Networking, also known as computer networking, is the practice of transporting and

exchanging data between nodes over a shared medium in an information system.

What is meant by data communication?

The term “Data Communication” comprises two words: Data and Communication. Data can be
any text, image, audio, video, and multimedia files. Communication is an act of sending or
receiving data. Thus, data communication refers to the exchange of data between two or more
networked or connected devices.
Data communication or digital communications, including data
transmission and data reception, is the transfer and reception of data in the form of a digital
bitstream or a digitized analog signal transmitted over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint
communication channel.

need of data communication:-

The main objective of data communication and networking is to enable seamless exchange of
data between any two points in the world. This exchange of data takes place over a computer
network. Data refers to the raw facts that are collected while information refers to processed
data that enables us to take decisions. Ex.

DATA & INFORMATION Data refers to the raw facts that are collected while information refers to
processed data that enables us to take decisions. Ex. When result of a particular test is declared it
contains data of all students, when you find the marks you have scored you have the information that
lets you know whether you have passed or failed. The word data refers to any information which is
presented in a form that is agreed and accepted upon by is creators and user

DATA COMMUNICATION
 Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or information
 In case of computer networks this exchange is done between two devices over a transmission
medium.
 This process involves a communication system which is made up of hardware and software. The
hardware part involves the sender and receiver devices and the intermediate devices through
which the data passes. The software part involves certain rules which specify what is to be
communicated, how it is to be communicated and when. It is also called as a Protocol.
 The following sections describes the fundamental characteristics that are important for the
effective working of data communication process and is followed by the components that make
up a data communications system.
Characteristics of Data Communication :-

The effectiveness of any data communications system depends upon the following four
fundamental characteristics:
1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user.
2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without introducing
any errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the
delivered data.
 3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any delay;
such a data delivery is called real time transmission of data.
4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the timeliness of
data being transmitted.

1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user.
2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without introducing
any errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the
delivered data.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any delay;
such a data delivery is called real time transmission of data.
4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the timeliness of
data being transmitted.

2 Components of Data Communication:- A Data Communication system has five components as

shown in the diagram below: Fig. Components of a Data Communication System

1. Message Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to the receiver.

2. Sender The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data (message).
3. Receiver The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the data (message).
4. Transmission Medium It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver. It
can be wired or wireless and many subtypes in both.
5. Protocol It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and receiver to communicate
data. A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication. A Protocol is a necessity in
data communications without which the communicating entities are like two persons trying to
talk to each other in a different language without know the other language.

INTRODUCTION Computer networks are designed to transfer data from one point to another.
During transit data is in the form of electromagnetic signals. Hence it is important to study data
and signals before we move to further concepts in data communication.

DATA & SIGNALS To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals. 2.2.1.
Data can be Analog or Digital.
1. Analog data refers to information that is continuous; ex. sounds made by a human voice
2. Digital data refers to information that has discrete states. Digital data take on discrete values.
3. For example, data are stored in computer memory in the form of Os and 1s
Signals can be of two types: 1. Analog Signal: They have infinite values in a range.
2. Digital Signal: They have limited number of defined values

Figure: a. Analog Signal b. Digital Signal*

. Periodic & Non Periodic Signals
 Signals which repeat itself after a fixed time period are called Periodic Signals.

 Signals which do not repeat itself after a fixed time period are called Non-Periodic
Signals.
 In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and non-periodic
digital signals.
ANALOG SIGNAL
 An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time.
 As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and includes an
infinite number of values along its path as it can be seen in the figure below.
 A simple analog signal is a sine wave that cannot be further decomposed into
simpler signals.

A sine wave is characterized by three parameters:

1. Peak Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase
Characteristics of an Analog Signal:-
Peak Amplitude
 The amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its intensity at time t

 The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of the highest

intensity.
 The amplitude of a signal is proportional to the energy carried by the
signal.

Frequency
Frequency refers to the number of cycles completed by the wave in one
second.
Period refers to the time taken by the wave to complete one second.
Phase Phase describes the position of the waveform with respect to
time (specifically relative to time O).
 Fig: Phase of a sine wave*
 Phase indicates the forward or backward shift of the waveform
from the axis
 It is measured in degrees or radian
 The figure above shows the sine waves with same amplitude
and frequency but different phases

Analog signals & digital signal Analog signals are used to communicate information in a
continuous function of time while a digital signal transmits data in a discrete function of time. Analog
signals represent data and information using a continuous range of values while digital signals use
discrete values 0 and 1.
Properties of signal:-
2.Layered Network Architecture:-
Layered Architecture in a computer network is defined as a model where a whole network process is
divided into various smaller sub-tasks. These divided sub-tasks are then assigned to a specific layer to
perform only the dedicated tasks. A single layer performs only a specific type of task.

