SRDM 2009 — P.

Dight (ed)
© 2009 Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, ISBN 978-0-9804185-7-6
https://papers.acg.uwa.edu.au/p/902_12_Winder/

The advantages of mechanised cable bolting in the modern

underground mine

K. Winder Macmahon Mining Services, Australia

B. Maney Macmahon Mining Services, Australia

Abstract
Cable bolting is rapidly increasing in popularity in underground mines as safety standards are raised and
mining environments become more challenging. Traditional hand installation of cables can be time
consuming, exposes personnel to unnecessary risks and has the potential for manual handling injuries.
Mechanised cable bolting machines are gaining wider acceptance as the safety, efficiency and quality
benefits associated with them are being realised by mine operators. This paper discusses the advantages and
limitations associated with the use of mechanised cable bolt rigs in underground mines.

1 Introduction
Mechanised cable bolting machines are purpose built for the drilling of holes, mixing and pumping of grout
and installation of cable bolts in underground mines. They enable one operator and one machine to perform a
task, which traditionally involves the drilling of holes by one machine and then the installation of grout and
cable manually by a crew of two to three using a grout pump.

2 Cable bolting in development mining

Cable bolts are increasingly being used to provide support for development openings in mines. In previous
years they were generally only used in development where unfavourable rock structure existed or where the
dimension of openings in conjunction with the orientation and persistence of structures present meant that a
longer and higher capacity rockbolt element was required. Cable bolts were largely used for the support of
drive intersections, large caverns and stope walls.
As development is increasingly being pushed into deeper, higher stress and poorer ground conditions, the use
of cable bolts in development mining has increased. Some examples include:
 The use of in-cycle, 6 m long, twin strand cable bolts on 1.25 m ring spacings in the Progress
orebody at BHP Billiton’s Perseverance Mine in Western Australia (Tyler and Werner, 2004).
 The use of 7–9 m long, twin strand, bulb cable bolts on a 2 x 2 m spacing in the weak, high
deformation ground conditions at the Cayeli mine in Turkey (Yumlu and Bawden, 2004).
 The use of yielding (dynamic) cables installed on a 1.8 m square pattern in deep squeezing ground at
the Brunswick mine in Canada (Gaudreau, 2004).
 The installation of single strand, yielding, Garford cables of 6 m length in development drives where
high convergence is anticipated at the Black Swan nickel mine in Western Australia. These cables
are installed no more than three cuts behind the development mining face (Potvin and Slade, 2007).
The need for cable bolts to be installed at greater frequencies and in increasing volumes has meant that
traditional drilling of cable bolt holes using a development or production drill machine followed by
installation by hand is becoming inefficient.

3 The mechanised cable bolt rig

There are several purpose built cable bolting rigs available on the market today including the Sandvik DS420
(previously the Cabolt 7-5) and the Atlas Copco Cabletec LC rig which has two booms — a drilling and a

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The advantages of mechanised cable bolting in the modern underground mine K. Winder and B. Maney

grouting boom. The Sandvik Cabolt machine has been in operation for the longest and is the most common
cable bolting machine found in Australia. The following section will relate primarily to the Sandvik machine.

3.1 Operation of Sandvik Cabolter

The mechanised cable bolting machine is designed to be operated by a single person. The machine is purpose
built to achieve the drilling of suitable boreholes, the mixing and pumping of grout and the installation of
steel cable into the boreholes.

3.1.1 Machine design

Mechanised cable bolting rigs combine a drilling boom with the necessary components to facilitate
installation of grout and steel cable strands into a drill hole. The Sandvik DS420 machine (Figure 1) is based
on a rubber tyred, underground suitable carrier which has many elements in common with underground
development and production rigs. It is an electric over hydraulic machine that uses a diesel engine for
tramming.
Cable cutter and
bender
Operator cabin Grout hose reel

Steel strand reel

Drill rod
carousel

Drifter and
On board compressor Cement mixing / feed rail
Cement mixer
storage platform

