UNIT 1: AKTU Last Five Year Solutions [Computer Networks: KCS-603]

1. What are the number of cable links required for n devices connected in mesh, ring, bus and star
topology? [2014-15]
Ans: The number of cables for each type of network is:
a. Mesh: n (n – 1) / 2
b. Star: n
c. Ring: n – 1
d. Bus: one backbone and n drop lines

2. Differentiate between bit rate and baud rate. State two reason for using layered protocols.
[2014-15]
Ans: Bit rate and Baud rate, these two terms are often used in data communication. Bit rate is
simply the number of bits (i.e., 0's and 1's) transmitted in per unit time. While Baud rate is the
number of signal units transmitted per unit time that is needed to represent those bits.

There are two main reasons for using the layered protocols and these are:

1. Specialization and
2. Abstraction
- A neutral standard is created by a protocol which can be used by the rival companies for cre-
ating programs that are compatible.
- So many protocols are required in the field and that should also be organized properly and
these protocols have to be directed to the specialists that can work up on these protocols.
- A network program can be created using the layered protocols by a software house if the
guidelines of one layer are known.
- The services of the lower level protocols can be provided by the companies.
- This helps them to specialize.
- In abstraction, it is assumed that another protocol will provide the lower services.
- A conceptual framework is provided by the layered protocol architecture that divides the
complex task of information exchange into much simpler tasks between the hosts.
- The responsibility for each of the protocols is narrowly defined.
- A protocol provides an interface for the successive higher layer protocol.
- As a result of this, it goes in to hiding the details of the higher protocol layers that underlies.
- The advantage of using the layered protocols is that the same application i.e., the user level
program can be used by a number of diverse communication networks.
- For example, when you are connected to a dial up line or internet via LAN you can use the
same browser.
- For simplifying the networking designs, one of the most common techniques used is the pro-
tocol layering.
- The networking designs are divided in to various functional layers and the protocols are
assigned for carrying out the tasks of each layer.
- It is quite common to keep the functions of the data delivery separate from each other and
separate layers for the connection management too.
- Therefore, we have one protocol for performing the data delivery tasks and second one for
performing connection management.
- The second one is layered up on the first one.
- Since the connection management protocol is not concerned with the data delivery, it is also
quite simple.
- The OSI seven layer model and the DoD model are one of the most important layered
protocols ever designed.
- A fusion of both the models is represented by the modern internet.
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 - Simple protocols are produced by the protocol layering with some well defined tasks.
- These protocols then can be put together to be used as a new whole protocol. - As required for
some particular applications, the individual protocols can be either replaced or removed.
- Networking is such a field involving programmers, electricians, mathematicians, designers,
electricians and so on.
- People from these various fields have very less in common and it is because of the layering
that people with such varying skills to make an assumption or feel like others are carrying out
their duty.
- This is what we call abstraction.
- Protocols at a level can be followed by an application programmer via abstraction assuming
that network exists and similarly electricians assume and do their work.
- One layer can provide services to the succeeding layer and can get services in return too.
- Abstraction is thus the fundamental foundation for layering.
- Stack has been used for representing the networking protocols since the start of network engi-
neering.
- Without stack, it would be unmanageable as well as overwhelming.
- Representing the layers of specialization for the first protocols derived from TCP/ IP.

3. Calculate the required bandwidth, if in a communication channel the signal power is 100 W and
noise power is 10 W and the information transmission rate is 10kbps. [2014-15]
Ans:
Signal power is 100 W

Noise power is 10 W

Data rate of 10 kbps

Bandwidth?

Data rate = bandwidth * log (1 + (Signal power / Noise power))

10 = bandwidth * log (1 + (100 / 10)) {log (1 + (100 / 10)) = 3.4594 approx. equal to 4 is
taken here}

10 = bandwidth * 4

Bandwidth = 2.5 KHz

4. It is required to transmit a data at a rate of 64kbps over a 3 kHz telephone channel. What is the
minimum SNR required to accomplish this? [2014-15]
Ans:
Given: Bit Rate = 64Kbps
W = 3KHz
C = W log2 (1 + SNR), C ≥ Cmin = 64 kbps

Cmin = W log2 (1 + SNRmin) ⇒

log2 (1 + SNRmin) = 𝑪𝒎𝒊𝒏 / 𝑾 = 𝟔𝟒𝑲 /𝟑 ⇒
1 + SNRmin = 2 64K/3 ⇒
SNRmin = 2.64 x 106
In dB: SNRmin = 10 log10 (2.64 x 106) = 64.2 dB

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5. What do you mean by service primitives? [2014-15]

