5,
[Symbol.iterator]() {
let that = this; // this line is very important
let i = this.start;
return { // iterator object
next: function () {
return { value: i, done: i++ > that.end };
}
};
},
};

Array

let num = [1, 2, 3];

let iterator = num[Symbol.iterator]();
iterator.next();
iterator.next();
iterator.next();
iterator.next();

Infinite iterators

As we can see that we can control, how to control the next() function. In few cases, it will
be useful to have iterators which can need to generate the next value infinitely
If you use such iterators in a loop etc. it can be dangerous as can create infinite loop. But
can be controlled by break etc.
we will cover all this in generators.

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Iterables vs Array-like

Iterable objects are based on Symbol.iterator method as defined above

Array-like objects are based on array protocols (index and length)

An object can be

Iterable + Array-like
Iterable only
Array-like only
None of them (not Iterable nor Array-like )

Example :

// iterable + array-like
let arr = [1,2,3]

// only iterable
let range = {
start: 0,
end: 5,
[Symbol.iterator]() {
let that = this; // this line is very important
let i = this.start;
return {
next: function () {
return { value: i, done: i++ > that.end };
},
};
},
};

// only array-like
let array = {
0: 1,
1: 5,
length:2
};

// none
let obj = {
name:'john'
}

Conversions

Array-like to Array

Array.from() : method is used for this

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let arrayLike = {
0: 0,
1: 5,
length: 2
};

let arr = Array.from(arrayLike);

// also used for general things

let set = new Set()

set.add(1);
set.add(2);
let arr2 = Array.from(set) // [1,2]

Map

this data type is also iterable

special this is can have keys also as numbers, booleans, objects
also map maintains the order of keys added.

let map = new Map();

let person = {name:'john'}

let personAccount = {balance: 5000}

map.set('1', 'str1'); // string key

map.set(1, 'num1'); // numeric key
map.set(true, 'bool1');
map.set (person, personAccount)

map.get(1) // 'num1'
map.get('1') // 'str1'
map.get(person) // { balance : 5000 }

map.size // 4

map.keys() // iterable of keys

map.values() // iterable of values
map.entries() // iterable of key-value pair

map.has(1) // key exists

Converting Object to Map

We can use Object.entries() method for this.

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let obj = {a:1,b:2,c:3};

let map = new Map(Object.entries(obj));

Converting Map to Object

We can use Object.fromEntries() method for this.

let map = new Map();

map.set('a', 1);
map.set('b', 2);
map.set('c', 3);

let obj = (Object.fromEntries(map.entries())); // {a:1,b:2,c:3}

Set

Set is another iterable

Set only contains uniques elements

let set = new Set();

let obj1 = { name: "John" };

let obj2 = { name: "Jack" };
let obj3 = { name: "Peter" };

set.add(obj1);
set.add(obj2);
set.add(obj3);
set.add(obj2);
set.add(obj3);

// set keeps only unique values

set.size; // 3

set.keys() // iterable of keys

set.values() // iterable of values (Same as keys)
set.entries()

duplicated values in values(), entries() etc are maintained to match Map compatibility

WeakMap and Weakset

These are 2 alternative way of creating Map or Set like data types - when only object keys
are considered.
They have very limited operations and doesn't support all functionality
Main purpose is that when keys are marked as null they are garbage collected. So this
helps in better memory management

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let weakMap = new WeakMap()

let person = {name:'john'}

weakMap.set(person, {....});

person = null // in future we decide to remove this key

// so weakMap will remove it from memory space automatically

Generators

Easy way to create an iterators and iterables

function* generatorFunction(){
yield 1;
yield 2;
yield 3
}

let generator = generatorFunction();

generator.next() // {value:1, done:false}
generator.next() // {value:2, done:false}
generator.next() // {value:3, done:false}
generator.next() // {done:true}

Infinite iterator

function* generator() {
let i = 0;
while (true) {
yield i;
i++;
}
}

const gen = generator();

function createID(it) {
return it.next().value;
}

createID(gen);
createID(gen);
createID(gen);
createID(gen);
createID(gen);

Generator objects are "iterables"