Figure 1 Some basic elements of the Sandvik DS420 mechanised cable bolter (after Sandvik Mining
and Construction, 2008)

Drilling can be facilitated using the onboard compressor if required or the compressed air reticulation system
underground. The drilling boom can be rotated through 360° to allow full ring drilling and can dump
forwards to 55° and backwards to 35°. Drill rods are stored in the rod carousel and can be changed using the
pito centraliser to hold rods in the hole while the gripper arm removes or reinstalls rods into the carousel.
Drilling accuracy is enhanced through the use of “stinger” stabilisers on each end of the drill boom. A
tamrock management system (TMS) control panel is fitted as standard and provides the operator with a full
spectrum of operational readings including mast angle inclinations, drill depth, cable depth and grout hose
depth measurement.
The grouting and cable installing system consists of a reel at the rear of the carrier to which a cassette of steel
cable is fitted. The cable is fed through a plastic tube by the cable feeder box to the head of the boom, from
where it can be pushed up the borehole. The cement grout is prepared in a cement mixer mounted on a
platform on the side of the machine, which is manually loaded with cement powder. A grout pump pumps
the mix through the grout hose which is fed up the hole from the grout hose reel and up through the head of
the boom. A cable cutter and bender is located at the head of the boom to bend the cable as it is installed
which serves to aid retention of the cable in the hole while the grout hydrates, and to cut the cable when it
has been installed to the full design length.

3.1.2 Installation method

Cable bolts are installed using the mechanised cable bolting machine by the process shown in Figure 2.
Initially, a borehole is drilled at the design location, angle, diameter and depth. The drill rods are then
retracted from the hole. Usually a series of holes are drilled before installing starts and if circumstances
permit at least enough holes to be filled with one batch of cement grout are drilled.

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The cement mixer is then loaded with water and powdered cement at the correct ratio for the holes being
grouted. Typically for upholes a water to cement ratio of 0.3:0.35 will be used and for downholes a ratio of
0.35:0.4 will be used. A dosage meter is located on the water inlet to the cement mixer so that the correct
ratio can be achieved for the number of cement bags added.
After the grout has been adequately mixed, the grout pump is run with the grout hose pointing to the ground
to enable the discharge of any water in the lines and a small amount of the grout. The grout pump can then be
stopped and the boom manoeuvred so that the grout hose can be extended into the drill hole until it hits the
end of the hole. The operator then turns the grout pump on to fill the end of the hole and then slowly starts to
retract the hose, occasionally pausing to check that the hole is being filled continuously and no air voids are
being formed.
When the hole has been slightly overfilled, the grout pump is stopped and the grout hose is retracted. The
steel cable strand is then fed through the plastic guide tube and into the grout column in the drill hole. Just
before the strand reaches the end of the hole a kink is put into it by the cable bender at the head of the boom.
When the strand has been installed to full depth the cable strand is cut using the cable cutter located at the
head of the boom. A second strand can then be installed alongside the first if required.

STEP 1: A hole is STEP 2: Grout tube pushed STEP 3: Cable strand is STEP 4: A second cable
drilled. to end of the hole and grout pushed through the grout strand is installed if required.
pumped. column.

Figure 2 Process of installing cable strands using the mechanised cable bolting rig

3.1.3 Capability
Mechanised cable bolting machines are typically capable of drilling and installing cable bolts up to 25 m in
length. The drill string is usually composed of R32 to T38 sized equipment enabling hole sizes from 51 mm
to 64 mm to be drilled.
Both plain strand and some modified geometry seven wire cables at a diameter of 15.2 mm can be installed
using the mechanised cable bolting machine. Modified geometry cables used are typically “mini bulb” types
with bulb diameters of up to 25 mm.
Fixed length, dynamic type cables have also been successfully installed using the cable bolting rig.
A dynamic cable bolt refers to a cable where a portion of the bolt length is encased in a plastic tube so that it
is not in contact with the grout and can stretch along this length in response to ground movement.

