KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

KCS 603: Computer Networks

UNIT-I: Introductory Concepts &
Physical Layer
Topics Covered:

 Data Communication:
o Introduction to Data Communication
o Components of Data Communication
o Data Representation
o Data Flow
 Networks:
o Introduction
o Distributed Processing
o Network Criteria
o Physical Structures
 Types of Connection
 Network Topologies
o Categories of Networks
o Protocols and Standards
o Goals and Applications of Networks
o Network Models
 OSI Reference Model
 TCP/IP Model
o Network Devices and Components

 Physical Layer:
o Introduction to Physical Layer
o Transmission Media
o Switching Methods
o Multiplexing
1 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad
KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Definition: It is the exchange of data between two devices through some
transmission medium.
Types: Data communication can be of two types:
1. Local: If the devices are restricted in a geographical area.
2. Remote: If the devices are farther away without any geographical restriction.
Fundamental Characteristics:
1. Delivery
2. Accuracy
3. Timeliness
COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION
Data communication systems are made up of five components:
1. Message
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Medium
5. Protocol

1. Message:
This is the information to be communicated. It can consist of text, numbers,
pictures, sound or video or any combination of these.

2. Sender:
It is the device that sends the data message. It may be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera.

3. Receiver:
It is the device that receives the message. It may be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television.
4. Medium:
It is the physical path which a message travels from sender to receiver. It may consist of
twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, laser or radio waves.

5. Protocol:
It is a set of rules that governs data communication. It is an agreement between the
communication devices.
2 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad
KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

DATA REPRESENTATION
Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.

Text
In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s).
Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is
called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding.

Numbers
Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to
represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify
mathematical operations.

Images
Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a
matrix of pixels, where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the
resolution.

Audio
Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature
different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a
microphone to change voice or music to an electric signal, we create a continuous signal.

Video
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be
produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of
images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.

DATA FLOW
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in
Figure.

3 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of
the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
Common examples of simplex communication are keyboards and traditional monitors. The
keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode
can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of
the two devices is transmitting at the time. Common examples of half-duplex
communication are walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both
directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each
direction.

Full-Duplex
In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously. In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the
link with signals going in the other direction. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the
link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other
for receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided between signals travelling in both
directions.
One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two
people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the
time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.

NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices connected by a media link. Devices often referred to as
nodes can be a computer, printer, or any other devices capable of sending/ receiving data.
A network must meet a number of criteria to be considered as effective and efficient. The
criteria are:
1. Performance
2. Reliability
3. Security

1. Performance:
The performance can be measured by two times are,
i. Transit time
ii. Response time

4 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

I. Transit time:
It is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another
device.

II. Response time:

It is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance can be measured
by number of factors:
i. Number of user
ii. Type of transition medium
iii. Hardware
iv. Software

i. Number of user:
Large number of concurrent users produces slow response time and heavy traffic loads.
ii. Type of transition medium:
The medium defines the speed of data travel.
iii. Hardware:
The type of hardware can affect the speed and capacity of transmission.
iv. Software:
The software can affect speed and reliability of a network link.
2. Reliability:
The reliability is measured by frequency to failure, the time it takes a link to recover
from a failure and the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.
i. Frequency of Failure:
A network that often fails.
ii. Recovery time:
How much time it takes to recover service after a failure has occurred?
iii. Catastrophe:
Failures due to such reasons are fire, earthquake, theft etc.
3. Security:
It refers to protecting data from unauthorized access and viruses.

i. Unauthorized Access:
Sensitive data must be protected from unauthorized access. Protection can be done by
user identification and passwords at the lowest level. At the highest level, encryption
techniques may use.
ii. Viruses:
A virus is an illicitly introduced code that damages the system.
5 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad
KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

TYPES OF CONNECTION
There are two types of connection:
1. Point to point
2. Multi point

1. Point To Point:
It provides a dedicated link between two devices of the channel. The entire capacity of
the channel is reserved for transmission between those two devices.

2. Multipoint:
More than two devices can share a link by using this type of connection. It also called as
multi-drop. The capacity channel is shared either temporary or spatially. It
simultaneously use, it is spatially shared. If it takes turns, it is time shared line
configuration.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Topology refers to the way a network is laid out either physically or logically. Two
or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. It is the
geographical representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices to each
other.

Mesh Topology:
In mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point to point link to every other
device. A fully connected mesh can have n (n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices. It
must have (n-1) I/O ports.

6 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Fig.: Mesh Topology

Advantages:
1. They use dedicated links so each link can only carry its own data load. So traffic
problem can be avoided.
2. It is robust. If anyone link get damaged it cannot affect others.
3. It gives privacy and security.
4. Fault identification and fault isolation are easy.

Disadvantages:
1. The amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required are very large.
2. The sheer bulk of wiring is larger than the available space.
3. Hardware required to connect each device is highly expensive.

Example:
A mesh network has 8 devices. Calculate total number of cable links and I/O ports needed.

Solution:
Number of devices = 8
Number of links = n (n-1)/2
= 8(8-1)/2
= 28
Number of port/device = n-1
= 8-1 = 7
STAR TOPOLOGY:
In star topology, each device has a dedicated link to the central “hub”. There is no
direct traffic between devices. The transmission are occurred only through the central
controller namely hub.

Fig.: Star Topology

7 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad
KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Advantages:
1. Installation and configuration are easy.
2. Less cabling is needed than mesh topology.
3. Less expensive then mesh topology since each device is connected only to the hub.
4. Easy to fault identification & isolation.

