CONCEPTS

OF STRAIN

• Axial Deformation
• Shearing Deformation

ES 7 – Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

R.B. Diez, CE
Strain
Simple Strain Also known as unit deformation, strain is the ratio of the
change in length caused by the applied force, to the original
length.

where δ is the deformation and L is the original length, thus ε is

dimensionless.
 PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
(HOOKE'S LAW)
The linear relation between elongation and the axial force
causing was first noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and
is called Hooke's Law that within the proportional limit, the
stress is directly proportional to strain or

The constant of proportionality k is called the

Modulus of Elasticity E or Young's Modulus and
is equal to the slope of the stress-strain
diagram from O to P. Then
Stress-Strain Diagram
ELASTIC The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no
LIMIT longer go back to its original shape when the load is removed

ELASTIC AND PLASTIC

RANGES

is the point at which the material will

YIELD
have an appreciable elongation or
POINT
yielding without any increase in load.

ULTIMATE The maximum ordinate in the stress-

STRENGTH strain diagram is the ultimate strength
or tensile strength.
RUPTURE is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also
STRENGTH known as the breaking strength.

MODULUS OF is the work done on a unit volume of

RESILIENCE material as the force is gradually
increased. The resilience of the
material is its ability to absorb energy
without creating a permanent
distortion.

is the work done on a unit volume of

MODULUS OF
material as the force is gradually
TOUGHNESS
increased. The toughness of a material
is its ability to absorb energy without
causing it to break.
For a rod of unit mass ρ suspended vertically from one end, the total elongation due
to its own weight is

STIFFNESS, k
AXIAL
DEFORMATION
To use this formula, the load must be axial, the
bar must have a uniform cross-sectional area,
and the stress must not exceed the
proportional limit.

If however, the cross-sectional area is not uniform, the axial deformation can be
determined by considering a differential length and applying integration.

where A = ty and y and t, if

variable, must be expressed
in terms of x.
EXAMPLE 1

An axial load of 100 kN is applied to a flat bar 20 mm thick, tapering in width from 120 mm to 40 mm in a
length of 10 m. Assuming E = 200 Gpa, determine the total elongation of the bar.

EXAMPLE 2
A bar tapers uniformly from d at x = 0 to D at x = l. Derive the strain of the bar
PROBLEMS INVOLVING
TEMPERATURE CHANGES

Where:
𝛼= coefficient of thermal expansion.

Example: Determine the values of the stress in portions AC and CB of the steel bar
when the temperature of the bar is -50℉, knowing that a close fit exists at both of the
rigid supports when the temperature is +75℉. Use the values E= 29 X 106 psi and
𝛼 =6.5 X 10–6/ ℉ for steel.
Example 2: The rigid bar CDE is attached to a pin support at E and rests on the 30-mm-
diameter brass cylinder BD. A 22-mm-diameter steel rod AC passes through a hole in the bar
and is secured by a nut that is snugly fitted when the temperature of the entire assembly is
20℃. The temperature of the brass cylinder is then raised to 50℃, while the steel rod
remains at 20℃. Assuming that no stresses were present before the temperature change,
determine the stress in the cylinder.
Rod AC: Steel Cylinder BD: Brass
E=200 GPa E=105 GPa
𝛼 =11.7 X 10-6 /℃ 𝛼 = 20.9 X 10-6 / ℃
SHEARING DEFORMATION
Shear strain is the angular change between two initially perpendicular line
segments.
𝛿𝑠
𝛾=
𝐿

The ratio of stress 𝝉 and the shear strain 𝛾 is called the Modulus of Rigidity
(G) in MPa
𝝉
G=
𝛾

The relationship between the shearing deformation and the applied shearing
force is:
𝑉𝐿 𝝉𝐿
𝛿𝑠 = or 𝛿𝑠 =
A sG G Where V is the shearing force
acting over an area As
Example:
A rectangular block of a material with a modulus of rigidity G= 90 ksi is bonded to two
rigid horizontal plates. The lower plate is fixed, while the upper plate is subjected to a
horizontal force P. Knowing that the upper plate moves through 0.04 in. under the action
of the force, determine (a) the average shearing strain in the material and (b) the force P
exerted on the upper plate.
Poisson's Ratio (μ)
The ratio of the sidewise deformation (or strain) to the longitudinal deformation (or
strain)
For most steel, it lies in the range of 0.25 to 0.3, and 0.20 for concrete.