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The advantages of mechanised cable bolting in the modern underground mine K. Winder and B. Maney

3.2 Advantages
The advantages of using a mechanised cable bolting machine to install cables over traditional methods such
as drilling with a development or production drill machine followed by hand installation of cables can be
considered in terms of safety, efficiency and quality.

3.2.1 Safety
Installation of cable bolts in upholes by hand requires personnel to stand in close proximity to the ground
being supported which has usually been recently disturbed through drilling. The drilling process can result in
loose rock or scats being present in mesh which presents a hazard if they are not identified and removed prior
to work in the area. In addition to this, during hand grouting of cables there is the potential for grout to be
dislodged from the hole under pressure and into the face of the operator. The installed cable bolts can also
become a hazard to workers below if they become dislodged from the hole while the grout is still wet. With
the use of a mechanised cable bolting machine, the operator is within the operator’s cabin and well removed
from this potential hazard whilst drilling and installing cables.
For expediency, boreholes for cable bolts in development headings are often drilled using a development
drill. These machines are generally not equipped for drilling holes in excess of 3–4 m in length as this is all
that is typically required for face advance. Jaws can be installed on these drills to enable one rod to be held
up in a hole while the shank is decoupled and retracted so that a second rod can be added. With the boom in
this position, an operator has to stand very close to the rod being held up in the hole by the jaws to load the
second rod, thus exposing themself to the potential hazard of the rod being dislodged. On development drill
rigs where jaws are not installed, drilling cable holes at greater lengths than the drill steel is done using some
questionable methods.
Manual handling is also reduced with the use of a mechanised cable bolting machine. Pushing cables
manually into upholes can be an arduous task, as can changing drill rods manually. The use of a mechanised
cable bolter removes the need to do either. Manual handling of cement bags into the cement mixer is still
required; however some new prototype cable bolting machines have been designed with on board cement
storage which is discharged into the cement mixer mechanically.
Exposure to cement grout is also reduced with the use of a cable bolting machine. The operator does not
have to handle the end of the hose from which the grout is being pumped or stand below a hole collar into
which grout is being pumped. This can greatly reduce the incidence of eye and skin irritations that are due to
contact with cement.

3.2.2 Efficiency
Mechanised cable bolting can achieve far higher installation rates than hand installation of cables.
Hutchinson and Diedrichs (1996) present data collected by Goris et al. detailing production rates achieved
for cable insertion and grouting from three Canadian mines. Considering the data from one of these mines
that employs a 12 hour shift shows that cable insertion of 166 m a shift and grouting at a rate of 230 m a shift
is achieved. This means that on average 195 m of installed cable can be achieved each shift with a three
person crew. This does not include the time required for the drilling of these holes (which is generally double
the time installing takes). Taking this into account, the achievable rate for drilling and installing would be
approximately 65 m per shift. A cable bolting machine can achieve on average the drilling and installation of
5500 m a month which equates to 92 m per shift with only a one person crew.
Installation rates in excess of 5500 m per month have also been achieved. Figure 3 shows data from an
Australian mine using a cable bolting machine over a twelve month period. The average installation rate per
month is 6340 m, which equates to 106 m per shift.

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 Development Cycle

Installed metres achieved per month

Installed metres Installed metres / shift

8000 140

7000 120

6000
100
Installed (m)

5000

Installed / shift (m/shift)

80
4000
60
3000

40
2000

1000 20

0 0
Dec-06 Jan-07 Feb-07 Mar-07 Apr-07 May-07 Jun-07 Jul-07 Aug-07 Sep-07 Oct-07 Nov-07
Period

Figure 3 Cable bolt installation rates achieved with a mechanised cable bolting machine

The increased rate of installation, combined with the fact that drilling, installing and grouting functions are
performed by the one machine operated by one person mean that mechanised cable bolting has significant
advantages for the rapid advancement of drives where in-cycle cable bolting is required.

