History Fi - Fiv.

HISTORY FORM ONE TOPIC 1:
SOURCES AND IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY
Meaning of history
History is the study of man and his activities in different times. These activities enable man to obtain his
needs. Man’s basic needs are food, cloths, and shelter
In general, history can also refer to an academic discipline, which uses a narrative to examine and
analyze the sequences of past events, and objectively determine the patterns of cause and effect that
determine them. It is the record of human activities, which enable man to survival and attain essential
needs from the environment.
IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING HISTORY.

1. Understand how African societies were formed, how they developed and the factors that influenced
this development.
2. It also allows us to develop an understanding of the events, conditions and factors that shaped the past
and those, which have shaped the present conditions of the world in order to predict the future.
3. Historical knowledge makes the present comprehensive, which is why journalists and writers of
sensational stories spend some time explaining the history of a particular incident; it is only when one
knows the past of a person or an incident that the present can became meaningful.
4. Develop an understanding and appreciation of the cultural, political, economic and technological
advancements made by African societies before and after colonial rulers.
5. Develop the basic skills of critical thinking, reasoning, judgment, empathy and effective participation
in human developmental activities.
6. Studying history also helps us to understand and appreciate the efforts made and strategies used by
African people to regain their independence and resist neo-colonialism
7. Develop, understand and appreciation the need for African unity, cooperation and interdependence,
conflict resolution and effective participation in social, economic and political development of Africa.
8. It also helps us to develop an understanding of the relationships between African’s development

problems and foreign intrusion, colonial domination, cultural subjugation and economic exploitation
at various stages in history.
9. -Acquire knowledge for its own sake as you enjoy a novel with fiction, a film with an interesting plot.
It is not clear why people are interested in these ventures and in the same way, people do enjoy to
know the history of particular topics.
10. Develop our patriotism, history students know their heroes and heroes and traitors. This makes
history a sensitive subject in places where political leaders are not sure of their legitimacy.
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11. Enlightens people about the advantages of certain economic practices for example, the way the
development in the world today is measured by the industrial revolution that took place in Europe in
1750.
12. Understand the level of development at different stages of human development. Without history, it is
very difficult to determine or to tell what humans were doing in the past.
13. Helps us learn about technological transformations, for example primitive livelihood to advanced
livelihood (using of stones and wood tools to iron tools)
14. Understand how humans adapted to their environment and how the struggled to earn a living from the
environment. This therefore looks at the long struggle of man by exercises of his reason -to
understand the environment and to act up on it.
15. Understand the relationship that existed between humans, and between humans and the environment.
16. Acquire skills in historical issues and becoming professionals in history, some people such as
archaeologists and historians study history for career purposes.
SOURCES OF HISTORY
Refers to the avenues that can be used to get historical information. It requires inter-disciplinary Sources
of history approach in order to get the actual historical information.
Therefore, the following are sources of history/historical knowledge:

a) Oral tradition
b) Historical sites
c) Written records/documents
d) Archives
e) Museums
f) Archeology
g) Audio- visual record, e.g. Cassettes, Cd’s, and TV programs etc.
h) Anthropology
i) Linguistics
1. ORAL TRADITION:
This involves the passing information by word of mouth through talking and listening. Oral tradition
passes historical information into two ways
a) Through culture practices like art, music, religion, riddles, songs, proverbs, superstition, poems and
stories.
b) Narration of past events.
FUNCTION OF ORAL TRADITION

• It preserves historical information of society
• I t collects and pass historical information between generations in the society.
• It helps researchers in data collection.
ADVANTAGES OF ORAL TRADITION

• It preserves and reveal historical information which are not recorded
• Both illiterate and literate people can obtain historical information.
• Within oral tradition, there are warning and teachings.
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• Is the easiest and cheapest method of obtaining information?
• It is live source, since it involves physical interaction.
DISADVANTAGES OF ORAL TRADITION

1. It needs much attention and power of memory
2. False information can be given by storyteller.
3. Narration of historical events are centered to those people of status i.e. Kings, Queens, Chief. White
talking little about common society.
4. There is a language problem when narrator uses vernacular language.
5. It is difficult to distinguish what is real and what is imaginary information.
6. Translation is very difficult because some languages are no longer in existence.
3. HISTORICAL SITES: Are special places where by the past human remains can be found and shown to
the public. It is a place where the remains of once lived human in the past can be found.
1. They comprise man’s physical development, tools that were made and used from time to time.
2. In these areas we find /see past human products and animal bones.
Examples of historical sites in Tanzania include Isimila, Olduvai George, Kondoa Irangi, Bagamoyo,
Zanzibar, Kilwa, Mafia, Engaruka, Kagera etc
In Uganda Nsongezi, Biggo, Ntubi, Rusinga Island, Magosi and Ishago.
In Kenya. Lake Rudolf (Turkana), Lake Naivasha, Njoro, Olongesailie, Lake Magadi, Lamu, Mombasa
and mt. Kenya
FUNCTIONS OF HISTORICAL SITES

(a) Preserves historical information for the coming generations.
(b) They are useful sources of information and to reconstruct history.
(c) They are the symbols of social cultural heritage to the society concern past human tools, rock, paints
etc
DISADVANTAGES OF HISTORICAL SITES
1. They help for practical historical learning e.g. through observation of past human tools, rock, paints.
2. Used to reveal past settlement patterns, levels of technology, economic development of political
organization reached by the past societies.
3. Acts as centers of tourism.
4. They helps in transforming theoretical teaching of history to practical historical learning.
5. It acts as the resource centers to researchers.
6. It provides employment opportunities e.g.: guiders
DISADVANTAGES OF HISTORICAL SITES

(i) It brings confusion to interpret the remains found in historical sites
(ii) Many of historical sites are found on remote areas hence difficult for many people to visit them.
3. ARCHAEOLOGY: This refers to the scientific study of past human remain.