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function* generatorFunction(){
yield 1;
yield 2;
yield 3
}

let generator = generatorFunction();

let nums = [...generator] // [1,2,3]

NOTE: Don't put a Spread operator or for..of loop on inifinite iterable

Range example - using generator

let range = {
start: 0,
end: 5,

*[Symbol.iterator]() { // * makes it generator function

for(let value = this.start; value <= this.end; value++) {
yield value;
}
}
};

for(let r of range){
console.log(r)
}

Better version - with function

function range(start,end){
return {
*[Symbol.iterator]() {
for(let value = start; value <= end; value++) {
yield value;
}
}
}
};

for(let r of range(1,5)){
console.log(r)
}

let values = [...range(1,5)]

Better - Better version - with function

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function* range(start,end){
for(let value = start; value <= end; value++) {
yield value;
}
};

let generator = range(1,5)

console.log([...generator]) // [1,2,3,4,5]

return

only difference it that instantly ends the iterator at that value;

function* generatorFunction(){
yield 1;
yield 2;
return 3
}

let generator = generatorFunction();

generator.next() // {value:1, done:false}
generator.next() // {value:2, done:false}
generator.next() // {value:3, done:true} **

Generator - composition
using generator inside another generator is easy

**Composed Generator using - yield*

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function* range(start,end){
for(let value = start; value <= end; value++) {
yield value;
}
};

function* multiRange(){
yield* range(0,5),
yield* range(100,105)
yield* range(200,205)
}

let generator = multiRange();

console.log([...generator]) //[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 1

Generator can also take inputs

next() method can also take arguments which act as return value of previous yield
statement

function* generatorFunction(){
let result = yield 1;
console.log(result)
let result2 = yield 2;
console.log(result2)
let result3 = yield 3
console.log(result3)

let generator = generatorFunction();

let r1 = generator.next()
let r2 = generator.next(r1.value)
let r3 = generator.next(r2.value)
generator.next(r3.value)

Async Iterators/ Async generators

without generators

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let range = {
start: 0,
end: 5,
[Symbol.asyncIterator]() {
let that = this; // this line is very important
let i = this.start;
return {
next: async function () {
await new Promise((resolve) => setTimeout(resolve, 1000));
return { value: i, done: i++ > that.end };
},
};
},
};

(async function () {
for await (let f of range) {
console.log(f);
}
})();

with generators

let range = {
start: 0,
end: 5,
async *[Symbol.asyncIterator]() {
for(let i = this.start; i <= this.end; i++) {
await new Promise((resolve) => setTimeout(resolve, 1000));
yield i
};
},
};

(async function () {
for await (let f of range) {
console.log(f);
}
})();

Real-life Example - Paginated API calls

this example has also used Composition of generators

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async function* getDataAsync(page) {

let response = await fetch(
'https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/search.json?q=x&page=
);
let result = await response.json();
for(let org of result.organizations){
yield org.name;
}
}

async function* getData() {

let response = await fetch(
'https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/api/v2/search.json?q=x'
);
let result = await response.json();

for (let i = 0; i <= result.num_pages; i++) {

yield* await getDataAsync(i);
}
}

(async function () {
let orgs = []
for await (let f of getData()) {
orgs.push(f);
}
console.log(orgs); // List of all organization in API
})();

5. ProtoTypes

Prototypical Inheritance

Objects are extended from other Objects. And we can re-use their properties and methods.
Object are chained in prototypical inheritance
Objects have a hidden property called [[Prototype]]

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Prototype Inheritance

prototypeObject

[[prototype]]

object

Prototype example

animal dog is
animal is prototype of dog prototypically inherited
eats
from animal

[[prototype]]

dog

barks

let animal = { eats: true };

let dog = { barks: true };
dog.__proto__ = animal;

dog.barks // true
dog.eats // true

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Prototype chaining

animal

eats

walks()

[[prototype]]

dog

barks

let animal = {
eats: true,
walks: function () {
return 'walks';
},
};
let dog = { barks: true };

dog.__proto__ = animal;

dog.walks() // walks

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Prototype chain can be longer and longer

animal

eats

walks()