Ans:
A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to a user or other
entity to access the service. These primitives tell the service to perform some action or report
on an action taken by a peer entity. The initiating entity does a CONNECT. Request: An entity
wants to do some work or packet being sent. The receiver then gets a CONNECT. Indication:
An entity is to be announcing that somewhere wants to set up a connection to it. The CONECT.
Response primitive to tell whether it wants to accept or reject the proposed connection. The en-
tity issuing the initial CONNECT. request finds out what happened via a CONNECT. Confirm
primitive.
Primitives can have parameters such as CONNECT, DATA, DISCONNECT to established a
connection, to send data, and Disconnect a connection through these four primitives.
Services can be either confirmed or unconfirmed. In a confirmed service, there is a request, an
indication, a response, and a confirm.
In an unconfirmed service, there is just a request and an indication. Following figure shows
four classes of service primitives.

6. Discuss the devices of each layer of OSI reference model. [2014-15]

Ans: Devices used in each layer are….

1. Physical layer or below: Hubs, Repeaters, Cables, Fibers, Wireless..

2. Data-link layer: Bridges, Modems, Network cards, 2-layer switches.
3. Network layer: Routers, Brouters, 3-layer switches.
4. Transport layer: Gateways, Firewalls.
5. Session layer: Gateways, Firewalls, PC’s.
6. Presentation layer: Gateways, Firewalls, PC’s.
7. Application layer: Gateways, Firewalls, all end devices like PC’s, Phones, Servers.

7. Sketch the Manchester and differential Manchester encoding for the bit stream: 0001110101.
[2014-15]
Ans:
The Manchester and differential Manchester encoding for the bit stream 0001110101:

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8. What is the transmission time of a packet sent by a station if the length of the packet is 2
million bytes and the bandwidth of the channel is 300 kbps? [2014-15]
Ans:

Transmission time = (packet length)/(bandwidth)

= 2million bytes / 300kbps

= 2000000 bytes / 300000 bps

=6.67 s

9. What are the applications of Computer Networks? [2015-16][2017-18]

Ans:
A network is a collection or set of computing devices connected to one another to establish
communication and also share available resources. A network will comprise of software and
hardware devices. You can have a network even if you are not connected to the internet. Com-
puter networks make it possible for people to transfer files from one place to another and to
communicate taking the shortest time possible. Computer network applications are network
software applications that utilize the Internet or other network hardware infrastructure to per-
form useful functions for example file transfers within a network. They help us to transfer data
from one point to another within the network.

There are 2 types of network applications:-

1. Pure network applications

2. Standalone network application

(A) Pure Network Applications

These are applications created to be used in networks; using pure network applications on a
single computer doesn't make sense. They help us to transfer data and communicate within a
network. Such applications have a separate and distinct user interface that users must learn for
instance:-

Outlook Express

Outlook Express, an email program | Source

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1. Email Programs
They allow users to type messages at their local nodes and then send to someone on the net-
work. It is a fast and easy way of transferring mail from one computer to another. Examples of
electronic mail programs (Clients) are:-

 Pegasus Mail
 Outlook express
 Eudora Windows mail
 Fox mail
 Opera
 Poco mail
 Mozilla Thunderbird
 Windows mail

2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

This application facilities transfer of files from one computer to another e.g. from a client to a
server. There are 2 common processes involved in FTP
Downloading: - This is the process of obtaining files from a server to a workstation or a client
(for example when you download programs and music from a server).
Uploading:- This is obtaining of files from a workstation to a server (for instance when you at-
tach documents and upload them to a server, a good example being when you upload photos to
Facebook).
Examples of FTP programs are:-

 FTP in Unix
 FTP in Linux or
 FTP in Windows

File Transfer Protocol Process

File transfer protocol process

3. Terminal Emulation (TELNET)

It allows a workstation to access the server for an application program. This enables you to
control the server and communicate with other servers on the network. The workstation appears
as a down terminal that is directly attached to the server. The user feels like he/she is using the
server directly. TELNET enables PCs and workstations to function as dumb terminals in ses-
sions with hosts on inter-networks.

4. Groupware
These applications are used to automate the administrative functions of a modern office for in-
stance video conferencing and chatting. They facilitate the work of groups and improve on
their productivity; they can be used to communicate, co-operate, coordinate, solve problems,
compete, and negotiate among others.
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 (i) Video Conferencing
This is the process of conducting a conference between two or more participants at different
sites by using computer networks to transmit audio and video data. For example, a point-to-
point (two-person) video conferencing system works much like a video telephone.
Each participant has a video camera, microphone, and speakers mounted on his or her comput-
er. As the two participants speak to one another, their voices are carried over the network and
delivered to the others speakers, and whatever images appear in front of the video camera ap-
pear in a window on the other participant’s monitor.