It is the study of material remains of man’s past through scientific methods. The one specializes in
archeology is called ARCHAEOLOGIST. Archaeology involves excavations (digging) of the remains of
man’s past historical sites and interpretation.
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The famous archaeologist in East Africa was Dr. Louis Leaky with his wife Mary Leakey
Archaeology involves the use of carbon 14 dating to determine plants and animal remains.
FUNCTIONS OF ARCHAEOLOGY
(a) Gives important information about man through different stages.
(b) It is a useful method of revealing soil covered historical remains.
(c) It arouses curiosity of searching past man historical information.
ADVANTAGES OF ARCHAEOLOGY
(a) It helps people to know when and how people lived in a certain place.
(b) Past objects tell us about the life and culture of past people.
(c) It helps us to know and reveal the technology, pastoral, agricultural and commercial activities of the
past man.
(d) Through excavation, we get knowledge of artifacts e.g. Pottery, building etc.
(e) It reveals religious beliefs of the past man
(f) We can compliment other sources of information through archaeology e.g. History
(g) We can know the past relationship between different people such as trading activities, migration,
marriage, birth, death and political relation.
DISADVANTAGES OF ARCHAEOLOGY
· It consumes time because of excavation.
· It cannot reveal the past people’s language.
· It cannot give out the out reasons for historical events such as wars.
· It needs full experts and advanced technology.
· Poorly interpreted remains can bring false information
- It cannot tell anything about the past social organization
4. ARCHIVES: These are places where collection of public and private documents and old record are
preserved. These documents include personal letters, early travelers and missionary records, traders
writings, personal and government files, political parties documents, etc.
FUNCTIONS OF ARCHIVES
• Archives preserve public and private records that have enduring value to the society.
• The public makes the records in archives available for use.
• However not all records can be viewed by everyone.
• Archives collect records of enduring value from various places. For example, the nation archives have
records from different regions of the country.
• The archives staff maintains registers of the record in the archives.
• Archives have facilities for restoring damaged documents of enduring value.
• Archives have facilities for restoring damaged documents of enduring value.
• The historical information in the archives ensures continuity. For example, company policies from
previous years can still guide the employee today.
ADVANTAGES OF ARCHIVES
• Easy to identify ideas and literacy level of the past man.
• It is easy to identify the exact date of historical event.
• It used to store historical information.
• Easy to get historical information from different places and different people.
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DISADVANTAGES OF ARCHIVES
• It may lead false information, if author is biased.
• Illiterate people cannot get historical information.
• It is not easy to get information of society whose information is not documented.
• It is difficult to get remote information from archives.
• It is non renewable once disrupted either by wind or o
5. MUSEUMS: These are places or buildings where information and objects are preserved it involves all
terms, which shows culture, political economic and technological development from the past to the
present. Objects can be early coins, clothes, and mineral cowries, religious and ceremonial
symbols. Museum can be national, Regional, District and village. e.g. National Museums in Dar es
Salaam, Bagamoyo, Butiama, Kalenga Iringa.
FUNCTIONS OF MUSEUMS
• Preserve historical documents and objects.
• Shows concrete remains of objects.
• It is the place for tourist and study tour.
• It is the center for cultural and national identity.
ADVANTAGES OF MUSEUMS
• It preserves objects, which are used as the teaching aids.
• Museum preserves culture and national identity.
• It used by researcher (source of information)
• It acts as tourist center.
• People learn about technological development.
• Enable learners to arouse creativity.
DISADVANTAGES OF MUSEUMS.
• It needs knowledgeable people.
• It is possible to distort information through biases by the museum attendant.
• Poor preservation of the past items e.g. coins, pieces of cloth, slaves’ chain can distort information.
• It needs extensive care to maintain its beauty or origin.
6. WRITTEN RECORDS: Are the documents, which comprise written historical information. This
includes books, letters, maps, magazines, journal, newspaper, minutes of meetings and conferences.
Written records can be found in libraries, schools, colleges, universities, internet cafes, offices etc.
FUNCTIONS OF WRITTEN RECORDS

• Written records provide pictures of society.
• These records reflect public opinion at the time of writing. For example, the letter to the editor in
newspaper expresses the readers’ feelings on current issues.
• Written records serve as stores of a large variety of information, including discoveries, government
policies, statements, religious beliefs, fashion, speeches and agreement.
• In-depth reports of daily events are kept as written records. For example, in a diary, newspaper or
biography.
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ADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN RECORDS.
· It is easy to get information.
· Easy to make references
· It is helpful in doing researches.
· They can be kept for long time.
DISADVANTAGES OF WITTEN RECORDS