[[prototype]]

dog

barks

[[prototype]]

myDog

name

let animal = {
eats: true,
walks: function () {
return 'walks';
},
};
let dog = { barks: true };
let myDog = { name: 'sifu' };

dog.__proto__ = animal;
myDog.__proto__ = dog;

myDog.name // sifu
myDog.barks // true
myDog.walks() // walks

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Prototype end at "null"

null

Object_prototype

animal

eats

walks()

[[prototype]]

dog

barks

[[prototype]]

myDog

name

__proto__

__proto__ is a getter/setter for [[Prototype]]

Writing property, doesn't call inherited properties. Except for getter/setter properties.
__proto__ is not used now , and recommended way is to use Object.getPrototypeOf() and
Object.setPrototypeOf

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let animal = {
eats: true,
walks: function () {
return 'walks';
},
};
let dog = { barks: true };
let myDog = { name: 'sifu' };

dog.__proto__ = animal;
myDog.__proto__ = dog;

myDog.walks = function(){
return 'walks slowly'; // this will not affect prototype
}

myDog.walks() // walks slowly

dog.walks() // walks

for..in loop works on all properties which are enumerable - inherited or own
if you want to avoid looping on inherited ones use Object.hasOwn or
Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty
Object.keys() and Object.value() these will avoid inherited properties.

.prototype property, constructor

properties

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// simple object initialization

let usr = {
name : 'john'
}

// now using a constructor function

function User(name){
this.name = name
}

let user = new User('john');

console.log(user)
// User{ name : 'john'}
console.log(usr)
// {name : 'john'}

Step 1 : .prototype proptery is automatically created (on User) and is assigned an object
(empty Object)

function User(name){
this.name = name
}

let user = new User('john');

console.log(User.prototype) // prototype object

Step 2 :constructor method is assigned to this prototype, and that is User function itself.

// User.prototype.constructor = User

// this above assignment is done by the constructor call itself

User.prototype.constructor === User // true

Step 3: .prototype property's object is assigned to created instances.

// user.__proto__ = User.prototype
// this above assignment is done by the constructor call itself

user.__proto__ === User.prototype // true

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.prototype property

User User_prototype

prototype constructor

[[prototype]]

user

name

methods

function User(name){
this.name = name
}

User.prototype.sayHi = function () {
return this.name;
};

let user = new User('john');

let user1 = new User('wick');

user.sayHi()
// 'john'
user1.sayHi();
// 'wick'

this the main benefit of prototypes. you can have inherited methods.

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.prototype property

User_prototype
User
constructor
prototype
sayHi

[[prototype]]

user

name

A useful method : reverseString

methods

function User(name){
this.name = name
}

User.prototype.reverseName = function () {
return this.name.split('').reverse().join('');
};

let user = new User('john');

let user1 = new User('wick');

user.reverseName()
// 'nhoj'
user1.reverseName();
// 'kicw'

remember prototype based methods are directly available on their created object instances.

you can also change the prototype completely, not recommended though

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let animal = {
eats: true,
walks: function () {
return 'walks';
},
};

function Dog(){
this.barks = true
}

Dog.prototype = animal;

let dog = new Dog();

dog.walks()
// walks

dog.__proto__ === animal; // true

Dog.prototype === dog.__proto__ // true

.prototype property

animal
Dog
eats
prototype
walks()

[[prototype]]

dog

barks

Native Prototypes

Object.prototype
Array.prototype
Function.prototype

Object.prototype

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let obj = {}

let obj1 = new Object();

Object.prototype === obj1.__proto__ // true

Object.prototype === obj.__proto__ // true

toString()
isPrototypeOf()
toLocaleString()

Array.prototype

let arr = []

let arr1 = new Array();

Array.prototype === arr1.__proto__ // true

Array.prototype === arr.__proto__ // true

push()
pop()
slice()
splice()
reverse()
....and many more

Function.prototype

function Fx(){

Function.prototype === Fx.__proto__ // true

call()
apply()
bind()
arguments
caller
length

Date.prototype

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let d = new Date();

d.getTime(); // getTime is given by Date.prototype

getTime()
getDay()
getDate()
.... more

Primitives

Primitive types also get wrapped into a Object when used as an Object

String.prototype

"hello".toString()

