THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

School of mines and minerals sciences

CE 560 / MT 580
Process control

Lecture 02
Process control activities & hierarchy

C. Botha (Mr.)
Contacts: Chemical Engineering Department
Email: [email protected]
Alt. Email: [email protected]

January, 2024
 Ensure stability of a process cont’d…

o As an example, consider a
Heat/time P3
Continuous
x Stirred Tank Reactor
Qˊ2 A
(CSTR). B
Qˊˊ2
P2
o Heat released during the reaction
and temperature in the CSTR are
related by sigmoidal function P1
(curve A).
to Time T1 T2 Tˊ2 T3 Temperature

o Heat removed by the coolant is a

linear function of the reactor Fig. 2.1 steady states in a CSTR
temperature (dotted line B).
 Ensuring stability of a process cont’d…

o P1, P2, P3 are the points at which heat generation in the reactor is completely
removed by the coolant.

o Hence, these three points are steady state conditions.

o Since operating the reactor at any of these three states results in a steady state
reactor temperature. .

o The states P1 and P3 are stable states while P2 is an unstable state.

o Since at P2 an increase in feed temperature increases reactor temperature to 𝑇2′

(Fig. 2.1).

o At 𝑇2′ the heat removed by the coolant 𝑸′′

𝟐 is less than heat produced by the
reaction 𝑸′𝟐 .
 Ensuring stability of a process cont’d…

o This further increases the reactor temperature and the reaction rate which produces
more heat.

o Hence, increase in feed temperature takes reactor temperature away from steady
state P2.

o This will continue until the stable state P3 is attained.

o Similarly, a decrease in feed temperature would set the reactor temperature to

move away from P2.

o Again, will continue until the stable state P1 is reached.

 Ensuring stability of a process cont’d…

o However, if the reactor is operating at either P1 or P3 and feed temperature

increases or decreases, the reactor temperature will naturally return to the stable
states.

o It may be desirable to operate the reactor at the unstable state P2.

o This is because the temperature at P1 may be too low resulting in low yields.

o And at P3, the temperature may be too high and unsafe for operation or may
damage the catalyst if present.

o Thus, the control objective for the CSTR would be to ensure stability of the unstable
mid-state P2.
 Performance optimization of a process

o Optimum operation conditions for a plant or process are usually determined as part of
process design.

o During operation, such conditions may change frequently due to a number of factors:

 Equipment availability,

 Process disturbances, and

 Economic conditions i.e., raw material and product prices.

o These factors can affect the optimum operating conditions thus necessitating
recalculation of such conditions.
 Performance optimization of a process

o If this is done on a regular basis, it can be beneficial for plant profitability.

o The new optimum conditions are then implemented as the new set points.

o Consider a continuous stirred batch reactor in which the following consecutive reaction
takes place.

Steam

Condensate
A B A

Fig. 2.2 Batch reactor with two consecutive reactions

 Performance optimization of a process cont’d…

o The two reactions are assumed to be endothermic and having first-order kinetics.
o Heat required is supplied by steam flowing through the jacket around the reaction
vessel.
o Furthermore, B is the desired product and C is the unwanted waste.
o The economic objective for the batch reactor is to maximize profit ∅ over the time
period 𝒕𝑹 equal to the reaction or processing time.
𝑡𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
∅=න − − 𝑑𝑡 (2.1)
𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴
0

o The only variable that can be varied freely to maximize profit is the steam flow-rate Q.
 Performance optimization of a process cont’d…

o Steam flow-rate can be varied with time and this in turn can affect reaction mixture
temperature.

o The temperature affects the reaction rates for the desired and undesired reactions.

o Therefore, the optimization problem is to determine how best steam flow-rate 𝑄(𝑡)
should vary to maximize profit ∅.

o To achieve the stated objective, two control actions can be examined.

1) Keep steam flow-rate at the highest possible value for the entire duration 𝒕𝑹 of the
process.

 For this option, temperature of reacting mixture will assume the highest possible
value.
 Performance optimization of a process cont’d…

 During the initial stage, concentration of reagent A is high, hence, product B yield
will likewise be high.

 But the cost of steam will also be high thus profit will not be maximum.

 Concentration of 𝐵 increases as time passes resulting in fast conversion of B to C.

 Therefore, temperature must be decreased by decreasing steam flow-rate towards

the end of the reaction.

 This will slow down the conversion of B to the unwanted waste C.

2) Keep steam flow-rate at its lowest value possible for the entire duration of the reaction.

 This will mean no steam cost but also little or no production of B.