Disadvantages:
1. If hub fails then the whole network becomes unstable.
2. Even it requires less cabling then mesh when compared with other topologies it
still large.

TREE TOPOLOGY:
Tree topology is a variation of star topology. Instead of all devices connected to a central
hub here most of the devices are connected to a secondary hub that in turn connected
with central hub. The central hub is an active hub. An active hub contains a repeater,
which regenerate the received bit pattern before sending. The secondary hub may be
active or passive. A passive hub means it just precedes a physical connection only.

Fig.: Tree Topology

Advantages:
1. It is an extension of star and bus topologies, so in networks where these topologies
can't be implemented individually for reasons related to scalability, tree topology
is the best alternative.
2. Expansion of network is possible and easy.
3. Here, we divide the whole network into segments (star networks), which can be
easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection and correction is easy.
5. Each segment is provided with dedicated point-to-point wiring to the central hub.
6. If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.
Disadvantages:
1. Because of its basic structure, tree topology relies heavily on the main bus cable, if
it breaks whole network is crippled.
2. As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes
difficult.
3. Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.

8 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

BUS TOPOLOGY:
A bus topology is multipoint. Here one long cable is act as a backbone to link all the
devices are connected to the backbone by drop lines and taps. A drop line is the
connection between the devices and the cable. A tap is the splice into the main cable or
puncture the sheathing.

Fig.: Bus Topology

Advantages:
1. Installation is easy.
2. Less cabling.

Disadvantages:
1. Difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation.
2. Difficult to add new devices.
3. Any fault in backbone can stops all transmission.

RING TOPOLOGY:
In ring topology, each device has a dedicated connection with two devices on either side of
it. The signal is passed in one direction from device to device until it reaches the
destination and each device have repeater.

Fig.: Ring Topology

Advantages:
1. Easy to install.
2. Easy to reconfigure.
3. Fault identification is easy.
Disadvantages:
1. Unidirectional traffic.
2. Break in a single ring can break entire network.
9 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad
KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS:
A network falls to which category is determined by its size, its ownership, the distance it
covers and its physical architecture. There are three primary categories of networks:
1. Local area network
2. Metropolitan area network
3. Wide area network

Local Area Network (LAN):

A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single
office, building, or campus. Depending on the needs of an organization and the type of
technology used, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone’s home
office.
LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or
workstations. The resources to be shared can include hardware (e.g. a printer), software
(e.g., an application program), or data. A common example of a LAN, found in many
business environments, links a workgroup of task-related computers, for example,
engineering workstations or accounting PCs.
They have data rates from 4 to 16 Mbps. Today the speed is on increasing and can reach
100 mbps.

10 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

A metropolitan area network is designed to extend over an entire city. It may be a single
network or connecting a number of LANs into a large network. So the resources are
shared between LANs. Example: a company can use a MAN to connect the LANs in all its
offices throughout a city.

Wide Area Network (WAN):

Wide area network provides a long distance transmission of data, voice, image and video
information over a large geographical are like country, continent or even the whole
world.

11 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

PROTROCOLS AND STANDARDS

Protocols:
In computer networks, communication occurs between entries in different systems. An
entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information. But two entities cannot
communicate each other as sending or receiving. For communication occurs the entities
must agree on a protocol.
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication. A protocol defines
what is communicated how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key
elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and timing.

Syntax:
Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, means to the order how it is presented.

Semantics:
Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular pattern
to be interpreted, and when action is to be taken based on the interpretation?

Timing:
Timing refers to two characteristics:
1. When data should be sent
2. When data to be received.
Standards:
A standard provides a model for development of a product, which is going to develop.
Standards are essential to create and maintain a product. Data communication standards
fall into two categories:
1. De facto
2. De jure
1. De facto:
They are further classified into two categories:
a) Proprietary
b) Non proprietary
a) Proprietary:
They are originally invented by a commercial organization as a basis for the operation of
its product. They are wholly owned by the company, which invented them. They are
closed standards.
12 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad
KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

b) Nonproprietary:
Groups or committees that have passed them into public domain develop them. They are
open standards.

2. De jure:
They have been legislated by an officially recognized body.

GOALS AND APPLICATIONS OF NETWORKS

Network Goals:
1. Resource sharing: The main goal of networking is resource sharing and it is to make
all programs, data and equipment available on the network without the regard of the
physical location of the resource and the user.
2. To provide high reliability: Another goal of networking is to provide high reliability
by having alternative sources of supply. For example, all files could be replicated on
two or more machines, so if one of them is unavailable, the other copies could be
available.
3. Saving money: Another goal is saving money. For example, attaching a single printer
on the network rather than attaching a separate printer for each computer.
4. To increase the system performance: Another closely related goal is to increase the
systems performance as the work load increases by just adding more processors. With
central mainframes, when the system is full, it must be replaced by a larger one, usually
at great expense and with even greater disruption to the users.
5. To provide a powerful communication medium: Another goal is to provide a
powerful communication medium. A file that was updated / modified on a network can
be seen by the other users on the network immediately.

Network Applications:
1. E-Business
2. Online Education
3. E-Banking
4. Long Distance Communication
5. Information Services
6. E-Mail
7. Teleconferencing
8. Voice over IP
9. Video on demand
10. Railway Reservation

13 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

NETWORK MODELS

ISO / OSI MODEL

ISO refers International Standards Organization was established in 1947, it is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. OSI
refers to Open System Interconnection that covers all aspects of network communication.
It is a standard of ISO. Here open system is a model that allows any two different systems
to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture. Mainly, it is just a model, not a
protocol.