❖ It can give false information if they are biased by the author
❖ It is difficult to read everything from written records
❖ They are subject to be badly written.
❖ Illiterate people cannot get information.
7. LINGUISTICS: Is scientific study and analysis of language. It includes study of sound, structure,
information and relationship between various language groups.
ADVANTAGES OF LINGUISTICS
❖ It helps to get information from various sources.
❖ Enables to discover links between different people.
❖ It helps to determine dates f historical event e.g. “Aluta continua” (Period of struggle for
independence in Mozambique)
LIMITATIONS OF LINGUISTICS
❖ It consumes time and finance learning a particular language
❖ Through translation, one can commit some important work.
❖ The present language may be corrupted.
8. ANTHROPOLOGY: Is the study of the society’s cultural systems, beliefs, ideas etc. The study can give
important information about movements, settlements and production activities of the past.
DATING HISTORICAL EVENTS

Historians usually divide time into several categories, namely
· Day – is a duration of twenty-four hours (24hrs)
· A week – is a duration of seven days (7days)
· Month – is the duration of four weeks (4 weeks)
· A year – is a duration of twelve months (12 moths)
· A decade – is a duration of ten years (10 yrs)
- A century – is the duration of one hundred years (100 yrs)
· A millennium – is the duration of thousand years (1000 yrs)
· A generation – is the average differences on ages between a child and his/her parent.
· Age – is the period based on ma’s economic activities and type of tools used e.g. stone age, iron age,
industrial age, science and technology age, etc.
· A period – is determined by one continuous event lasting for number of years
E.g. Period of slave trade in East Africa
Period of long-distance trade
Period of colonial rule in Africa
Some points have chosen in order to divide time
· Year ZERO – present the year when Jesus Christ was born
It is known as Anno Domino (A.D) meaning the year of the Lord
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· All years before zero are called (B.C) meaning (Before Christ)
HOW TO DETERMINE DATES

Dates are instrument in a science of history; these historians divided dates into four ways;
1. Recalling events: - here important events are recalled/remembered e.g. drought, farming, floods, birth,
eruption of diseases etc.
2. by studying languages: - Some names helps people to remember dates of some events. E.g., Word
“Karafuu” started when Cloves were introduced in Zanzibar.
3. Carbon 14 is a scientific method of determining dates. It used in the finding dates for remains of
animals or plants, which died beyond 5000 years ago. Carbon 14 is a gas found in carbon dioxide, which
exists in the atmosphere. It absorbed by plant and other living organisms. When died carbon 14 that starts
to decay at a fixed rate from the time of death.
4. Orders of events: ways showing order of events, period and ages, among them are-
· Time graph
· Time chart
· Time line
· Family tree
S/N
PERIOD A.D EVENTS
1 1884-1885 The Britain Conference
2 1914-1918 The first World war period
3 1939-1945 The second world war period

4 1961 Tanganyika become independent
5 1962 Tanganyika became republic
6 1992 Introduction of multipart’s in Tanzania.
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FORM ONE TOPIC 2:
EVOLUTION OF MAN, TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
Evolution of Man Is the gradual changes development of plants and animals from a simple form to a -
more complex form. This change leads to existence of plants and animals that are different from the -
original plants and animals.
THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION OF MAN.

The theory of evolution tries to explain the origin of man by describing the changes that our ancestors
underwent until they were like modern man. There are two theories, which attempt to explain the origin
of man.
1st THEORY OF CREATION. This theory explains that there is super natural power that creates
everything. This super natural power is God. Refer from the Holy Bible and Qur'an e.g. from Biblical
knowledge (Genesis chapter 1:26) it says that: - God created man by using soil; at first, they created a
man and then later a woman. These two creatures established their relationship and this marked the
beginning of human family.
2nd THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION OF MAN: an English man known as Charles Darwin (1809 –
1882) proposed the theory of evolution of man.
The theory says that: - man’s species has been changing gradually from lower stage to better stage due to
environment. Changing goes hand in hand with improvement of methods of obtaining food, cloth and
shelter.
The gradual change of man is called evolution. The first man belongs to the family of primates that
included Ape, Gorilla, Monkey and Chimpanzee. These animals lived in the forest walking on four limbs
and their bodies covered with hair. Because of environmental changes and diminishing of forests, they
started to live in open grassland. Environment forced them to adopt new way of walking. The forelimbs
instead of walking become special for tool making and using. Forelimbs become free from walking. The
walking is known as Bi –pedalism
STAGES OF MAN’S EVOLUTION
1. PRIMATES (Ape, Gorilla, Monkey, Chimpanzee)\