 Performance optimization of a process cont’d…

 Clearly, this will not maximize the profit.

o Based on these two scenarios, the steam

flow-rate Q (t) must be varied between the two
extreme limits i.e. its maximum and lowest
possible values.

o Fig. 2.3 illustrates how in general the steam Fig.2.3 Optimal steam flow-rate profile for
profit maximization in a batch reactor
flow-rate may vary to maximize profit from the
batch process.
 Performance optimization of a process cont’d…

o The exact profile which steam flow must follow requires solution of the optimization
problem described.

o Solution can be in terms of the best temperature profile which reaction mixture
temperature must follow.

o The control strategy will compute the best steam flow rate at every point during the
reaction time.

o It will then adjust the control valve in the steam line so that the steam flow
corresponds the best value as determined.

o Above discussion indicates that steam flow-rate is used to optimize the economic
performance.
 Safety

o Safe operation of all industrial processes is required for the well-being of workers
on the plant, surrounding communities and for continued economic contribution.

 For plant operation, one of the most important goals is to ensure that plant
activities (operations) have less risks associated with them.

 Therefore, operating conditions such as pressures, temperatures and

concentration of chemical species must always be within allowable limits.

 A control system is required to achieve such an objective with its set point in
this case based on the limit.
 Safety cont’d…

 I.e., set point is close to the limit if the variability in the controlled variable is low and
well below the limit if variability is high.

o Similarly, a copper furnace operated between 1230oC - 1300oC requires control

mechanisms.

o This ensures that the temperature is within the prescribed operating range.

o Exceeding the recommended temperature range may result in unsafe operation or other
undesirable effects i.e., matte-slag phases may fail to separate properly.

o Also as a safe practice, reaction mixtures must never be allowed to form explosive
mixtures.
 Product specification

o Industrial plants are designed to produce a desired amount and quality of the
products.

 For example, a concentrator might be designed to produce 2000 TPH of

concentrate with a grade (quality) of the target mineral of about 70%.

 Control mechanisms are required to ensure that the required tonnage and grade
of the concentrate are achieved.

o Also, a plant may be required to produce 2 million tonnes ethylene per day with
about 99% purity.

 To ensure that such a production level (2 million TPD) and purity are sustained,
a control system is required.
 Environmental regulations
o Various government and environmental protection agencies (i.e., ZEMA) may specify
that the temperature, concentration of chemicals and flow-rates of effluents from
industrial processes be within certain limits.
 E.g., there are regulations in place on the amount of SO2 emissions from a plant.
 Similarly, the quality of water discharged into natural water bodies is also
regulated.
 Such as regulations on the maximum permissible temperature for discharged into
aquatic environments.
 To ensure that such regulations are adhered to, some form of control may be
used.
o Also, concentrations of toxic chemical species in effluents must also be within
allowable limits.
 Operational/Equipment constraints

o Different types of equipment used for various purposes on the plant have
constraints inherent to their operations.

o Such constraints should be satisfied throughout the operation of a process plant.

o For instance, pumps must maintain a certain net positive suction head (NPSH).

o to avoid cavitation which may lead to damage of pump impellers.

* Cavitation involves formation of liquid bubbles at the pump inlet which subsequently collapses at the pump outlet resulting in cavities that may send
shock waves and cause intense vibrations in the pump and piping system. This can lead to premature damage of the pump impellers.
 Operational/Equipment constraints cont’d…

o Similarly, tanks should never be allowed to overflow.

o This can lead to loss of valuable chemicals and may cause slippery surfaces that
maybe dangerous for plant personnel.

o Likewise, a reactor may have a designed upper temperature and must be operated near
that temperature.

o Excessive temperatures above the design temperature may cause catalyst degradation
and undesired side reactions.
 Operational/Equipment constraints cont’d…
o Furthermore, product size from milling circuits should be maintained within a required
size range.

o This is because downstream processes such as leaching, floatation have an operational

constraints.

o I.e., ore particle size must be within a certain desired size range for effective leaching
and floatation to take place.

o Also, mill circulating load in gridding/milling circuits must be maintained within a certain
flow-rate to avoid overloading of the mills, pumps and hydrocyclones.

o This may lead to energy over-consumption, premature wear of the mills and damage to
pumps.
 Economics

o Plant operation must satisfy the market conditions, that is, availability of the raw
materials and demand for the final products.

o The plant must also be as economical as possible in its utilization of raw materials,
energy, capital and human labour.

o Therefore, control of the operating conditions at a given optimum level is required to

minimize operating costs, maximize profit etc.
 Hierarchy of process control activities

o Process control activities can be organised in the form of a hierarchy.

o The always required functions/activities are at the lower levels.

o Higher levels contain desirable but optional activities, typically required for efficient
operation.

Level 1: Measurement and actuation

o Level 1 activities are as follows:

1) Measurements of the process variables using instrumentation such as sensors and

transmitters.
 Hierarchy of process control activities cont’d…

2) Implementation of the calculated control actions using actuation devices such as

control valves, relay switches etc.

o Instrumentation and actuation devices are interfaced to a digital control system.

o Measurement and actuation activities are indispensable and as such are always
required.

Level 2: Safety and Equipment/Environmental protection

o Critical for safe operation and adherence to environmental regulations.

o Thus, these activities are the next to be considered.

o Process safety is implemented based on the principle of multiple protection layers.