Number.prototype

10.1111.toFixed(2)

Boolean.prototype

Polyfills

polyfill is a way of providing futuristic API not available in browser.

polyfills are made often Native prototype modifications, so that we can get a feature/API
(which is not available in current browser)
This can help us write code / libraries which can run on many systems (old or modern)

if(!Array.prototype.contains){
Array.prototype.contains = function(searchElement) {
return this.indexOf(searchElement)>=0 ? true : false
}

}
// similar to includes()

NOTE : Shims are piece of code to correct some existing behaviour, while Polyfills are new
API/ behaviours.

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Static properties and methods

Some properties and methods are directly created on these Native constructors.

Object.create()
Object.keys()
Object.values()
Object.hasOwn()
Array.from()
Date.now()

These are not available on instances, and only available on Native contructors

6. Class
Classes are easier way to implement inheritance in JavaScript.

Syntactic Sugar

It's a syntactic sugar to Protypical Inheritance BUT more functionalities than it.

ProtoType Version

function User(name){
this.name = name
}

User.prototype.sayHi = function () {
return this.name;
};

let user = new User('john');

user.sayHi() // john

Class Version

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class User {
constructor(name) {
this.name = name;
}

sayHi() {
return this.name;
}
}

let user = new User('john');

user.sayHi() // john

Similarities:

1. Same kind of prototype property with constructor method is added when called with
new;
2. you can use prototype also on class based things

class User {
constructor(name) {
this.name = name;
}

sayHi() {
return this.name;
}
}
User.prototype.sayHello = function(){
return "hello "+this.name;
}

let user = new User('john');

user.sayHello() // hello john

Differences:

1. Class methods are non-enumerable

2. Class toString() is different
3. Class can only be called with new . Not as a normal function
4. Class is always is use strict mode.

getter/setters

Accessor properties can also be used in class

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class User {
constructor(firstName, lastName) {
this.firstName = firstName;
this.lastName = lastName;
}

get fullName(){
return this.firstName + ' ' + this.lastName;
}
set fullName(_fullName){
this.firstName = _fullName.split(' ')[0];
this.lastName = _fullName.split(' ')[1];
}
}

let user = new User('john', 'wick');

user.fullName // john wick
user.fullName = "john cena"

user.firstName // john
user.lastName // cena

Computed property names

properties which don't have a fixed name and assigned by [ ]

let variableName = "hello"

class User {
constructor(name) {
this.name = name;
}

[variableName]() {
return this.name;
}
}

let user = new User('john');

user.hello() // john```

"this" binding issue

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class Button {
constructor(value) {
this.value = value;
}

click() {
return this.value;
}
}

let button = new Button("play");

button.click() // play

setTimeout(button.click, 1000);
// this has issue - this has changed here

here we lose the context of this.

2 Solution exists :

1. Arrow functions : use arrow function wrappers.

setTimeout(()=>button.click(), 1000);

2. use .bind() to constructor object.

setTimeout(button.click.bind(button), 1000);

Also you can add this arrow style function in class definition - which will act as class field

class Button {

constructor(value) {
this.value = value;
}

click = () => { // this is a class field

return this.value;
}
}

let button = new Button("play");

button.click() // play

setTimeout(button.click, 1000);

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Inheritance

We can inherit Parent Class properties and metods in a Child Class. using extends keyword

Here we have Shape as Parent and Rectangle as Child :

class Shape {
constructor(name) {
this.name = name;
}
displayShape() {
return 'Shape ' + this.name;
}
}

class Rectangle extends Shape {

}

let rect1 = new Rectangle('rect1');

rect1.displayShape(); // Shape rect1

// constructor of Child is implicitly created and it calls constructor of Pa

// constructor(...args){
// super(..args)
// }

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.prototype property

Shape_prototype
Shape Rectangle
constructor
prototype name prototype
displayName

[[prototype]]

Rectangle_prototype

constructor

[[prototype]]

rect1

Now adding more properties to constructor of Rectangle. You have to call super
constructor - which will call Shape constructor.

class Shape {
constructor(name) {
this.name = name;
}
displayShape() {
return 'Shape ' + this.name;
}
}

class Rectangle extends Shape {

constructor(name, width, height) {
super(name);
this.width = width;
this.height = height;
this.area = width * height;
}
}

let rect1 = new Rectangle('rect1', 10, 11);

rect1.displayShape();
rect1.area;

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Static Methods

We can have methods on constructor function also.