OSI MODEL
The open system interconnection model is a layered framework. It has seven separate but
interrelated layers. Each layer has unique responsibilities.

Architecture
The architecture of OSI model is a layered architecture. The seven layers are:
1. Physical layer
2. Datalink layer
3. Network layer
4. Transport layer
5. Session layer
6. Presentation layer
7. Application layer

14 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Fig.: OSI Reference Model

ORGANIZATION OF LAYERS
The seven layers are arranged by three sub groups.
1. Network Support Layers
2. User Support Layers
3. Intermediate Layer
Network Support Layers:
Physical, Datalink and Network layers come under the group. They deal with the physical
aspects of the data such as electrical specifications, physical connections, physical
addressing, and transport timing and reliability.
User Support Layers:
Session, Presentation and Application layers comes under the group. They deal with the
interoperability between the software systems.
Intermediate Layer
The transport layer is the intermediate layer between the network support and the user
support layers.

15 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

FUNCTIONS OF THE LAYERS

PHYSICAL LAYER
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a
physical medium. It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface
and the transmission medium.

The responsibilities of physical layer are:

1. Physical Characteristics of Interfaces and Media:

 It defines the electrical and mechanical characteristics of the
interface and the media.
 It defines the types of transmission medium
2. Representation of Bits
 To transmit the stream of bits they must be encoded into signal.
 It defines the type of encoding weather electrical or optical.
3. Data Rate
 It defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per
second.
4. Synchronization of Bits
 The sender and receiver must be synchronized at bit level.
5. Line Configuration
 It defines the type of connection between the devices.
 Two types of connection are:
1. Point to point
2. Multipoint

16 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

6. Physical Topology
 It defines how devices are connected to make a network.
 Five topologies are:
1. Mesh
2. Star
3. Tree
4. Bus
5. Ring
7. Transmission Mode
It defines the direction of transmission between devices. Three types
of transmission are:
1. Simplex
2. Half duplex
3. Full duplex

DATALINK LAYER
Datalink layer responsible for node-to-node delivery.

The responsibilities of Datalink layer are:

1. Framing
It divides the stream of bits received from network layer into manageable
data units called frames.
2. Physical Addressing
 It adds a header that defines the physical address of the sender
and the receiver.

17 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

 If the sender and the receiver are in different networks, then the
receiver address is the address of the device which connects the
two networks.
3. Flow Control
 It imposes a flow control mechanism used to ensure the
data rate at the sender and the receiver should be same.
4. Error Control
 To improve the reliability the Datalink layer adds a trailer
which contains the error control mechanism like CRC,
Checksum etc.
5. Access Control

 When two or more devices connected at the same link, then

the Datalink layer used to determine which device has
control over the link at any given time.

NETWORK LAYER
When the sender is in one network and the receiver is in some other network then the
network layer has the responsibility for the source to destination delivery.

The responsibilities of network layer are:

1. Logical Addressing
 If a packet passes the network boundary that is when the sender
and receiver are places in different network then the network layer
adds a header that defines the logical address of the devices.

18 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

2. Routing
 When more than one networks connected and to form an
internetwork, the connecting devices route the packet to its final
destination.
 Network layer provides this mechanism.

TRANSPORT LAYER

The network layer is responsible for the end to end delivery of the entire message. It
ensures that the whole message arrives in order and intact. It ensures the error control and
flow control at source to destination level.

The responsibilities of transport layer are:

1. Service point Addressing
 A single computer can often run several programs at the same time.
 The transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on
that computer.
 It adds a header that defines the port address which used to identify the
exact process on the receiver.
2. Segmentation and Reassembly
 A message is divided into manageable units called as segments.
 Each segment is reassembled after received that information at the
receiver end.
 To make this efficient each segment contains a sequence number.

19 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

3. Connection Control
 The transport layer creates a connection between the two end ports.
 It involves three steps. They are:
1. Connection establishment
2. Data transmission
3. Connection discard
4. Flow Control
 Flow control is performed at end to end level
5. Error Control
 Error control is performed at end to end level.

SESSION LAYER
It acts as a dialog controller. It establishes, maintains and synchronizes the interaction
between the communication devices.

The responsibilities of session layer are:

1. Dialog Control
 The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog.
 It allows the communication between the devices.
2. Synchronization
It adds a synchronization points into a stream of bits.

PRESENTATION LAYER
The presentation layer is responsible for the semantics and the syntax of the information
exchanged.

20 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

The responsibilities of presentation layer are:

1. Translation
 Different systems use different encoding systems.
 The presentation layer is responsible for interoperability between
different systems.
 The presentation layer at the sender side translates the information
from the sender dependent format to a common format. Likewise, at
the receiver side presentation layer translate the information from
common format to receiver dependent format.
2. Encryption
 To ensure security encryption/decryption is used
 Encryption means transforms the original information to another
form
 Decryption means retrieve the original information from the
encrypted data
3. Compression
 It used to reduce the number of bits to be transmitted.

APPLICATION LAYER
The application layer enables the user to access the network. It provides interfaces
between the users to the network.

21 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

The responsibilities of application layer are:

1. Network Virtual Terminal
 It is a software version of a physical terminal and allows a user to log on
to a remote host.
2. File Transfer, Access, and Management
 It allows a user to access files in a remote computer, retrieve files, and
manage or control files in a remote computer.
3. Mail Services
 It provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
4. Directory Services
 It provides distributed database sources and access for global information
about various objects and services.