Characteristics
- Their bodies were covered with a lot of hair.
- They walked on four limbs
- They lived in dense forest.
- They had poorly mental abilities.
- They totally depended on nature e.g. ate raw food
2. AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFRICAN FAMILY. This stage started about 12million years ago (B.C)
when primates changed to near man. This stage is divided into two; Zinjanthropus and Homo habilis
Zinjanthropus
In this stage:
1. Fore limbs were free from walking.
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2. Hind limbs were used for standing and body balance.
3. Man started to design, make and use tools.
4. Man becomes skillful.
Homo habilis
- It lived between 1,500,000 and 750,000 BC.
- Homohabilis become more skillful man, because was systematic tools maker.
- Homohabilis believed to be the direct ancestor of modern man.
- He had bigger brain and he was more systematic toolmaker.
- The skull of those creatures was discovered at Olduvai Gorge and in Eastern and Rudolf in Kenya.
3. HOMO ERECTUS. Means upright man because his walking posture / upright resembled that of
modern man. He lived between 500,000 -350-000 years ago. His brain capacity was between 900 and
1000 cc. During this stage, man was fully moving upright. He becomes more skillful tools maker than
Homo habilis. Its fossils have been dug up in Olorgesaille and near Lake Turkana in the Kenya, Olduvai
Gorge in Tanzania.
4. HOMO SAPIENS
Homo sapiens are referred to as the thinking, intelligent or modern man whose evolution brought
to an end the long struggle for early man to better himself. He had brain capacity of between 1300
and 1400 cc and lived between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago.
its characteristics
• He is a true man of today

• Has a large brain in size
• Has less thick jaws
• He was highly skillful man
• He made tools by using stones and bones.
NB: Archaeologist Dr. Leakey in Olduvai Gorge has supported the theory of evolution in 1959
Basic characteristics of human evolution.
(i) Development of man’s ability to design make and use tools.

(ii) Ability of man to walk on two limbs. (Bi-pedalism)
(iii) Ability of man to think.
(iv) Ability of man to domesticate plants and animals.
5. HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS. Homo sapiens is a modern man, the most wise man, the most thinking
man or the most intelligent man. Homo sapiens are believed to have evolved into Homo sapiens sapiens
about 50,000 years ago. He had a brain capacity of between 1400 and 1450 cc. This man has a large brain
and great intelligence.
DEVELOPMENT OF STONE AGE.
Stone Age: This is historical period in which man made and used stone tools. Is a period based on man's
economic activities and type of the tools used e.g., Stone Age, Iron Age, Science technology age etc.
Stone Age is divided into three ages;
(a) Early or Old Stone Age.

(b) Middle Stone Age
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(c) (c) Late or new Stone Age
THE EARLY OR OLD STONE AGE: This is the first period of Stone Age. It existed between
1,750,000 B.C and 750,000 B.C.
Zinjanthropus was the only man existed in this period. The early stone tools were pebbles and chopping.
Man used these tools for killing and skinning animal flesh, digging up roots, cutting tree branches, and for
defense. Man obtained his food by hunting and gathering. In this period, man had low ability to control
his environment.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY OR OLD STONE AGE

In East Africa Stone Age sites are found at Olorgasaille, Nsongezi and Olduvai.
1. Man lived primitive life depending on nature.
2. Man made and used crude (poor) tools.
3. Man lived by hunting and gathering.
4. Man ate raw food i.e. meat
5. Man walked up right.
6. Man lived in caves.
7. Man did not wear clothes.
THE MIDDLE STONE AGE. This stage covered the period between 750,000BC to 50,000 BC. This
period man improved his stone tools. Tools were -smaller, sharper and easier to handle. Tools used during
this period were spear, Arrows, Needles, Stone picks, Knives etc. These tools were used for; digging up
roots, killing and skinning animals, cuttings & chopping.
THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. Man who was scratching pieces of wood using his hands discovered fire.
In this period, man found out that by rubbing two stones or two sticks against each other, a fire would
light. The more he continued scratching, the pieces of wood got heat the smoke come out, the scratch
caused friction of scratched wood and led to emission of fire.
IMPORTANCE/EFFECTS OF FIRE TO MAN DURING THE MIDDLE STONE AGE
The following were the effects resulted after the discovery of fire during the Middle Stone Age
• Man started to eat roasted food i.e. meat

• Man started to live in cold areas.
• Man used fire to clean bushes
• Man used fire to provide light at night.
• Fire used to kill small animals e.g. rabbit
• With fireman increased working hours.
• Man use fire to attract prey.
• Man used fire for defense from dangerous animals like lion.
THE LATE STONE AGE (NEW STONE AGE). In East Africa, late Stone Age started from
around 50,000 BC to the first millennium AD. It is also referred to as the New Stone Age or Neolithic
period. In this stage, man used better tools compared to the previous stone ages. Tools become
sharper and smaller.
Tools were stone exes, blades, spears, arrows, etc. Man started permanent settlement. The tools were
still largely made of stone but they were far better than those of earlier periods were.
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This period marked the beginning of settled communities. In areas such as Kondoa Irangi, paintings
and drawings in the carves proved this fact. The paintings and drawings show the shape of tools used
and animal hunted.
Characteristics of the late stone age.

1. Man used better tools compare to the previous ages.
2. Man started to domesticated plant and animal.
3. Man became food producer.
4. Increase of population.
5. It was beginning of settled communities and villages.
6. This period marked to be primarily on division of labor.
Example: women become child bearers and cares while man for protecting the families and hunting
Informal education started in this period.
THE IRON AGE. Iron Age is believed to have started during the 1st millennium A.D. This was the
period when man made and used Iron tools. The discovery and use of iron improved man’s standard
of living. Iron tools were discovered about 3000 years ago.
The first people to make and use iron tools in Africa were the people of Ethiopia and Egypt. Iron
skills and knowledge were not uniform or the same in Africa.
Famous iron Sites