These methods are called static methods and they don't apply on prototype. So they are
not accessible to created objects also.
Use of such methods is limited to Class wide applications
this remains same as the class

class Shape {
constructor(name,area) {
this.name = name;
this.area = area;
}
static areEqual(shape1, shape2){
return shape1.name === shape2.name && shape1.area === shape2.area
}

let s1 = new Shape('rectangle',100)

let s2 = new Shape('rectangle',100)

Shape.areEqual(s1,s2) // true

static property are also available as a new feature, but rarely used.

Private and Protected properties

in Object Oriented Programming there is a concept of Encapsulation or Data Hiding - so

that you just interact with object via given methods/properties. This avoids changing some
internal properties which are not meant for public use.

class User {
type = "admin"
constructor(name) {
this.name = name;
}
}

let user = new User('john')

user.type = "normal"

properties type and name both are accessible - so they are called public

Protected

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this is something not provided by javascript but by convention and get/set method we can
create it
you have to use convention of _ in front of property name - making is known to developer
that this property is not directly accessible and used only via get/set accessors.

class User {
_type = "admin"
constructor(name) {
this.name = name;
}
get type(){
return this._type
}
set type(type){
this._type = type;
}
}

let user = new User('john')

user.type = "normal"

But what is benefit ?

class User {
_type = "admin"
constructor(name) {
this.name = name;
}
get type(){
return this._type
}
set type(type){
if(type==('normal' || 'admin')){
this._type = type;
} else {
throw Error('admin / normal ?')
}
}
}

let user = new User('john')

user.type = "normal"

Private

this is a new feature and is not very frequently used.

you can name any proptery with #

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class User {
#type = "admin"
constructor(name) {
this.name = name;
}
get type(){
return this.#type
}
set type(type){
if(type==('normal' || 'admin')){
this.#type = type;
} else {
throw Error('admin / normal ?')
}
}
}

let user = new User('john')

user.type = "normal"
user.#type // Error

instanceOf

to check if object is instance of a Class or inherited from a Class

class Shape {
constructor(name) {
this.name = name;
}
displayShape() {
return 'Shape ' + this.name;
}
}

class Rectangle extends Shape {

constructor(name, width, height) {
super(name);
this.width = width;
this.height = height;
this.area = width * height;
}
}

let rect1 = new Rectangle('rect1', 10, 11);

rect1 instanceof Rectangle // true

rect1 instanceof Shape // true

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7. Async JavaScript

Asynchronous APIs

JavaScript itself is not asynchronous langauge it uses some API from browser or
enviroment to achieve this behaviour

console.log(1)
setTimeout(console.log,1000,3); // Timer API
console.log(2)

Now suppose, we have a function which does something meaningful and return a value -
but asynchronously .

function sum(a, b) {
return a + b
}

let asyncFx =(a,b)=>setTimeout(()=>sum(a,b),1000)

How to get that value back in program ??

Callbacks

function sum(a, b) {
return a + b
}

let asyncFx = (a,b,cb)=>setTimeout(()=>cb(sum(a,b)),1000)

// callback is passed from outside, and called from inside of async function

asyncFx(3, 1, function (result) {

console.log({result})
})

Errors

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function sum(a, b) {
if(a>0 && b>0){
return [null,a + b]
} else{
return ['input', null]
}
}

let asyncFx = (a,b,cb)=>setTimeout(()=>cb(...sum(a,b)),1000)

asyncFx(3, 1, function (error,result) {

if(error){
console.log({result})
} else{
console.log({error})
}
})

Multiple callbacks

function sum(a, b) {
if(a>0 && b>0){
return [null,a + b]
} else{
return ['input', null]
}
}

let asyncFx = (a,b,cb)=>setTimeout(()=>cb(...sum(a,b)),1000)

let x = 4;
let y = 5;

asyncFx(3, 1, function (error, result) {

console.log({ result });
asyncFx(x, result, function (error, result) {
console.log({ result });
asyncFx(y, result, function (error, result) {
console.log({ result }); // Callback hell
});
});
});

Promise

Promise are based on Publish-Subscribe pattern.