(ii) Chatting
It is real-time communication between two users via computer. Once a chat has been initiated,
either user can enter text by typing on the keyboard and the entered text will appear on the oth-
er user’s monitor. The two must be online for a chat to be initiated. Most networks, cybers and
online services offer a chat feature which enables computer users to chat as they go on with
their work.

(B) Stand Alone Applications

These are applications that run on stand-alone computers (computers not connected to any
other). In order to extend their activity, they are rebuilt to run on network environments e.g.
word processors, spreadsheets, database management systems, presentations graphics, project
management etc. They function even when the computer is offline.

10. What is OSI model? Explain the functions and protocols and services of each layer. [2015-16]
[2017-18] [2018-19]
or
Explain functionalities of every layer in OSI model with neat block diagram. [2016-17]

Ans:
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO – ‘Internation-
al Organization of Standardization‘, in the year 1974. It is 7 layer architecture with each lay-
er having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit
the data from one person to another across the globe.

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1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits. It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. When receiving
data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the
Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.
2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2):
The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message. The main func-
tion of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to another, over the
physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it
to the Host using its MAC address.
Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)

3. Network Layer (Layer 3):

Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the
packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in
the header by network layer.
The functions of the Network layer are:
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to des-
tination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network
layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universal-
ly.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):

Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from network layer.
The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End
delivery of the complete message. Transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
The functions of the transport layer are:
1.Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer,
breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated
with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
2.Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by speci-
fying this address, transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct pro-
cess.

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The services provided by transport layer:
1. Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the
source after a packet or group of packet is received. This type of transmission is reliable and
secure.
2. Connection less service: It is a one phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type
of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows
for much faster communication between devices. Connection oriented Service is more relia-
ble than connection less Service.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5):

This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, authentica-
tion and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are:
1. Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the two pro-
cesses to establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered as
synchronization points into the data. These synchronization point help to identify the error
so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prema-
turely and data loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with
each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):
Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is
extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are:
1. Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
2. Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain
text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
3. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7):

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to
access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.

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 The functions of the Application layer are:
1. Network Virtual Terminal
2. FTAM-File transfer access and management
3. Mail Services
4. Directory Services
11. Write about user access in ISDN. [2016-17]

Ans: ISDN is a circuit -switched telephone network system, that also provides access to packet
switched networks, designed to allow digital transmission of voice and data over ordinary
telephone copper wires, resulting in better voice quality than· an analog phone. It offers circuit-
switched connections (for either voice or data), and packet-switched connections (for data), in
increments of 64 Kbit/s.
Another major market application is Internet access, where ISDN typically provides a
maximum of 128 Kbit/s in both upstream and downstream directions (which can be considered
to be broadband speed, since it exceeds the narrowband speeds of standard analog 56k
telephone lines). ISDN B-channels can be bonded to achieve a greater data rate; typically 3 or 4
BRIs (6 to 8 64 Kbit/s channels) are bonded.

12. List the advantages and disadvantages of star topology. [2016-17]

Ans: Advantages of Star Topology:

1) As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance, signals don’t
necessarily get transmitted to all the workstations.
2) Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology new nodes can be added easily
without affecting rest of the network. Similarly components can also be removed easily.
3) Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.
4) Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of network. At the same time it's easy to
detect the failure and troubleshoot it.
Disadvantages of Star Topology:
1) Too much dependency on central device has its own drawbacks. If it fails whole network
goes down.
2) The use of hub, a router or a switch as central device increases the overall cost of the
network.
3) Performance and as well number of nodes which can be added in such topology is
depended on capacity of central device.

13. List the advantages and disadvantages of ring topology. [2017-18]

Ans:
Advantages of ring topology:

1) Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.

2) All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.

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Disadvantages of ring topology:

1) This topology is not very reliable, because when a link fails the entire ring connection is
broken.
2) The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
14. If a binary signal is sent over a 3 kHz channel whose signal to noise ratio is 20dB. What is the
maximum achievable data rate? [2017-18]
Ans:
According to Shannon theorem which specifies the maximum data rate in a noisy channel as
B*log_2^(1+S/N) where B is the bandwidth, S/N is the signal-to-noise ratio. Usually, S/N is given
in "decibel", not just a ratio. Decibel is calculated by dB=10log_10^(S/N)
Therefore, we get S/N first by 20dB=10log_10^(S/N) ==> S/N=10^2=100

Substitute S/N into Shannon's theorem, we get the maximum bps as

3k*log2^(1+S/N)=3log2^101kbps=19.97kbps.

However, the maximum data rate, assuming the channel is noise free, is only 6kbps, according to
Nyquist rate. Therefore, the final answer should be 6kbps.