TCP/IP MODEL

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and
application. However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the host-to-
network layer is equivalent to the combination of the physical and data link layers. The
internet layer is equivalent to the network layer, and the application layer is roughly doing
the job of the session, presentation, and application layers with the transport layer in
TCP/IP taking care of part of the duties of the session layer.
22 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad
KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Fig.: TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and
application. The first four layers provide physical standards, network interfaces,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI
model. The three topmost layers in the OSI model, however, are represented in TCP/IP by a
single layer called the application layer.

TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which provides a

specific functionality; however, the modules are not necessarily interdependent. Whereas
the OSI model specifies which functions belong to each of its layers, the layers of the
TCP/IP protocol suite contain relatively independent protocols that can be mixed and
matched depending on the needs of the system. The term hierarchical means that each
upper-level protocol is supported by one or more lower-level protocols.
23 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad
KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Physical and Data Link Layers (Host to network Layer)

 At the physical and data link layers, TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol. It
supports all the standard and proprietary protocols. A network in a TCP/IP
internetwork can be a LAN or a WAN.
Network Layer
 At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer), TCP/IP supports
the Internetworking Protocol. IP, in turn, uses four supporting protocols: ARP,
RARP, ICMP, and IGMP.
Internetworking Protocol (IP)
 The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the
TCP/IP protocols. It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol-a best-effort
delivery service.
 The term best effort means that IP provides no error checking or tracking.
 IP assumes the unreliability of the underlying layers and does its best to get a
transmission through to its destination, but with no guarantees.
 IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported
separately.
 Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or be
duplicated. IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering
datagrams once they arrive at their destination.
 The limited functionality of IP should not be considered a weakness, however. IP
provides bare-bones transmission functions that free the user to add only those
facilities necessary for a given application and thereby allows for maximum
efficiency.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
 The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical address with a
physical address. On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a
link is identified by a physical or station address, usually imprinted on the network
interface card (NIC). ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when its
Internet address is known.

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)

 The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its
Internet address when it knows only its physical address. It is used when a computer
is connected to a network for the first time or when a diskless computer is booted.

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

 The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used by hosts and
gateways to send notification of datagram problems back to the sender. ICMP sends
query and error reporting messages.

Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)

 The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitate the simultaneous
transmission of a message to a group of recipients.

Transport Layer
 Traditionally the transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols: TCP
and UDP. IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from one
physical device to another. UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible
for delivery of a message from a process (running program) to another process. A
new transport layer protocol, SCTP, has been devised to meet the needs of some
newer applications.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

 The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler of the two standard TCPIIP
transport protocols. It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses,
checksum error control, and length information to the data from the upper layer.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

 The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-layer services to
applications. TCP is a reliable stream transport protocol. The term stream, in this
context, means connection-oriented: A connection must be established between both
ends of a transmission before either can transmit data. At the sending end of each
transmission, TCP divides a stream of data into smaller units called segments. Each

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segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt, together with an
acknowledgment number for the segments received. Segments are carried across the
internet inside of IP datagrams. At the receiving end, TCP collects each datagram as
it comes in and reorders the transmission based on sequence numbers.

Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)

 The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) provides support for newer
applications such as voice over the Internet. It is a transport layer protocol that
combines the best features of UDP and TCP.

Application Layer
 The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation,
and application layers in the OSI model. Many protocols like HTTP, FTP, and
SMTP etc. are defined at this layer.

Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Models

S.No. OSI Model TCP/IP Model

1. The OSI model has 7 layers TCP/IP model has only 4 layers
2. The OSI model is a reference model The TCP/IP model is an
implementation of the OSI model
3. The OSI model supports both The TCP/IP model supports both
connectionless and connection- connectionless and connection-
oriented communication in the oriented protocol communication in
network layer, but only connection- the transport layer
oriented in transport layer

4. The OSI model originally The TCP/IP model does not clearly
distinguishes between service, interval distinguish between service, interval
and protocols and protocols
5. All packets are reliably delivered TCP reliably delivers packets, IP does
not reliably deliver packets
6. The protocols are better hidden and It is not easy to replace the protocols
can be easily replaced as the
technology changes
7. Horizontal approach Vertical approach

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Network Devices and Components

There are different types of electronic devices are used in networking which are known as
network devices or network equipment. In a computer network, network devices are mainly
used for transmitting and receiving the data quickly and securely in between computers, fax
machines, printers, etc. These devices may be intra network or internetwork. There are
some devices are installed on the device such as RJ45 connector otherwise NIC card,
whereas some devices are part of the network namely switch, router, etc. These devices are
specific devices, handles digital or electrical connections to perform their exclusive roles
very efficiently.

What are Network Devices?

Definition: The devices which are used for communication between different hardware’s
used in the computer network are known as network devices. These devices are also known
as physical devices, networking hardware, and network equipment otherwise computer
networking devices. In a computer network, each network device plays a key role based on
their functionality, and also works for different purposes at different segments.

Types of Network Devices

There are different types of network devices used in a computer network which include the
following:

 Network Hub
 Network Switch
 Modem
 Network Router
 Bridge
 Repeater

Network Hub

The network hub is one kind of networking device in a computer network, used to
communicate with various network hosts and also for data transferring. The transferring of
data in a computer network can be done in the form of packets. Whenever the data
processing can be done from a host to a network hub, then the data can transmit to all the
connected ports. Similarly, all the ports identify the data path which leads to inefficiencies
& wastage. Because of this working, a network hub cannot be so safe and secure. In
addition, copying the data packets on all the ports will make the hub slower which leads to
the utilize of the network switch.