3.2.3 Quality
In several respects, the quality of a cable bolt installation with a cable bolting machine can be superior to that
of a hand installed bolt. Hand installation is performed through two main methods: the breather tube method
or the grout tube method. The breather tube method is generally used where a less viscous grout is employed
either to enable full encapsulation of modified cable bolt geometries or due to limitations in grout pumping
equipment. The grout tube method can be applied where a thicker grout is used and involves either a grout
tube being taped to the cable, installed in the hole and grout pumped in until it fills the hole; or a grout tube
being retracted from the hole as grout is pumped in. Where the grout tube is taped to the cable, the collar of
the hole is usually blocked off using a wooden wedge to prevent grout being ejected from the hole.
Poorer quality installation can result from using the breather tube method due to the higher water:cement
ratio grout that is often used. The strength of any cement grout will reduce with the increase in water content
due to the excess water forming micro air voids within the grout matrix, thus weakening it. There is a
tendency towards using higher water:cement ratio grouts with the breather tube method as the hole is
blocked so there is no requirement for the grout column to be self supporting in the uphole and a higher
water:cement ratio makes the mix easier to pump into the hole. If the breather tube is not adequately blocked
while pumping is still occurring, it can also result in an air void in the breather tube running alongside the
cable.
Installation using the grout tube method and a more viscous grout is generally on par with that achieved
using a mechanised cable bolter, though if the grout tube is left in place in the hole it may prevent complete
encapsulation of the cable strand in cement. The lower water:cement ratios used in the grout tube hand
installation method and with the use of a mechanised cable bolter mean that grout strength is typically high.
Additional factors that improve quality of installation with a cable bolting machine include the use of
metering and measuring devices on the machine. These include: TMS, for hole depth indicators, hole
position and length accuracy, water metering into the cement mixture to achieve correct water:cement ratios

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The advantages of mechanised cable bolting in the modern underground mine K. Winder and B. Maney

and counters which measure the length of grout tube and cable bolt up the hole. As the operator also has the
benefit of drilling all of the holes in an area and then installing into them, experience of the ground
conditions is gathered first hand which can assist in improving installation quality.

3.3 Limitations
There are some limitations to the use of a cable bolting machine. These are primarily associated with the fact
that the hole collar cannot be plugged and the geometry of the cable that can be installed is limited by the
feeder box capability.

3.3.1 Wet holes

Wet holes are always a problem for the installation of cement grouted bolts, no matter what method may be
employed. The water usually flows through fissures and joints in the ground, so even if the hole collar can be
plugged, cement particles can still be carried away through the ground by the water flow, negatively
affecting the water:cement ratio. When using a mechanised cable bolter to install cables the collar of the hole
cannot be plugged. This means that in wet ground it is likely that more of the grout column will be displaced
by water.
When using a mechanised cable bolt rig to install cables in wet ground, an operator will typically make a mix
of cement grout with a very low water:cement ratio in an attempt to stop the grout slumping out of the hole.
Where water:cement ratios are lower than 0.3, there will be inadequate water to properly mix the grout,
resulting in lumps of cement which will not be hydrated. This will result in some portions of the grout
column that are weaker than others. In addition to this there will be portions of the hole where water has
washed away the grout column into fissures and as the hole collar cannot be plugged there may be portions
of the grout column that are pushed out of the hole due to water pressure.
There is no simple way to overcome the problems associated with installing cable bolts in wet ground, but
hand installation may offer some advantages to the quality of the installation such as:
 Plugging the collar of the hole is possible to prevent slump of the grout column through water
pressure.
 Plugging the collar of the hole will also allow grout to be pumped into the hole under pressure,
enabling it to fill some of the cracks and fissures that may be present in the walls of the hole. If the
cracks are narrow, this may be successful in halting water flow.
 Efforts can be made to plug other water bearing fissures that daylight in the excavation adjacent to
the boreholes, which may assist in the grout being retained within the rock mass.
Engineers involved with the design and supervision of cable bolting activities should consider the various
advantages and disadvantages of methods of cable bolt installation where wet conditions are encountered.