𝜺𝒚 𝜺𝒛
𝝁= − =-
𝜺𝒙 𝜺𝒙
Example:
A 500-mm-long, 16-mm-diameter rod made of a homogenous, isotropic
material is observed to increase in length by 300 𝜇m, and to decrease in
diameter by 2.4 𝜇m when subjected to an axial 12-kN load. Determine the
modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of the material.
MULTIAXIAL LOADING:
GENERALIZED HOOKE’S LAW
Example:
A steel block is subjected to a uniform pressure on all its faces. Knowing
that the change in length of edge AB is -1.2 X10-3 in., determine (a) the
change in length of the other two edges and (b) the pressure p applied to
the faces of the block. Assume E=29 X 106 psi and 𝜇 =0.29.
DILATATION AND BULK MODULUS

Dilatation (e) of a material is the change in volume per unit volume

When a body is subjected to a uniform hydrostatic pressure p,

Bulk modulus (k) or modulus of compression of the material (expressed in

pascals or in psi)
Important note: e in is negative, and the bulk modulus k is a
positive quantity
Example:
Determine the change in volume ∆V of the steel block shown, when it is
subjected to the hydrostatic pressure p= 180 MPa. Use E=200 GPa and
𝜇 =0.29

40 mm

80 mm 60 mm
Exercises:
1. A standard tension test is used to determine the properties of an experimental
plastic. The test specimen is a 5/8-in.-diameter rod and it is subjected to an 800-lb
tensile force. Knowing that an elongation of 0.45 in. and a decrease in diameter of
0.025 in. are observed in a 5-in. gage length, determine the modulus of elasticity and
Poisson’s ratio for the material.

2. A circle of diameter d =9 in. is scribed on an

unstressed aluminum plate of thickness t =3/4
in. Forces acting in the plane of the plate later
cause normal stresses 𝜎x=12 ksi and 𝜎z=20 ksi.
For E=10X106 psi and 𝜇=1/3, determine the
change in (a) the length of diameter AB, (b) the
length of diameter CD, (c) the thickness of the
plate, and (d) the volume of the plate.
EXAMPLE 1

A steel wire 30 ft long, hanging vertically, supports a load of 500 lb. Neglecting the
weight of the wire, determine the required diameter if the stress is not to exceed 20
ksi and the total elongation is not to exceed 0.20 in. Assume E = 29 × 106 psi.
Exercises 1:
The aluminum shell is fully bonded to the brass core and the assembly is
unstressed at a temperature of 15 ℃ . Considering only axial
deformations, determine the stress in the aluminum when the
temperature reaches 195℃.
Exercises 2:
A 2-m length of an aluminum pipe of 240-
mm outer diameter and 10-mm wall
thickness is used as a short column to
carry a 640-kN centric axial load. Knowing
that E 5 73 GPa and n 5 0.33, determine (a)
the change in length of the pipe, (b) the
change in its outer diameter, (c) the change
in its wall thickness.
Exercises 3:
An elastomeric bearing (G 5 130 psi) is used
to support a bridge girder as shown to
provide flexibility during earthquakes. The
beam must not displace more than 3/8 in.
when a 5-kip lateral load is applied as shown.
Knowing that the maximum allowable
shearing stress is 60 psi, determine (a) the
smallest allowable dimension b, (b) the
smallest required thickness a.
EXAMPLE 2

A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2 and a length of 150 m is
suspended vertically from one end. It supports a tensile load of 20 kN at the lower
end. If the unit mass of steel is 7850 kg/m3 and E = 200 × 103 MN/m2 , find the total
elongation of the rod.
EXAMPLE 3

The rigid bar ABC shown is hinged at A and supported by a steel rod at B. Determine
the largest load P that can be applied at C if the stress in the steel rod is limited to 30
ksi and the vertical movement of end C must not exceed 0.10 in.
Exercises:

1. An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5 in2 carries the axial loads applied
at the positions shown. Compute the total change in length of the bar if E = 10 × 106
psi. Assume the bar is suitably braced to prevent lateral buckling.

2. A uniform concrete slab of total weight

W is to be attached, as shown in Fig. P-215,
to two rods whose lower ends are on the
same level. Determine the ratio of the areas
of the rods so that the slab will remain
level.
A slender rod is subjected to an increase
of temperature along its axis, which creates
a normal strain in the rod of ϵz = 40(10-3 )z
1/2 , where z is measured in meters.

Determine ( a ) the displacement of the

end B of the rod due to the temperature
increase, and ( b ) the average normal
strain in the rod.
The 50-mm-diameter rubber rod is place in a hole
with rigid, lubricated walls. There is no clearance
between the rod and the sides of the hole.
Determine the change in the length of the rod
when the 8-kN load is applied. Use E = 40 MPa and
ν= 0.45 for rubber.