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Publish Subscriber model

event subscriber1

publisher

event subscriber2

Example : Youtube video release

subscribers are people who are subscribed to channel (with bell icon)
publisher is video uploader channel
When the release event happens, automatically people are notified about the released
video.

Promise constructor

let promise = new Promise((resolve, reject)=>{

// async task is inside this
// if async task is successful
resolve(data);
// else task is having error
reject(error)
})

Promise has many states

Pending

resolve(data) reject(error)

fullfilled rejected

Promise Consumers

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let promise = new Promise((resolve, reject)=>{

// async task is inside this
// if async task is successful
resolve(data);
// else task is having error
reject(error)
})

promise.then(successCallback).catch(errorCallback)

then-catch subscribers

resolve then

promise

reject catch

Callback version

function sum(a, b) {
if(a>0 && b>0){
return [null,a + b]
} else{
return ['input', null]
}
}

let asyncFx = (a,b,cb)=>setTimeout(()=>cb(...sum(a,b)),1000)

asyncFx(3, 1, function (error,result) {

if(error){
console.log({result})
} else{
console.log({error})
}
})

Promise version

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function sum(a, b) {
if (a > 0 && b > 0) {
return [null, a + b];
} else {
return ['input not correct', null];
}
}

let asyncFx = (a, b) =>

new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
setTimeout(() => {
let output = sum(a, b);
if (output[0]) {
reject(output[0]);
} else {
resolve(output[1]);
}
}, 1000);
});

asyncFx(-2,4)
.then(data=>console.log(data))
.catch(err=>console.log(err))

Promise chain

asyncFx(1, 4)
.then((data) => {
console.log(data);
return asyncFx(1, 4);
})
.then((data) => {
console.log(data);
return asyncFx(3, 6);
})
.then((data) => {
console.log(data);
})
.catch((err) => console.log(err));

Note : catch is only one it catches for all above then. Also note that catch works for reject and
also any error throw by code.

finally

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asyncFx(1, 4)
.then((data) => {
console.log(data);
return asyncFx(1, 4);
})
.then((data) => {
console.log(data);
return asyncFx(3, 6);
})
.then((data) => {
console.log(data);
})
.catch((err) => console.log(err));
finally(()=>{
doSomething() // after everything is completed
})

Promise API

Promise.all

Parallel execution of async functions - only work when all promises are fullfiled

Promise.all([
asyncFx(1,2),
asyncFx(2,3),
asyncFx(5,6)
]).then(results=>{
console.log(results) // array of resolved value, same order
})

Promise.allSettled

Parallel execution of async functions - only work when all promises are fullfiled or rejected

Promise.allSettled([
asyncFx(1,2),
asyncFx(2,3),
asyncFx(5,6)
]).then(results=>{
console.log(results) // array of resolved/reject objects, same order
})

Promise.race

Parallel execution of async functions - works when any one of promises are fullfiled or rejected

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Promise.race([
asyncFx(1,2),
asyncFx(2,3),
asyncFx(5,6)
]).then(results=>{
console.log(results) // value of first settled (resolved/rejected) promi
})

Promise.any

Parallel execution of async functions - works when any one of promises are fullfiled

Promise.race([
asyncFx(1,2),
asyncFx(2,3),
asyncFx(5,6)
]).then(results=>{
console.log(results) // value of first fullfilled promise
})

Promise.reject

created already promise which gets rejected just after creation

let promise = Promise.reject('error')

Promise.resolve
created already promise which gets resolved just after creation

let promise = Promise.resolve(123)

Async/Await

async keywords makes every function to return promise.