The first importanst towns for iron smelting were Meroe in Sudan, Axum in Ethiopia, and Nok area in
West Africa. In East Africa, it is believed that man started to use iron from the first millennium A.D
e.g. Iron discovered earlier in Engaruka, Uvinza, Karagwe, Ugweno and Western shores of Lake
Victoria.
Iron tools included iron spears, arrows, Axes, Hoes etc also, Iron technology helped early African
societies to produce and use iron tools as well as to produce better weapons for defense.
THE RESULT/EFFECTS/ IMPACTS OF USING IRON TOOLS

The discovery of iron tools in East Africa led to the following effects;
❖ It led to increase in food production. Man could now clear his areas for cultivation.
❖ Increase in population due to more food.
❖ There was emergence of specialization i.e. Iron workers (black smiths) and food producers.
❖ It led to the emergence of complex villages / development of political organization as kingdom and states.
❖ Tools were highly improved and more efficient,
❖ It led to the improvement of security due to better weapons like arrows, spears and pangas
❖ It resulted to the development of trading activities due to surplus production
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TOPIC THREE
DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND THEIR IMPACT

A number of economic activities were practiced by Africans during the pre-colonial period. These
activities were highly influenced by a number of factors. These factors included;
-The nature of the environment.
-Technological development
-The increased needs of the people.
Productivity depended on the people, needs, skills, experience and available technology.
THE MAIN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN THE PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD

-Agriculture
-Industry/ handcraft
-Trade
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGRICULTURE, THE ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGICAL

DEVELPOMENT.
AGRICULTURE
✓ Is the science of cultivating land and rearing animals.
✓ It started at the end of the late stone age period after man had improved his tools.
✓ The types of agricultural activities practiced included;
Crop cultivation
Pastoralism
Mixed farming.
✓ These in most cases were determined by environmental factors such as;

Weather conditions
Diseases
Vegetation cover and
The improvement in science and technology.
ENVIRONMENT
- Refers to all things which surround the society. These include the amount of rainfall received in a
certain period, mountains, forests, rivers and plains.
TECHNOLOGY
- Is scientific knowledge applied in practical way, for example in designing new machines. It
helped to improve to improve man’s life in his specific environment. For example, the discovery
of iron working enabled man to come up with tools for agriculture.
HANDCRAFT INDUSTRIES AND MINING IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA.

Handcraft industries: Man used hands and skills to produce tools and weapons of these industries.
Industries-Is the place where raw materials are processed into finished goods e.g. cotton-cloth
Specialized handcraft industries in Africa.

Salt making industries; iron working; copper mining; gold mining; pottery making; spinning and weaving
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industries; bark –cloth industries; canoe making industries
1. Salt making industries: These are industries, which engaged in production of soil in pre-colonial
Africa.
Methods of obtaining salt
• Obtaining salt from different reeds: Reeds were collected, dried and burned, the ashes would be
filtered while the ashes remain liquid would be evaporated and residue would be used as salt.
Places: - Near Lake Victoria, Kyoga, ankkd Albert, among Buganda and Bahaya tribes and among
Mang’anja people near shores of Lake Nyasa.
• Obtaining salt by boiling and evaporating method. Sea or ocean water put into pans and left to
evaporate, the salt crystals would be collected and used as salt.
Places: around coastal areas.
• Obtaining salt by mining under neath rocks. Places: At Taghaza, Bilma around Lake Chad in
western Sudan. Near lake Bangwela and river Luapala in central Africa.
• Obtaining salt using water by fire. Spring water containing salt was boiled and finally salt was
obtained. Places with salt; in uvinza salt spring along river malagarasi in central Africa.
TRADE IN THE PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA: Trade is the process of buying and selling of goods and
services between people. There was need to trade in order to get all things needed by the communities.
Trade tends to develop in any society where there is surplus production.
LOCAL TRADE. Refers to the kind of trade, which is conducted within the same geographical area. In
local trade, goods are exchanged between people living in the same geographical area, such as a town or
village. Local trade was not for profit making but just to obtain essential goods. i.e. pastoral communities
like the Maasai needed vegetables and grains from cultivators like the Nyakyusa and the Chaga.
Impacts of local trade.
1. Local trade united people within the same area.
2. Communities obtained goods such as tools, weapons, foodstuffs and medical herbs.
3. Transport routes were improved.
4. Some important market centers emerged along the market routes.
5. Local trade encouraged communities to expand production.
REGIONAL TRADE. Regional trade refers to trade conducted from one region to another (Trade
conducted between two different geographical regions). Regional trade involved a wider variety of goods
compared to local trade. It was not for profit making. For example, regional trade was Trans Sahara trade,
Long distance trade of East Africa and Central Africa. Regional trade in the pre-colonial Africa took
place in 19th century.
THE KAMBA. The Kamba were leading the long distance trade through northern route in the 19th century.
They Kamba caravan brought ivory, guns, hides and beeswax from the interior. From the Coast they
obtained cloth, salt, copper, cowrie’s shells and jewellery.
THE YAO. The Yao traders got beads and cloth from Kilwa. They also captured and sold slaves from
neighboring communities, Yao chiefs such as Mpanda, Mataka, Machemba and Mtalika dominated the
Southern route during the long distance trade.
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THE NYAMWEZI. The Nyamwezi dominated the central route conducted trade between the interior of
Tanganyika and the coast. The Nyamwezi sold slaves and ivory, hide rhinoceros horn..
Impacts/ effects of regional trade.
Positive consequences/impacts.
▪ Some traders became very rich. e.g. Mirambo and Isike.