Benefits of layered model:-The benefits of using a layered model are that

it facilitates troubleshooting, it focuses on details rather than general functions and it breaks the complex
process of networking into manageable chunks.
OSI Reference model
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to
the software application in another computer. OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer
performs a particular network function.

The OSI model is split into seven fundamental

layers (bottom to top): Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, and Application. In 1984, the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) published the OSI framework to standardize network
design and equipment manufacturing principles.
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a
conceptual framework that divides network communications functions into seven layers.
Sending data over a network is complex because various hardware and software technologies
must work cohesively across geographical and political boundaries.

The purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide

technology vendors and developers so the digital communications products and software
programs they create can interoperate and to promote a clear framework that describes the
functions of a networking or telecommunications system that's in use.
The recommendation X.200 describes seven layers, labelled 1 to 7. Layer 1 is the lowest layer
in this model.

OSI model

Protocol data
Layer Function[27]
unit (PDU)

Host 7 Application Data High-level protocols such as for resource sharing or remote file access, e.g. HTTP.
layers

Translation of data between a networking service and an application; including character

6 Presentation
encoding, data compression and encryption/decryption

5 Session Managing communication sessions, i.e., continuous exchange of information in the form of
multiple back-and-forth transmissions between two nodes
 Reliable transmission of data segments between points on a network,
4 Transport Segment, Datagram
including segmentation, acknowledgement and multiplexing

3 Network Packet Structuring and managing a multi-node network, including addressing, routing and traffic control

Media
2 Data link Frame Transmission of data frames between two nodes connected by a physical layer
layers

1 Physical Bit, Symbol Transmission and reception of raw bit streams over a physical medium

Layer 1: Physical layer[edit]

Main article: Physical layer

The physical layer is responsible for the transmission and reception of unstructured raw data
between a device, such as a network interface controller, Ethernet hub, or network switch, and a
physical transmission medium. It converts the digital bits into electrical, radio, or optical signals.
Layer specifications define characteristics such as voltage levels, the timing of voltage changes,
physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, modulation scheme, channel access
method and physical connectors. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, line impedance,
cable specifications, signal timing and frequency for wireless devices. Bit rate control is done at
the physical layer and may define transmission mode as simplex, half duplex, and full duplex.
The components of a physical layer can be described in terms of the network topology. Physical
layer specifications are included in the specifications for the ubiquitous Bluetooth, Ethernet,
and USB standards. An example of a less well-known physical layer specification would be for
the CAN standard.
The physical layer also specifies how encoding occurs over a physical signal, such as electrical
voltage or a light pulse. For example, a 1 bit might be represented on a copper wire by the
transition from a 0-volt to a 5-volt signal, whereas a 0 bit might be represented by the transition
from a 5-volt to a 0-volt signal. As a result, common problems occurring at the physical layer are
often related to the incorrect media termination, EMI or noise scrambling, and NICs and hubs
that are misconfigured or do not work correctly.
Layer 2: Data link layer[edit]
Main article: Data link layer

The data link layer provides node-to-node data transfer—a link between two directly connected
nodes. It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer. It defines the
protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two physically connected devices. It
also defines the protocol for flow control between them.
IEEE 802 divides the data link layer into two sublayers:[28]

 Medium access control (MAC) layer – responsible for controlling how devices in a network
gain access to a medium and permission to transmit data.
 Logical link control (LLC) layer – responsible for identifying and encapsulating network layer
protocols, and controls error checking and frame synchronization.
The MAC and LLC layers of IEEE 802 networks such as 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi-Fi,
and 802.15.4 Zigbee operate at the data link layer.
The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol that can operate over several
different physical layers, such as synchronous and asynchronous serial lines.
The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing wires
(power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data link layer that provides
both error correction and flow control by means of a selective-repeat sliding-window protocol.
Security, specifically (authenticated) encryption, at this layer can be applied with MACsec.
Layer 3: Network layer[edit]
Main article: Network layer