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Fig.: Network-Hub

Network hubs are classified into two types like active hub & passive hub.

Active Hub

These hubs have their own power supply and these hubs are used to clean, increase &
transmit the signal using the network. It works as a wiring center & repeater. Active hubs
play a key role in extending the distance between nodes.

Passive Hub

These hubs collect wiring from the power supply and different nodes of an active hub.
These hubs transmit the signals over the network without improving & cleaning them.
These hubs are not suitable for extending the distance between nodes like an active hub.

Network Switch

Similar to a hub, this is also working at the layer in the LAN and a switch is more clever
compare with a hub. As the hub is used for data transferring, whereas a switch is used for
filtering & forwarding the data. So this is the more clever technique to deal with the data
packets.

Fig.: Network-switch

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Whenever a data packet is obtained from the interfaces in the switch, then the data packet
can be filtered & transmits to the interface of the proposed receiver. Due to this reason, a
switch maintains a content addressable memory table to maintain system configuration as
well as memory. This table is also named as FIB (forwarding information base) otherwise
forwarding table.

Modem

A modem is the most important network device and it is used daily in our life. If we notice
the internet connection to homes was given with the help of a wire. then wire carries
internet data from one place to another. But, every computer gives digital or binary data in
the form of zeros & ones.

Fig.: Modem

The full form of the modem is a modulator and a demodulator. So it modulates as well as
demodulates the signal among the computer and a telephone line because the computer
generates digital data whereas the telephone line generates an analog signal.

Network Router

A network router is one kind of network device in a computer network and it is used for
routing traffic from one network to another. These two networks could be private to a
public company network. For example, here a router is considered as traffic police at the
junction, he directs dissimilar traffic networks to dissimilar directions.

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Fig.: Router-in-network-devices

Bridge

A Bridge in the computer network is used to unite two or more network segments. The
main function of a bridge in network architecture is to store as well as transmit frames
among the various segments. Bridges use MAC (Media Access Control) hardware for
transferring frames.

Fig.: Bridge-in-network-devices

These are also used for connecting two physical local area networks to a larger logical local
area network. In the OSI model, bridges work at the data link & physical layers to divide
the networks from larger to smaller by controlling the data flow between the two. In recent
years, bridges are replaced by switches to provide more functionality.

Repeater

The operating of a repeater can be done at the physical layer. The main function of this
device is to reproduce the signal on a similar network before the signal gets weak otherwise
damaged. The significant point to be noted regarding these devices is that they do not
strengthen the signal. Whenever the signal gets weak, then they reproduce it at the actual
strength. A repeater is a two-port device.

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Fig.: Repeater

Gateway

Generally, a gateway performs at the session & transport layers in the OSI model.
Gateways offer conversion between networking technologies like OSI (Open System
Interconnection) & TCP/IP. Because of this, these are connected to two or many
autonomous networks, where each network has its own domain name service, routing
algorithm, topology, protocols, and procedures of network administration & policies.

Fig.: Gateway-device

Gateways execute all the functions of routers. Actually, a router with additional conversion
functionality is a gateway, so the conversion between various network technologies is
known as a protocol converter.

Brouter

The Brouter is also called a bridging router and the main function of this is to combine the
features of both router & bridge and router. It performs either at the network layer or the
data link layer. When it works as a router, it is used for routing packets across networks
whereas it works as a bridge; it is used for filtering LANs traffic.

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

PHYSICAL LAYER:

Introduction to Physical Layer

 The physical layer has complex tasks to perform. One major task is to provide services
for the data link layer. The data in the data link layer consists of 0s and 1s organized into
frames that are ready to be sent across the transmission medium.
 This stream of 0s and 1s must first be converted into another entity: signals.
 One of the services provided by the physical layer is to create a signal that represents this
stream of bits.
 The physical layer must also take care of the physical network, the transmission medium.
The transmission medium is a passive entity; it has no internal program or logic for
control like other layers.
 The transmission medium must be controlled by the physical layer. The physical layer
decides on the directions of data flow. The physical layer decides on the number of
logical channels for transporting data coming from different sources.

IMPORTANT TERMS

 Wavelength: Wavelength is the characteristics of a signal travelling through a

transmission medium.

 Bit Rate: the bit rate is the number of bits sent in one second, expressed in bits per
second (bps). Bit rate is the same as data rate, data transfer rate and bit time.
 Bit Length: the bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium.
 Baud rate: Baud is the unit of signalling speed or modulation rate. It indicates the rate at
which a signal level changes over a given period of time.
 Bandwidth: Bandwidth in hertz refers to the range of frequencies in a composite signal
or a range of frequencies that a channel can pass. While bandwidth in bits per second
refers to the speed of bit transmission in a channel or link.
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DATA RATE

 A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data
over channel in bits per second.
 Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of signal
3. The quality of channel
 Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist for a
noiseless channel (ideal channel) and another by Shannon for a noisy channel.

 Nyquist Bit Rate

 The Nyquist bit rate formula is use to calculate the theoretical maximum bit rate.
Bit rate=2*bandwidth*log2L
Where bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, ‘L’ is the signal level used to
represent data.

 Shannon Capacity
 To determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel, we can use
Shannon capacity.
Capacity= bandwidth * log2 (1+SNR)
When SNR is very high, we can use the following formula for calculate highest data
rate:
Capacity = bandwidth * SNR db/3

 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

o To calculate theoretical bit rate for noisy channel we need to consider signal to
noise ratio of that channel. The signal to noise ratio is defined as:

SNR=average signal power / average noise power

o A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise and a low SNR means
the signal is more corrupted. Because the signal to noise ratio is the ratio of two
powers, usually the SNR is described in decibel unit.
SNR db=10*log10 SNR
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Example 1: Television channels are 6 MHz wide. How many bits can be sent if four level
digital signals are used? Assume a noiseless channel.