▪ The communities were able to obtain new commodities e.g. guns, clothes, beads, ivory, etc.
▪ The rise of trade centers such as Saadans, Pangani, Bagamoyo, Tabora, Ujiji, Voi, and Taveta.
▪ The rise of trade routes.
▪ The rise of powerful Empires/Kingdoms such as Nyamwezi.
▪ New food crops such as maize, rice and cassava were introduced.
▪ Spread of Islam by the Arabs to the interior Tabora and Ujiji.
Negative impacts.
▪ The rise of inter-tribal wars in Oder to get slaves.
▪ Many elephants were killed, as there was high demand of Ivory.
▪ It led to depopulation and under development in some areas.
▪ Slave raids caused insecurity and loss of innocent lives.
▪ Foreigners used trade routes to reach to the interior.
▪ Exploitation of African wealth by Europeans and Asians.
▪ Decline of local industries in Africa.
LONG DISTANCE TRADE. Long distance trade was the trade carried out long distance as
people/traders had to move for long distance going on exchanging goods with other societies and the
major aim was to get profit for example a salt traders was exchanged salt foe hoes not because he wanted
to use hoes but he wanted re sell them at a profit later.
TRANS SAHARAN TRADE: Trans Sahara trade was the trade conducted across the Sahara desert. It
involved the people of Northern Africa and the people of Western Sudan. This trade started long time ago
between 3000BC to 2000BC. It became important in the 1st century AD after the people of West Africa to
discover the use of camel and led to formation of many trade routes. The Trans Saharan trade was known
as dumb trade because there was no common language, which was used. People who involved in the
trade; West Africa; North Africa and Savannah Region.
MOVEMENT OF TRADERS.
People (traders) organized themselves in groups known as CARAVANS
Goods involved in the trade
Kola nuts, gold, salt, foodstuffs, Ivory, clothes, gold, bee-wax, slaves and ostrich feathers goods from
West. In addition, from North Africa salt and animal skin. Goods from Europe and Asia were cotton and
silk cloth, swords, guns, metal pans, horses and Arabic books.
Trade routes:
(a) Western route- From Sijilmasa, Fez in Morocco passed through Taghaza, Taodeni, Walata,
Audaghost, and Kumbi Saleh to Timbuktu.
(b) Central route- This passed Tunis, Ghat, Ghamese, Kano, GAO and Hausa land.
(c) Eastern route- This began in Tripoli, Marzul and Bilma.
FACTORS THAT LED TO THE GROWTH OF THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE

The following are some of the factors that contributed to the growth of the Trans Saharan trade:
▪ Stability of the communities: Both North African and Western Sudan zone were politically stable. For
example, leaders like Sundiata Keita and Mansa Musa collected taxes and established guides on trade
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routes. This enabled the people to conduct trade without fear. Up to the end of the 15th century AD,
many traders were motivated to come to Western Sudan for trade.
▪ Western Sudan provided goods needed by traders from Europe. These goods included gold, ivory
and slaves. Through trading Western Sudan exchanged her own commodities with goods from
Western Europe and Asia. In turn, she got clothes, guns and other commodities. The surplus
production in Western Sudan was adequate to sustain demand for products such as kolanuts and gold,
hides, ivory slaves, whereas Taghaza produced enough salt to meet the needs in Western Sudan. The
high production capacity in the region enhanced the growth of the Trans Saharan trade.
▪ Honesty: The Berbers of North Africa and the African traders of Western Africa trusted each other.
Traders brought in commodities without fear of theft and robbery, enabling the trade to flourish.
▪ The use of camels for transport suited the desert conditions and facilitated the development of the
Trans-Saharan trade. These animals could not only carry more commodities than horses and human
porters, but also endured desert conditions. Camels can survive without water for a longtime. This
convenient means of transport strengthened the development of the Trans-Saharan trade.
▪ Geographical location of the region: The location and climate favored the production of kola nuts and
other foodstuffs that were needed in the community, especially the forest region to the south. The
region of Western Sudan had no impassable forests because many areas were covered by short
grassland. This enabled traders to cross the desert without fear or any difficulty.
▪ The invention of a medium of exchange contributed to the growth of the Trans Saharan trade. At the
beginning, only the silent barter system of trade was practiced. Later on, cowrie shells were
introduced as a convenient medium of exchange. This in turn facilitated the development of the
Trans-Saharan trade.
▪ From the northern part, the Berbers provided capital to many traders who used to cross the Sahara
desert.
▪ Removal of language barrier: This was attained after Arabic language became the trader’s medium of
communication. This in turn facilitated the trade by making communication between the traders easy.
▪ Absence of competition for trading activities in the region: There were no regular ships that visited
the coast of West Africa. As a result, what was produced from the forest zone was peacefully
transported to North Africa through the Saharan desert.
▪ Scarcity of commodities like gold and salt.
▪ Introduction of horses, which were used in conquest and expansion.
EFFECTS OF THE TRANS SAHARAN TRADE IN AFRICA.