3.3.2 Hole length and diameter

The maximum achievable hole length that cable can be pushed up using a mechanised cable bolt rig is 25 m.
This is mainly due to the achievable feed box pressure and the resistance involved with pushing the cable
strands through the grout.
Minimum hole diameter is limited to 51 mm for a modified geometry cable to ensure adequate grout
surrounding the bulbs. The larger the hole, generally the more accurately it can be drilled, so a 51 mm hole is
also optimal from this perspective. Maximum hole diameter is generally limited to 57 mm for an uphole. In a
64 mm uphole the combined weight of the cable and grout column and the fact that the collar is unplugged
can lead to slump of the grout. If cables are being countersunk (that is a portion of the cable is to be left
ungrouted), the possibility of undetected grout slump in the hole should be considered if using a larger
diameter hole.

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 Development Cycle

3.3.3 Modified geometry bolts and encapsulation

The geometry of cable bolts that can currently be installed using the cable bolt rig are limited by the
capabilities of the cable feeder box. The current configuration of the feeder box enables a standard 15.2 mm
diameter cable strand to be used.
A mini bulb type cable is often used where additional anchorage is required. The bulbs are usually formed to
a maximum diameter of 25–28 mm and are compressed slightly by the feeder box pressure (Figure 4a). This
is unavoidable as the feeder box must apply a certain pressure to the perimeter of the cable strand to enable it
to push the cable up into a vertical hole, however care must be taken that the pressure doesn’t cause the bulbs
to be compressed to any less than 23 mm in diameter. It is possible that the use of a ferruled or nutcaged type
of strand where the bulb has a solid core would alleviate this problem, though the cost of this type of cable is
usually prohibitive.
Using a mechanised cable bolt machine, it is possible to pump lower water:cement ratios than is optimal
(0.3 or less). This can lead to other problems associated with the cable geometry such as insufficient grout
penetration into bulbs and poor encapsulation when a cable is dislodged or moved within a hole and the
grout cannot flow back around it (Figures 4b and 4c). As the cables are installed after the grout column is
established, there are several possible sources for movement of the cable which can cause grout to be
dislodged such as: kinking of the cable strand as it is inserted, cutting of the cable strand and installation of a
second cable strand which interacts with the first. If the water:cement ratio is too low, the grout is not
sufficiently fluid to refill the voids around the cable and poor encapsulation will result. Care must be taken to
educate operators in the implications of using a low water:cement ratio grout so that these issues are avoided.
Installation of the cable strands with the mechanised cable bolting rig also precludes the use of devices such
as spacers and centralises which can be used in hand installation to obtain better positioning of the cable
within the hole (Figure 4d). This can result in cable strands located too close to one another within the hole
and the strands being pushed up against the sidewall of the hole.

Cement
lumps
Crushed
bulb
Void

a. Grout penetration into bulbs and other spaces in b. Low water to cement ratio (0.28) leads to cement
modified geometry cables can be a problem. Bulbs may lumps and viscous grout which may not reshape around
be crushed by excessive feeder box pressure. a cable if the strand is dislodged.

Void

c. Low water to cement ratio (0.3) can result in poor d. Cable strands installed without spacers — sit too
encapsulation if cable is dislodged. Here the first cable close to each other and the edge of the hole.
is dislodged by the installation of the second cable
resulting in a grout void.

Figure 4 Various quality issues that may occur in cable bolt installation

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The advantages of mechanised cable bolting in the modern underground mine K. Winder and B. Maney

4 Conclusion
The use of mechanised cable bolt machines offers advantages to modern mining in terms of safety, efficiency
and quality. With the increasing need in the underground mining industry to support development drives
with cable bolts as they are advanced, the use of mechanised cable bolting can contribute both to reducing
cycle times and increasing safety for mine workers. There are several limitations that need to be considered
by the design engineer, and careful consideration should be made when employing the machines in areas
where the ground is wet, large hole diameters are used for upholes and modified geometry bolts are required.

References
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Columbia, p. 20.
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138 SRDM 2009, Perth, Australia