async function sayHi(){

return "hi"
}

sayHi().then(result=>console.log(result)) // hi

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"hi" is wrapped inside using Promise.resolve

we can use await only inside a async function
await is a syntatic sugar for Promise .then()*

function sum(a, b) {
if (a > 0 && b > 0) {
return [null, a + b];
} else {
return ['input not correct', null];
}
}

let asyncFx = (a, b) =>

new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
setTimeout(() => {
let output = sum(a, b);
if (output[0]) {
reject(output[0]);
} else {
resolve(output[1]);
}
}, 1000);
});

async function init() {

let result = await asyncFx(4, 5);
console.log({ result });
}

init();

Handling Error in Async/Await function

async function init() {

try {
let result = await asyncFx(4, 5);
console.log({ result });
} catch (err) {
console.log(error);
}
}

init();

async works for all promise-compatible things

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async function init() {

let results = await Promise.all([
asyncFx(1, 2),
asyncFx(2, 3),
asyncFx(5, 6),
]);
console.log(results)
}

Move to Async Generators ==

Property of Object

3 criteria to check on every property

1. own or inherited
2. enumerable or non-enumerable
3. String or Symbol

Property configurations

1. writeable - true/false
2. configurable - true/false
3. enumberable - true/false
4. value : value of property

object1 = {property1:42}

Object.defineProperties(object1, {
property1: {
value: 42,
writable: true,
enumerable: true,
configurable: true
},
property2: {}
});

Strict Mode
It shows up many slient errors in JavaScript.

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'use strict' // file level strict mode

function myStrictFunction() {
// Function-level strict mode syntax
"use strict";

window global object is not available

assigning a variable without declaration cause issues

variable = 10

duplicate property name throw error

let obj = {a:1,a:2}

Object Constructor API

1. Object() : new Object() and Object() are same
2. Object.prototype.constructor : instance of object created will have constructor set to
the reference of creator function. Not enumerable

const o1 = {};
o1.constructor === Object; // true

const o2 = new Object();

o2.constructor === Object; // true

const a1 = [];
a1.constructor === Array; // true

const a2 = new Array();

a2.constructor === Array; // true

const n = 3;
n.constructor === Number; // true

3. Object.prototype.__proto__ : .

it' simple an accessor property of Object.prototype

should not be used as deprecated
use instead Object.getPrototypeOf and Object.setPrototypeOf
It will gave same results are Array.prototype if applied on array object.

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4. Object.assign() : used to copy all the property from source object (objects) to a target
object.

copies enumerable and own properties ONLY

not suitable to copy getter/accessors - as it only copies the value.
String and Symbol both type of properties are copied.
Only for Shallow Copy

const target = { a: 1, b: 2 };
const source = { b: 4, c: 5 };

const returnedTarget = Object.assign(target, source);

console.log(target);
// Expected output: Object { a: 1, b: 4, c: 5 }

console.log(returnedTarget === target);

// Expected output: true

5. Object.create() : creates a new empty object, with an existing object as prototype

should not be used these days, better to use class syntax

don't set contstructor automatically its an issue
{} (Object initializer syntax) is syntactic suger to this syntax only

o = {};
// Is equivalent to:
o = Object.create(Object.prototype);

o = Object.create(Object.prototype, {
// foo is a regular data property
foo: {
writable: true,
configurable: true,
value: "hello",
enumerable: true,
},
// bar is an accessor property
bar: {
configurable: false,
get() {
return 10;
},
set(value) {
console.log("Setting `o.bar` to", value);
},
},
});

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o = Object.create(null);
// Is equivalent to:
o = { __proto__: null };

function Constructor() {}
o = new Constructor();
// Is equivalent to:
o = Object.create(Constructor.prototype);

6. Object.defineProperties(): defines new properties or modifies old ones,directly on object,

return the object

const object1 = {};

Object.defineProperties(object1, {
property1: {
value: 42,
writable: true,
enumerable: true,
configurable: true
},
property2: {}
});

console.log(object1.property1);
// Expected output: 42

7. Object.defineProperty(): defines a new property or modifies old one ,directly on object,

return the object

Object.defineProperty(object1, 'property1', {
value: 42,
writable: false
});

object1.property1 = 77;
// Throws an error in strict mode

console.log(object1.property1);
// Expected output: 42

8. Object.entries() : array of array of key-value pairs on an object proptery (own,

enumerable)
9. Object.freeze() : Freezing objects makes properties non-writeable and non-configurable.