Solution:
Bit rate= 2*bandwidth*log2L
= 2 X 6 X 106 X log2 4
= 24 X 106
= 24 Mbps

Example 2: What is signal-to-noise ratio required to achieve channel capacity of 20Mbps

with 3 MHz bandwidth.

Solution:
C = B log2 (1 + SNR)
20 X 106 = 3 X 106 log2 (1 + SNR)
6.67 = log 2 (1+SNR)
1+SNR = 26.67
1+SNR = 101.83
SNR = 100.83

Example 3: If a signal is sent over a 3 KHz channel whose signal-noise ratio is 20dB? What is
the maximum achievable data rate?

Solution:
C = B log2 (1 + SNR)
= 3000 X log2 (1 + SNR)
= 3000 X 4.39
= 13,170 bits/second

Example 4: What is the highest bit rate of a regular telephone line? A telephone line has a
bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 Hz to 3300 Hz). The signal-to-noise ratio is 35 dB on up-link
channel (user-to-network).

Solution:
We can calculate the highest bit rate of a regular telephone line as:
C = B log2 (1 + SNR)
C = 3000 log2 (1 + 3162)
C = 3000 log2 (3163)
C = 3000 ×11.62
C = 34,860 bps

Example 5: We have a channel with a 1 MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this channel is 63;
what is the appropriate bit rate and number of signal level?

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Solution:
First use Shannon formula to find the upper limit on the channel’s data-rate

C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 106 log2 (1 + 63) = 106 log2 (64) = 6 Mbps

Although the Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, this is the upper limit. For better
performance choose something lower, e.g. 4 Mbps.

Then use the Nyquist formula to find the number of signal levels.
4 Mbps = 2 × 1 MHz × log2 L  L = 4

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information
from a source to a destination.
 The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic cable.
 The information is usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of data from another
form.
 In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad categories:
guided and unguided.
 Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
 Unguided medium is free space.

Fig. Transmission Media

Guided Media
 Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another,
include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
 A signal travelling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical
limits of the medium.

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 Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and
transport signals in the form of electric current.
 Optical-fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.

Twisted-Pair Cable
 A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together, as shown in figure.

 One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a
ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.
 In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and
crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
 If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both
wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources
(e,g., one is closer and the other is farther). This results in a difference at the receiver.
 By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained. For example, suppose in one twist, one
wire is closer to the noise source and the other is farther; in the next twist, the reverse is
true.
 Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external influences
(noise or crosstalk).

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

 The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).
 IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called shielded
twisted-pair (STP).

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

 STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated
conductors.
 Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of
noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.
 Figure shows the difference between UTP and STP.

Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted
pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently.
 Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire
(usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer
conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
 The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor, which completes the circuit.
 This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is
protected by a plastic cover as shown in Figure.

Fiber-Optic Cable
 A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
 Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform
substance.

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

 Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.

 A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.
 The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving
through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it as shown
in figure.

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

 Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.
 This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
 Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone who
has a device capable of receiving them.
 Following figure shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to
900 THz, used for wireless communication.

 We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups: radio waves, microwaves, and
infrared waves as shown in figure.

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Radio Waves
 Although there is no clear-cut demarcation between radio waves and microwaves,
electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally
called radio waves; waves ranging in frequencies between 1 GHz and 300 GHz are
called microwaves.
 However, the behaviour of the waves, rather than the frequencies, is a better criterion
for classification.
 Radio waves, for the most part, are omni-directional.
 When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions.
 This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.
 A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.
 The omni-directional property has a disadvantage, too.
 The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another
antenna that may send signals using the same frequency or band.

Microwaves
 Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 GHz and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
 Microwaves are unidirectional.
 When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be narrowly focused. This
means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
 The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage.
 A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned
antennas.

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Infrared
 Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz can be used for short-range
communication.
 Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
 This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and another;
a short-range communication system in one room cannot be affected by another system
in the next room.
 When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the remote
by our neighbours.
 However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals useless for long-range
communication.
 In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's rays
contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.

SWITCHING METHODS
 A network is a set of connected devices.
 Whenever we have multiple devices, we have the problem of how to connect them to
make one-to-one communication possible.
 One solution is to make a point-to-point connection between each pair of devices (a
mesh topology) or between a central device and every other device (a star topology).
 These methods are impractical and wasteful when applied to very large networks.
 The number and length of the links require too much infrastructure to be cost-efficient,
and the majority of those links would be idle most of the time.
 Other topologies employing multipoint connections, such as a bus, are ruled out because
the distances between devices and the total number of devices increase beyond the
capacities of the media and equipment.
 A better solution is switching.
 A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called switches.
 Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between two or more
devices linked to the switch.

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

 In a switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the end systems
(computers or telephones, for example) and others are used only for routing.
 Following figure shows a switched network.

 There are three methods of switching:

o Circuit Switching
o Message Switching
o Packet Switching
 Nowadays circuit switching and packet switching techniques are used.

Circuit Switching
 When you or your computer places a telephone call, the switching equipment within the
telephone system seeks out a physical path all the way from your telephone to the
receiver's telephone. This technique is called circuit switching and is shown in figure (a)
below.