The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring packets from
one node to another connected in "different networks". A network is a medium to which many
nodes can be connected, on which every node has an address and which permits nodes
connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by merely providing the
content of a message and the address of the destination node and letting the network find the
way to deliver the message to the destination node, possibly routing it through intermediate
nodes. If the message is too large to be transmitted from one node to another on the data link
layer between those nodes, the network may implement message delivery by splitting the
message into several fragments at one node, sending the fragments independently, and
reassembling the fragments at another node. It may, but does not need to, report delivery
errors.
Message delivery at the network layer is not necessarily guaranteed to be reliable; a network
layer protocol may provide reliable message delivery, but it does not need to do so.
A number of layer-management protocols, a function defined in the management annex, ISO
7498/4, belong to the network layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group
management, network-layer information and error, and network-layer address assignment. It is
the function of the payload that makes these belong to the network layer, not the protocol that
carries them.[29]
Layer 4: Transport layer[edit]
Main article: Transport layer

The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable-length
data sequences from a source host to a destination host from one application to another across
a network, while maintaining the quality-of-service functions. Transport protocols may be
connection-oriented or connectionless.
This may require breaking large protocol data units or long data streams into smaller chunks
called "segments", since the network layer imposes a maximum packet size called
the maximum transmission unit (MTU), which depends on the maximum packet size imposed by
all data link layers on the network path between the two hosts. The amount of data in a data
segment must be small enough to allow for a network-layer header and a transport-layer
header. For example, for data being transferred across Ethernet, the MTU is 1500 bytes, the
minimum size of a TCP header is 20 bytes, and the minimum size of an IPv4 header is 20
bytes, so the maximum segment size is 1500−(20+20) bytes, or 1460 bytes. The process of
dividing data into segments is called segmentation; it is an optional function of the transport
layer. Some connection-oriented transport protocols, such as TCP and the OSI connection-
oriented transport protocol (COTP), perform segmentation and reassembly of segments on the
receiving side; connectionless transport protocols, such as UDP and the OSI connectionless
transport protocol (CLTP), usually do not.
The transport layer also controls the reliability of a given link between a source and destination
host through flow control, error control, and acknowledgments of sequence and existence.
Some protocols are state- and connection-oriented. This means that the transport layer can
keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail delivery through the acknowledgment
hand-shake system. The transport layer will also provide the acknowledgement of the
successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred.
Reliability, however, is not a strict requirement within the transport layer. Protocols like UDP, for
example, are used in applications that are willing to accept some packet loss, reordering, errors
or duplication. Streaming media, real-time multiplayer games and voice over IP (VoIP) are
examples of applications in which loss of packets is not usually a fatal problem.
The OSI connection-oriented transport protocol defines five classes of connection-mode
transport protocols, ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the fewest
features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0
contains no error recovery and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free
connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful
close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all OSI TP connection-
mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed
characteristics of TP0–4 classes are shown in the following table:[30]
Feature name TP0 TP1 TP2 TP3 TP4

Connection-oriented network Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Connectionless network No No No No Yes

Concatenation and separation No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Segmentation and reassembly Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Error recovery No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Reinitiate connectiona No Yes No Yes No

Multiplexing / demultiplexing over single virtual circuit No No Yes Yes Yes

Explicit flow control No No Yes Yes Yes

Retransmission on timeout No No No No Yes

Reliable transport service No Yes No Yes Yes

a
If an excessive number of PDUs are unacknowledged.
An easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a post office, which deals with
the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. A post office inspects only the outer
envelope of mail to determine its delivery. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double
envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only.
Roughly speaking, tunnelling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP
protocols such as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network, or end-to-end encryption
with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network-layer
protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at the endpoint, GRE becomes
closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete Layer 2 frames or
Layer 3 packets to deliver to the endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport segments.
Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI
definition of the transport layer, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer 4
protocols within OSI.
Transport Layer Security (TLS) does not strictly fit inside the model either. It contains
characteristics of the transport and presentation layers.[31][32]
Layer 5: Session layer[edit]
Main article: Session layer

The session layer creates the setup, controls the connections, and ends the teardown, between
two or more computers, which is called a "session". Since DNS and other Name Resolution
Protocols operate in this part of the layer, common functions of the session layer include user
logon (establishment), name lookup (management), and user logoff (termination) functions.
Including this matter, authentication protocols are also built into most client software, such as
FTP Client and NFS Client for Microsoft Networks. Therefore, the session layer establishes,
manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. The
session layer also provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes
procedures for checkpointing, suspending, restarting, and terminating a session between two
related streams of data, such as an audio and a video stream in a web-conferencing application.
Therefore, the session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments
that use remote procedure calls.
Layer 6: Presentation layer[edit]
Main article: Presentation layer