15. Explain network topological design with necessary diagram and brief the advantages and
disadvantages of various topologies. [2017-18]
or
Define topology and explain the advantage and disadvantage of Bus, Star and Ring topologies.
[2018-19]

Ans:

Mesh Topology:
In mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via particular channel.

Figure 1: Every device is connected with another via dedicated channels. These channels are
known as links.

 If suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in mesh topology, then total
number of ports that is required by each device is N-1. In the Figure 1, there are 5 devices
connected to each other, hence total number of ports required is 4.
 If suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in mesh topology, then total
number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In the Figure 1,
there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence total number of links required is 5*4/2 =
10.

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Advantages of this topology:

 It is robust.
 Fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices
through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.

Problems with this topology:

 Installation and configuration is difficult.
 Cost of cables are high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of devices.
 Cost of maintenance is high.

b) Star Topology:
In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in
nature i.e. not intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be
intelligent known as active hubs. Active hubs have repeaters in them.

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to single point of connection i.e. hub.

Advantages of this topology:

 If N devices are connected to each other in star topology, then the number of cables required
to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub.
Problems with this topology:

 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will
crash down.
 Cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

c) Bus Topology:
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single
cable. It transmits the data from one end to another in single direction. No bi-directional feature is
in bus topology.

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Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel via
drop lines.

Advantages of this topology:

 If N devices are connected to each other in bus topology, then the number of cables required
to connect them is 1 which is known as backbone cable and N drop lines are required.
 Cost of the cable is less as compared to other topology, but it is used to build small
networks.

Problems with this topology:

 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various
protocols are used in MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD etc.

d) Ring Topology:
In this topology, it forms a ring connecting a devices with its exactly two neighbouring devices.

Figure 4: A ring topology comprises of 4 stations connected with each forming a ring

The following operations takes place in ring topology are:

1. One station is known as monitor station which takes all the responsibility to perform the
operations.
2. To transmit the data, station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the token
is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just
after the transmitting the data and Delay token release releases the token after the
acknowledgement is received from the receiver.

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Advantages of this topology:

 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.

 Cheap to install and expand.
Problems with this topology:

 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.

 Addition of stations in between or removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.

16. Discuss the different physical layer transmission media. [2017-18]

Ans: The transmission medium is the physical path between transmitter and receiver in a data
transmission system.

1. Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are
directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.

Twisted Pair
Two insulated wires are twisted around each other, and combined with others into a cable.
Used to connect telephone subscribers to switching centers and for wiring local area net-
works.
Different qualities:– Two popular varieties:
• Category 3: 10 Mbps
• Category 5: 100 Mbps
Most twisted pair cables are of type UTP (Unshielded twisted pair), that is, they do not have
a ground shield.

Coaxial Cable
• Like twisted pair a coaxial cable (“coax”) has two conductors that are shielded
• Used for digital transmissions in local area networks (e.g., Ethernet) and analog transmis-
sions for cable television
• Coax used for Cable TV supports a spectrum of 50 - 750 MHz.

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Optical Fiber
Optical fiber is a thin (2-125 mm), flexible medium capable of conducting an optical ray.
• Fiber is built of various glasses or plastics.
• Very high bandwidth (currently up to 10 Gbps).
• Used for long-distance trunks, local area networks, high-speed transmissions.
• Inherently unidirectional.

Types of Optical Fiber

Multimode Fiber:
– Rays may take different paths

Single Mode Fiber:

– By reducing the radius of the fiber core to the order of the wavelength, only the axial ray
can pass.

Single Mode fiber has superior performance but needs a laser diode as a light source (instead
of a LED for multimode fiber).

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 2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is
required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
There are 3 major types of Unguided Media:

(i) Radio waves

These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range: 3 KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and
cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.
Further Categorized as: (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the
height of the antenna. Frequency Range: 1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mo-
bile phone communication and television distribution.

(iii) Infrared
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range: 300GHz –
400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
17. What is the difference between network layer delivery and transport layer delivery? [2018-19]

Ans:
Network Layer Transport Layer
The main function of this layer is to deliver
Transport layer is responsible for source to destina-
packets from source to destination across mul-
tion delivery of the entire message.
tiple networks.
The relationship of the network layer to the The relationship of the transport layer to the net-
data link and transport layer is given as below: work layer and session layer is shown as below:

It provides connection services, including

The transport layer can be either connectionless or
network layer flow control, network layer er-
connection oriented.
ror control and packet sequence control.
It translates logical network address into phys-
It divides each message into the packets at the
ical machine address i.e. the numbers used as
source and reassembles then at the destination.
destination IDs in the physical network cards.

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