 Hierarchy of process control activities cont’d…

o Layers contain equipment groups and/or human actions designed to ensure safety.

o They are typically organised in the order of activation when there is a plant incident.

o As a rule, an incident should be handled at the lowest possible layer or level.

o The innermost layer contains the process design providing the first level of
protection.

o Two layers containing basis process control systems (BPCS) may follow.

o The BPCS i.e., emergency switch button or kill switch are coupled with alarms or
critical alarms and operator supervision.

o Safety instrumented systems (SIS) and/or emergency shutdown (ESD) systems are
in the next layer.
 Hierarchy of process control activities cont’d…
o SIS formerly known as safety interlock system automatically takes corrective action
when BPCS layers fail to handle an emergency.

o The outer layers contains physical protection systems i.e., pressure relief devices,

o Followed by plant emergency response and community emergency response.

o Emergency response procedures depend on type of emergency e.g., fire, spillage,

accident involving moving machinery.

Level 3a: regulatory control

o Includes control functions designed to keep key process variables at or near their set
points.

o Typically considered when level 1 and 2 activities are satisfied.

 Hierarchy of process control activities cont’d…
o Regulatory control uses standard feedforward/feedback control - can be single or
multiloop.

o Single-loop: single loop is involved and manipulated variable adjusted based on a

single controlled variable.

o Multiloop: contains many loops and manipulated variable in each loop is adjusted
based on single controlled variable in that loop.

Level 3b: multivariable and constraint control

o Most industrial processes can be difficult to control because of the following:

1) Significant interactions amongst key process variables.

 For processes with significant interactions, multivariable control is typically

used.
 Hierarchy of process control activities cont’d…

o Multivariable control: Involves adjusting each manipulated variable based on

measurements of at least two controlled variables.

 Adjustments are based on a dynamic model.

 That is, model depicting how the manipulated variables affect controlled variables.

 Performance of multivariable or any model-based control depends on accuracy of

process model.

 Model predictive control (MPC), is one type of multivariable control.

2) Inequality constraints for the manipulated and controlled variables.

 E.g., a manipulated flow rate has an upper and a lower limit.

 Hierarchy of process control activities cont’d…

 Upper limit is based on pump and valve characteristics while lower limit may be
determined by safety considerations.

 Limits on controlled variables reflect equipment/operational constraints and

operating objectives.

o In most industrial processes, optimum operating condition occurs at or near a

constraint limit.

o Thus, operating a process close to the limit becomes an important control objective.

o Though set point cannot be the actual limit itself since a disturbance can easily force
the controlled variable beyond the limit.
 Hierarchy of process control activities cont’d…

o Set point should be conservatively set based on ability of a control system to

eliminate effects of disturbances.

 I.e., if controlled variable varies significantly, set point should be well below the
limit.

 And if variability is less then set point can be set close to the constraint limit.

o Standard control strategies (feedforward/feedback) may not be adequate.

o That is, for control involving significant interactions and inequality constraints.

o Typically, multivariable control is used, e.g., MPC strategy.

o Level 3b activities may be considered once lower level activities are achieved.
 Hierarchy of process control activities cont’d…

Level 4: Real-time optimization (RTO)

o Involves determining new optimum operating conditions in real time i.e., as operation
is on going.

o Since optimum conditions can change from design optimum conditions due to some
factors as pointed out.

o RTO objective might be to minimize operating costs or maximize profit as discussed

elsewhere.

o RTO calculations are based on steady state models of the plant and economic data
such as costs for products and raw materials.

o Can be performed for single process or plantwide basis.

 Hierarchy of process control activities cont’d…

o Data analysis can also be performed during RTO to ensure process model is
accurate for the current conditions.

o Data reconciliation can then be used i.e., real-time data is reconciled with model data.

o This improves model accuracy so that steady state mass and energy balances are
satisfied.

o RTO is not always required in most industrial processes but can be profitable.

Level 5: Planning and Scheduling

o Planning and scheduling activities for entire plant occupy the highest level.

o I.e., such control activities are typically performed after all the other activities.
 Hierarchy of process control activities cont’d…

o Production rates for products and intermediates are planned and coordinated for
continuous process.

o Typically based on, equipment constraints, storage capacity, sales projections and
operation of other plants.

o For batch and semibatch, production control becomes batch scheduling problem.

o Batch scheduling is based on similar considerations as continuous process and also

processing time.

o Level 1, 2 and 3a activities are always required while level 3b – 5 are optional but
can be beneficial.
 Hierarchy of process control activities cont’d…

o Decision to implement one or more higher-level activities depend strongly on

economics.

o E.g., cost/benefit of implementing such an activity.

o It also depend on company priorities for limited resources i.e., human and financial
resources.

o Process control activities belonging to different levels should be carefully coordinated.

o Transfer of information from one level to the next is required as part of coordination.