Fig. Circuit Switching

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

 Each of the six rectangles represents a carrier switching office (end office, toll office,
etc.).
 In this example, each office has three incoming lines and three outgoing lines.
 When a call passes through a switching office, a physical connection is (conceptually)
established between the line on which the call came in and one of the output lines, as
shown by the dotted lines.
 In the early days of the telephone, the connection was made by the operator plugging a
jumper cable into the input and output sockets.
 The model shown in Figure (a) is highly simplified, of course, because parts of the
physical path between the two telephones may, in fact, be microwave or fiber links onto
which thousands of calls are multiplexed.
 Nevertheless, the basic idea is valid: once a call has been set up, a dedicated path
between both ends exists and will continue to exist until the call is finished.

Message Switching
 An alternative switching strategy is message switching as illustrated in Fig. (b).

Fig. Message Switching

 When this form of switching is used, no physical path is established in advance between
sender and receiver.
 Instead, when the sender has a block of data to be sent, it is stored in the first switching
office (i.e., router) and then forwarded later, one hop at a time.
 Each block is received in its entirety, inspected for errors, and then retransmitted.
 A network using this technique is called a store-and-forward network

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Packet Switching
 With message switching, there is no limit at all on block size, which means that routers
(in a modern system) must have disks to buffer long blocks.
 It also means that a single block can tie up a router-router line for minutes, rendering
message switching useless for interactive traffic.
 To get around these problems, packet switching was invented.

Fig. Packet Switching

 Packet-switching networks place a tight upper limit on block size, allowing packets to
be buffered in router main memory instead of on disk.
 By making sure that no user can monopolize any transmission line very long
(milliseconds), packet-switching networks are well suited for handling interactive
traffic.
 A further advantage of packet switching over message switching is: the first packet of a
multi packet message can be forwarded before the second one has fully arrived,
reducing delay and improving throughput.
 For these reasons, computer networks are usually packet switched, occasionally circuit
switched, but never message switched.
 The result of the connection setup with circuit switching is the reservation of bandwidth
all the way from the sender to the receiver.
 All packets follow this path.

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 Among other properties, having all packets follow the same path means that they cannot
arrive out of order.
 With packet switching there is no path, so different packets can follow different paths,
depending on network conditions at the time they are sent.
 They may arrive out of order.

MULTIPLEXING

The term “Multiplexing” or “Muxing” is one kind of technique for combining multiple
signals like analog as well as digital into one signal over a channel. This technique is
applicable in telecommunications as well as computer networks. For instance, in
telecommunications, one cable is used for carrying different telephone calls.

What is a Multiplexing?
Muxing (or) multiplexing can be defined as; it is a way of transmitting various signals over
a media or single line. A common kind of multiplexing merges a number of low-speed
signals to send over an only high-speed link, or it is used to transmit a medium as well as its
link with a number of devices. It provides both privacy & Efficiency.

The entire process can be done using a device namely MUX or multiplexer, and the main
function of this device is to unite n-input lines for generating a single output line. Thus
MUX has many inputs & single output. A device is called DEMUX or demultiplexer is
used at the receiving end which divides the signal into its component signals. So It has a
single input and a number of outputs.

Fig.: Multiplexing

Multiplexing in Computer Networks

Multiplexing in computer networks is one kind of method used to merge and transmit
several data signals above a single medium. In this technique, hardware like multiplexer or

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

MUX plays a key role in achieving multiplexing. Multiplexer merges ‘n’ input lines for
producing an only output line. This technique mainly follows the many-to-one concept that
means n-input lines & 1-output line.

For demultiplexing, a device like DEMUX is used at the receiving end to separate a signal
into many. Thus, this technique follows the single-to-many concept that means single input
lines & n-output lines. This technique separates a logic medium from high-capacity to a
low-capacity, and then it is transmitted through many streams from a medium with high-
capacity to low-capacity.

Communication is possible in the air on radio frequency through a cable & light which are
capable of multiplexing. Once many senders try to transmit the signals using a single
channel, then a tool like Multiplex is used to divide the physical channel & allocates each
one.

Why Multiplexing is Required?

The main function of the transmission medium is to transmit the signals from transmitter to
receiver. Here, the medium simply includes a single signal at a time. So, if several signals
need to transmit a single medium, then they should be separated in such a way that each
signal is given some part of the obtainable bandwidth.

For instance: If there are 5 signals & the medium bandwidth is 50 units, then the 5 units can
be shared through every signal. Once multiple signals transmit the common medium, there
is a chance of a crash. So, the concept of this technique is mainly used to evade such
crashes.

Types of Multiplexing Techniques

These techniques are mainly used in communication, and these are classified into three
types. The 3 types of multiplexing techniques include the following:

 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

The FDM is used in telephone companies in the 20th century in long-distance connections
for multiplexing a number of voice signals using a system like a coaxial cable. For small
distances, low-cost cables were utilized for different systems such as bell systems, K-and
N-carrier, however, they don’t let huge bandwidths. This is analog multiplexing used to
unite analog signals. This type of technique is useful when the link’s bandwidth is better
than the United bandwidth of the transmitted signals.
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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Fig.: Frequency Division Multiplexing

In FDM, signals are produced by transmitting various device modulated carrier frequencies,
and then these are united into a solo signal which can be moved by the connection. To hold
the adapted signal, the carrier frequencies are divided by sufficient bandwidth, & these
ranges of bandwidths are the channels through the different traveling signals. These can be
divided by bandwidth which is not used. The best examples of the FDM comprise signal
transmission in TV and radio.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

In fiber communications, the WDM is one type of technology. This is the most useful
concept in high-capacity communication systems. At the end of the transmitter section, the
multiplexer is used to combine the signals as well as at the end of the receiver section, the
de-multiplexer for dividing the signals separately. The main function of WDM at the
multiplexer is for uniting various light sources into only light sources, and this light can be
changed into numerous light sources at the de-multiplexer.