Highest integrity level of JS object. Object.isFrozen() checks if object is frozen.

10. Object.fromEntries() : key-value pairs (inside an iterable, array or Map) are converted in
object.

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convert Map to an Object

convert Array to an Object
tranform object

// Map to Object
const map = new Map([
["foo", "bar"],
["baz", 42],
]);
const obj = Object.fromEntries(map);
console.log(obj); // { foo: "bar", baz: 42 }

// Transform object

const object1 = { a: 1, b: 2, c: 3 };

const object2 = Object.fromEntries(

Object.entries(object1).map(([key, val]) => [key, val * 2]),
);

console.log(object2);
// { a: 2, b: 4, c: 6

11. Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor() : return configuration object of a specific property.

that object is mutable but won't affect the original configurations
Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptors() - is similar to this but return configuration of all
properties at once.

const object1 = {
property1: 42
};

const descriptor1 = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(object1, 'property1');

console.log(descriptor1.configurable);
// Expected output: true

console.log(descriptor1.value);
// Expected output: 42

12. Object.getOwnPropertyNames() : array of all properties including non-enumberable but

not "Symbols" only "Strings". Similary to this is Object.getOwnPropertySymbols() which
takes only "Symbols"

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// Only getting enumerable properties - trick

const target = myObject;
const enumAndNonenum = Object.getOwnPropertyNames(target);
const enumOnly = new Set(Object.keys(target));
const nonenumOnly = enumAndNonenum.filter((key) => !enumOnly.has(key));

console.log(nonenumOnly);

13. Object.getPrototypeOf() : get the prototype of an Object

const proto = {};

const obj = Object.create(proto);
Object.getPrototypeOf(obj) === proto; // true

14. Object.hasOwn() : return true if own property. Object.hasOwnProperty() is older version of

same.

const object1 = {
prop: 'exists'
};

console.log(Object.hasOwn(object1, 'prop'));
// Expected output: true

console.log(Object.hasOwn(object1, 'toString'));
// Expected output: false

console.log(Object.hasOwn(object1, 'undeclaredPropertyValue'));
// Expected output: false

15. Object.is() : two values are same or not, including primitives

Its almost same as === but it also differentiate +0 and -0 and NaN

16. Object.isExtensible() : true if you can add more properties to an object.

17. Object.prototype.isPrototypeOf() : check if object exists in another object's proto chain

function Foo() {}
function Bar() {}

Bar.prototype = Object.create(Foo.prototype);

const bar = new Bar();

console.log(Foo.prototype.isPrototypeOf(bar));
// Expected output: true
console.log(Bar.prototype.isPrototypeOf(bar));
// Expected output: true

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18. Object.keys() : array of keys (own, enumberable, string type)

19. Object.preventExtensions() : prevents adding of new properties, also prevents re-

assignment of prototype value.

20. Object.prototype.propertyIsEnumerable() : check if enumerable own property.

21. Object.seal() : seals objects for further addition of new properties, and also make
configurable: false for all properties. but allow old property value modifications.

22. Object.setPrototypeOf() :

const obj = {};

const parent = { foo: 'bar' };

console.log(obj.foo);
// Expected output: undefined

Object.setPrototypeOf(obj, parent);

console.log(obj.foo);
// Expected output: "bar"

23. **Object.prototype.LocaleString() :

const date1 = new Date(Date.UTC(2012, 11, 20, 3, 0, 0));

console.log(date1.toLocaleString('ar-EG'));
// Expected output: "‫ ص‬٤:٠٠:٠٠ ٢٠١٢/‫‏‬١٢/‫‏‬٢٠"

const number1 = 123456.789;

console.log(number1.toLocaleString('de-DE'));
// Expected output: "123.456,789"

24. Object.prototype.toString() : for converting object in String format

25. Object.prototype.valueOf() : for converting Object in primitive values by when primitive
value is expected.
26. Object.values() : array of vaules (own, enumberable,string keyed)

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