1. It led to the growth of empires like Ghana, Mali etc
2. It increased development of Agriculture.
3. It led to the introduction of Arabic Islamic religion cultures.
4. Formation of mixed races example half cast
5. Growth of town and cities e.g. Jenne, Timbuktu, GAO and Walata.
THE DECLINE OF THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE

By the second half of the nineteenth century, the volume of Trans-Saharan trade started to decline. A
number of obstacles or problems have been identified to explain the decline. These are:-
❖ Strong desert winds: The traders could not withstand the hazards of sand storms. Many abandoned the
trade as a result.
❖ Traders faced the danger of getting lost in the desert because the routes were not clear. Once traders
got lost, they would wander in the desert for a long time and eventually die of thirst and starvation.
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❖ Desert robbers who made their living by stealing from trade caravans subjected traders to attacks. In
the process, traders lost their lives and goods. This discouraged traders from participating effectively
in the trade.
❖ The extreme climatic conditions were unfavorable to traders. The heat and high temperatures during
the day and every low temperature at night due to the absence of cloud cover discouraged traders.
❖ Traders faced the danger of highly poisonous desert creatures whose bites could result in death. These
included snakes and scorpions.
❖ Traders faced language difficulties. This hampered communication during trade. As such, “silent
trade” had to be used initially.
❖ The development of the Trans-Atlantic rout across the Atlantic Ocean to Europe: commodities like
ivory and slaves were transported quickly to the coast of West Africa from where they were
transported to Europe. Thus, the trade routes shifted from the Saharan desert to the Atlantic. Instead
of the direct route to the North, they went via the coast of West Africa.
❖ Commodities obtained from Western Sudan such as salt and gold faced competition from similar
goods from other America cheaply. As result, the volume of Trans-Saharan trade decreased because
Western Sudan could no longer claim a monopoly in production of certain commodities like salt and
gold. In addition, gold from Zimbabwe via Sofala port by the Portuguese ended up in Europe.
❖ The abolition of slave trade contributed to the decline of the Trans-Saharan trade. Slaves were the
main item of trade. When slave trade was abolished, trade started to decline.
❖ Shortage of water also led to the decline in trade. The oases in the Saharan desert provided water
seasonally but they sometimes dried up. This made it difficult for the traders to cross the Saharan
desert.
❖ Wars: The war in Morocco and the one between Christians and Muslims disrupted the smooth
running of the trade. The Moroccan invasion of western Sudan in 1591 AD disturbed the growth of
the trade by taking gold at Wangara.
Finally, the Trans-Saharan trade collapsed in the 16th century. From this period onwards, West Africa
witnessed the expansion of European occupation on the coast of West Africa.
TOPIC 4:
DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SYSTEM
Before the coming of colonialist Africans, they had their own social and political system of
administration, African administration system was interrupted after the interaction with colonialist in 19th
century. Therefore, in this topic we explain Development of social and political system of Africa.
THE CLAN ORGANIZATION. Clan was the organization, which involved combination of several
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related families with a common ancestor. Clan organization combined with both the matrilineal and
matrilineal societies. In the patrineal societies clan heritage was based on the father, in the matrilineal clan
heritage was based on the mother examples of this society were Mweras, Kambas and Kikuyus whom
others are patrineals. The main economic activity in the clan organization was agriculture. Clan is
controlled or ruled by the clan’s head. More examples of matrilineal societies; The Ngindo, Zaramo,
Makua and Matumbi.
DUTIES OR FUNCTIONS OF THE CLAN HEAD

1. To distribute land to the communities or clan members.
2. To preserve traditions and customs of the clan.
3. To preserve land belonging to the clan.
4. To settle disputes and quarrels.
5. To find wives for boys and husbands for girls.
Types of clan organizations in agricultural societies.

There are two types of clan organizations in agricultural societies; Matrilineal and Matrilineal
Matrilineal clan organization: This is a society where by the husband moved to the wife’s family and
children of the new family belonged to the mother’s (wife’s clan). As a result, clan heritage was based on
the mother’s clan. Uncles have to make all the important decisions concerning the children and the
nephews of their sisters. Matrilineal age in Africa was practiced among the Makonde, Makua, Mwera, the
Yao of Tanzania, and the Kamba of Kenya.
Matrilineal clan organization societies: This is the system of organization in which the clan heritage
was based on the father’s line and all children bared the name of the father. The husband had to pay
substantial bride price in different forms such as cattle, goats, etc in order to get the wife, the bride price
could be stored as wealth, in this system all the children of the new family belonged to the father’s clan.
By the 18th and 19th century clan system changed to chief train, ship after several came to be controlled
under one leader.
AGE SET ORGANIZATION. This kind of socio-political organization based on age and sex. In order
for one to fit in the society one was required to fulfill certain obligations. Often the main productive
activity was based on the harsh environments. Such as arid grass land and semi arid, in these areas poor
soil could not support agriculture economy but vegetation could be used for animal husbandry.
Age set organization was the determinant form of organization in pastoral societies. The best examples of
these societies were the Maasai, Nyakyusa of East Africa, Hausa in West Africa and the Khoi Khoi of
South Africa.
The division of responsibilities and duties was based on age and sex and was usually done during
intuition ceremonies. Youth were taught special responsibilities. Age set covered a specific group of years
for example;
a) Children group aged 0-8years were regarded as non-producers group. They were not directly
involved in production.
b) Youth group 8-18 years their main responsibility was to graze animals, trading young animals and
milking cattle they were assisted by women.
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c) Moran group (people between youth and adults aged between 35yers) and above these were soldiers
of the society and the main responsibilities of the Moran were as follows;
i. To protect the whole society as trained soldiers.
ii. To protect livestock against dangerous animals and raiders
iii. To increase the number of animals through raiding their neighbors
iv. To travel with their herds in search for water and pastures.
d) Laibons this is the group of elders aged 40years and above it consisted of elders who were divided in
groups namely; junior elders and senior elders.
Responsibilities of elders:
- To control livestock and all the properties on behalf of their communities.
- To enable norms and ethics to govern the society.
- They were top overseers of all the spiritual and political matters of the community.
- They were responsible for counseling other members of the society.
- To settle disputes among the society members.
- They were regarded as retired producers of the society but their ideas and skills were highly
appreciated.
STATE ORGANIZATION
State is a community occupying a certain given territory and living under full control of its government
and therefore it is independent form of external control. State in East Africa mostly started to emerge in
the 18th century AD due to the rapid spread of agricultural communities and improvement of science and
technology.
Clan which possessed a deliquate labor and land resources or had better skills of iron use became
dominant clan and leader of the community or village; they were respected and obeyed by other clan
members. Those who disagreed with them migrated to other lands. In this way leader of the dominant
clan assumed political and spiritual or ritual functions. Kings and queens were state leaders. Village heads
who were leaders of many clans in villages were under state of kings or queens also had their court to deal
with judicial matters.
GENERAL FACTORS FOR STATE FORMATION.