Fig.: WDM

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

The main intention of WDM is to utilize the high data rate capacity of the FOC (fiber optic
cable). The high data rate of this FOC cable is superior to the data rate of the metallic
transmission cable. Theoretically, the WDM is similar to the FDM, apart from the data
transmission through the FOC in which the multiplexing & de-multiplexing occupies
optical signals.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

The TDM is one kind of method for transmitting a signal over a channel of particular
communication by separating the time edge into slots. Like single slot is used for each
message signal.

Fig.: Time Division Multiplexing

TDM is mainly useful for analog and digital signals, in which several channels with low
speed are multiplexed into high-speed channels used for transmission. Depending on the
time, every low-speed channel will be assigned to an exact position, wherever it works in
the mode of synchronization. Both the ends of MUX and DEMUX are synchronized timely
& at the same time switch toward the next channel.

Types of TDM

The different types of TDM include the following.

 Synchronous TDM
 Asynchronous TDM
 Interleaving TDM
 Statistical TDM

47 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Fig.: Types of TDM

Synchronous TDM

The synchronous TDM is very useful in both analogs as well as digital signals. In this type
of TDM, the connection of input is allied to a frame. For example, if there are n-
connections in the frame, then a frame will be separated into n-time slots, and for every
unit, each slot is assigned to every input line.

Asynchronous TDM

In asynchronous TDM, for different signals, the rate of sampling is also different, and it
doesn’t need a general clock (CLK). If the device has nothing for transmitting, then the time
slot is assigned to a new device. The design of a commutator otherwise de-commutator is
not easy & the bandwidth is low for this type, and it is applicable for not synchronous
transmit form network.

Interleaving TDM

The TDM can be imagined like two speedy rotary switches on the multiplexing &
demultiplexing surface. These switches can be rotated & synchronized in reverse directions.
Once the switch releases at the surface of the multiplexer ahead of a connection, then it has
a chance of sending a unit into the lane. Similarly, once the switch releases at the surface of
the de-multiplexer ahead of a connection a chance to receiving a unit from the lane. This
procedure is named interleaving.

Statistical TDM

The statistical TDM is applicable to transmit different types of data simultaneously across a
single cable. This is frequently used to handle data being transmitted through a network like
LAN (or) WAN. The transmission of data can be done from the input devices which are
connected to networks like computers, fax machines, printers, etc. The statistical TDM can
be used in the settings of telephone switchboards to control the calls. This type of technique
is comparable to dynamic bandwidth distribution, and a communication channel is
separated into a random data stream number.

48 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad

KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Code Division Multiplexing

The term CDM stands for code division multiplexing. It is one kind of technology that
works with spread spectrum communication. In this type of communication, a narrowband
signal can be transmitted through division across several channels or over a larger
frequency band. It does not compress the bandwidths of frequencies otherwise digital
signals. It is less liable to intrusion, so providing enhanced data communication capacity as
well as a more safe private line.
Once code division multiplexing is used to permit several signals from different users to
transmit a communication channel commonly, then this technology is known as CDMA or
Code Division Multiple Access.

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

The term OFDM stands for “Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing” and it is a type
of signal otherwise modulation that offers some important benefits for data links. So,
OFDM is mainly used for several most recent wide bandwidth & wireless systems with
high data rates like cellular telecommunications, Wi-Fi, etc.

OFDM uses a large number of carriers where each carrier holds low bit rate data that means
it is very flexible to preferred fading, intrusion, multipath effects & provides a high amount
of spectral efficiency. OFDM-based early systems found the processing which is necessary
for the signal format fairly high, however with progress in technology, this kind of
technique presents few issues in terms of the required process.

Space Division Multiplexing

Space division multiplexing is one kind of technique where radio, metallic otherwise optical
transmission media are separated physically through insulation and space or waveguides
keeps channel separations. In each physically different channel, numerous channels can be
attained through time, frequency, otherwise WDM. Some POV (Passive Optical Network)
implementations use SDM or space division multiplexing, through the downstream
transmissions which occur on one of a duplex FOC (fiber optic cable) whereas upstream
transmission occurs on the remaining fiber.

Which Multiplexing Technique Transmits Digital Signals?

Time Division Multiplexing or TDM is used for transmitting digital signals. The techniques
like WDM & FDM are mainly used for transferring analog signals. Wave Division (WDM)
is partially related to Frequency Division (FDM).

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KCS 603 COMPUTER NETWORKS LECTURE NOTES

Advantages

The process which is used to transmit multiple signals over a single physical medium is
known as multiplexing. The main advantages of multiplexing include the following.

 Above one signal can be transmitted over a single medium.

 The utilization of a medium bandwidth can be done very effectively
 Multiplexing enhances the network’s economic stability because it reduces both the
time as well as cost required for the operation of the physical medium when a single
medium serves many signals or subscribers or applications.
 In telecommunications, multiplexing plays a key role to reduce the cost of networks
through reducing the number of communications links required among two points.

Applications

The applications of multiplexing include the following:

 Analog Broadcasting
 Digital Broadcasting
 Telephony
 Video Processing
 Telegraphy

50 Prepared By: Dr. Sunil Kumar, Professor, IT Dept., AKGEC, Ghaziabad