The presentation layer establishes data formatting and data translation into a format specified
by the application layer during the encapsulation of outgoing messages while being passed
down the protocol stack, and possibly reversed during the deencapsulation of incoming
messages when being passed up the protocol stack. For this very reason, outgoing messages
during encapsulation are converted into a format specified by the application layer, while the
conversion for incoming messages during deencapsulation are reversed.
The presentation layer handles protocol conversion, data encryption, data decryption, data
compression, data decompression, incompatibility of data representation between operating
systems, and graphic commands. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the
application layer accepts, to be sent across a network. Since the presentation layer converts
data and graphics into a display format for the application layer, the presentation layer is
sometimes called the syntax layer.[33] For this reason, the presentation layer negotiates the
transfer of syntax structure through the Basic Encoding Rules of Abstract Syntax Notation
One (ASN.1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded
file, or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to XML.[4]
Layer 7: Application layer[edit]
Main article: Application layer

The application layer is the layer of the OSI model that is closest to the end user, which means
both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with a software application that
implements a component of communication between the client and server, such as File
Explorer and Microsoft Word. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model
unless they are directly integrated into the application layer through the functions of
communication, as is the case with applications such as web browsers and email programs.
Other examples of software are Microsoft Network Software for File and Printer Sharing and
Unix/Linux Network File System Client for access to shared file resources.
Application-layer functions typically include file sharing, message handling, and database
access, through the most common protocols at the application layer, known as HTTP, FTP,
SMB/CIFS, TFTP, and SMTP. When identifying communication partners, the application layer
determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to
transmit. The most important distinction in the application layer is the distinction between the
application-entity and the application. For example, a reservation website might have two
application-entities: one using HTTP to communicate with its users, and one for a remote
database protocol to record reservations. Neither of these protocols have anything to do with
reservations. That logic is in the application itself. The application layer has no means to
determine the availability of resources in the network.[4]

TCP/IP Model :-
The TCP/IP model defines how devices should transmit data between them and enables
communication over networks and large distances. The model represents how data is
exchanged and organized over networks.

It is named from two of the most important protocols in it: the

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two
networking protocols defined in this standard.

TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department

of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It
contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
The number of layers is sometimes referred to as five or four. Here In this article, we’ll study
five layers. The Physical Layer and Data Link Layer are referred to as one single layer as the
‘Physical Layer’ or ‘Network Interface Layer’ in the 4-layer reference.
What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to another. The
main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver will
receive the same information which is sent by the sender. To ensure that, each message
 reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and
combines them at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while
transferring from one end to another end.
What is the Difference between TCP and IP?
TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks. The basic difference between TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) is in the transmission of data. In
simple words, IP finds the destination of the mail and TCP has the work to send and receive
the mail. UDP is another protocol, which does not require IP to communicate with another
computer. IP is required by only TCP. This is the basic difference between TCP and IP.

How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?

Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model, the TCP/IP
Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and the same packets have to be
recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same data, and this thing happens to maintain
the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the
data first go into this layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the
same way at the receiver’s end.
Layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
3. Network/Internet Layer(IP)
4. Data Link Layer (MAC)
5. Physical Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

TCP/IP and OSI

1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible for generating the data and
requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network Access layer on the behalf of the receiver.
During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.
2. Data Link Layer
 The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the data-link layer. Error prevention and
“framing” are also provided by the data-link layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing
are two examples of data-link layer protocols.
3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are responsible for the logical
transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to the destination
host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most
websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when
compared to the number of users.
 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible
for providing hosts with information about network problems.
 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a host from a known IP
address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols that define the Internet. The
Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one device to another across a network. It does this by
assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify the device and determine the route that packets
should take to reach it.
Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a friend. When you click “send,” the email is broken
down into smaller packets of data, which are then sent to the Internet Layer for routing. The Internet Layer assigns an IP
address to each packet and uses routing tables to determine the best route for the packet to take to reach its destination.
The packet is then forwarded to the next hop on its route until it reaches its destination. When all of the packets have
been delivered, your friend’s computer can reassemble them into the original email message.
In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email from your computer to your friend’s
computer. It uses IP addresses and routing tables to determine the best route for the packets to take, and it ensures that
the packets are delivered to the correct destination. Without the Internet Layer, it would not be possible to send data
across the Internet.
4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit missing packets to ensure
that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were physically connected by a circuit.
TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character transmission rather than separate packets. A
starting point that establishes the connection, the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes
the connection make up this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport layer protocol. Connections between
receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP rather
than TCP because it eliminates the processes of establishing and validating connections.
5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-
free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data. The three main protocols
present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World Wide Web to manage
communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP
with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate,
and carry out bank transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred
is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
 NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our computer to one standard
time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactio

Network protocol and TCP/IP Protocol suite