a) Conquest- some powerful states conquered the weaker societies and therefore making them strong
and expand. For example, Buganda conquered Bunyoro in the interlacustrine regions.
b) Trade-trade such as the Long distance trade enabled the society concerned to become strong and
powerful after acquiring commodities of different types including weapons which were used for
strengthening their societies. Buganda got guns from the East Coast to defend and expand. The
empire of the Mali, Ghana and Songhai got metal and hoes from North Africa to strengthen their
military.
c) Good climate and fertile soils (soil fertility) it led to the increase of food and assurance of feeding
which led to population increase, a factor that was very important for the state formation. For instance
heavy rainfall and fertile soil enabled production of more food and surplus in Buganda.
d) Good leadership- some African rulers were strong and ambitious to expand their empire so they
organized their people and got support from them for example: Kabanga of Buganda.
e) Availability of iron- iron promoted agricultural products and was used for making war weapons,
which in turn became most important for conquering other states.
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f) Migration-this was a complimentary factor it happened that some people migrated to other states and
brought with them new technology and skills which were used to expand and strengthen the new
societies concerned.
g) Size of the kingdom- kingdoms that were small such as Buganda and Ghana were easier to organize,
to administer effectively and to defend unlike the larger kingdoms like the Bunyoro; the effective
control was impossible.
THE WESTERN SUDANIC STATES
The early states in western Sudan were established in the region between the Sahara Desert and the forest
region of the South. The most notable states are/were Ghana, Mali, Songhai and Karnem Bornu.
GENERAL FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF WESTERN SUDANIC STATES

1. Good geographical location
2. Iron technology
3. The growth of population
4. Development of local industries
5. Taxation
6. Trans - Saharan Trade
7. Availability of valuable goods e.g. Gold
8. Good centralized government
9. Capable leaders
10. Strong Army
GHANA EMPIRE. During its rise, Ghana had two main towns, one occupied by Muslims and the other
by Pagans. The rulers and the people were Soninke speaking group. The word Ghana as the King title
emerged in 5th AD. The capital center of administration was Kumbisalehe.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE GHANA EMPIRE

1. Agricultural activities
2. Availability of valuable goods e. g gold
3. Trans – Saharan trade in gold and salt
4. Good leadership and efficient system of government.
5. Common language.
FACTORS FOR THE DECLINE OF GHANA EMPIRE

1. Almoravids‘ constant attacks
2. Disunity among people
3. Jihad wars
4. Lack of stable system of royal successions
5. The rise of rural kingdoms e.g. Mali
MALI EMPIRE. Early in the 3rd C Ghana fell apart as a result of the war between Samangwa the king
of Ghana and Prince Sundiata Keita the king of Kangaba. Ghana was defeated and Ghana fell Under
Sundiata’s rule. Sundiata formed a large kingdom known as Mali the capital was Niami and the title of
the rulers was Mansa.
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FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE MALI EMPIRE
1. The fall of Ghana empire
2. Control of gold fields of Bure
3. Strong army
5. Trans – Saharan trade
6. Strong leadership of Sundiata Keita and later Mansa Kan Kan Musa
7. Islamic faith which promoted libraries and Islamic universities
8. Political system in Mali
DECLINE OF THE MALI EMPIRE

1. Weak leadership after the death of Mansa Mahmud IV
2. Empire became too large to control
3. Lack of unity and the empire was divided into three spheres of influence and they fought against
each other.
4. Attacks by Tuaregs
5. Civil wars
6. The rise of Songhai empire
SONGHAI EMPIRE. In the late 15th Century the Songhai Empire originally the Gao, conquered
neighboring states under the leadership of Sunni Ali and formed the large empire of Songhai. Gao became
its capital earlier on around the 11th C and remained the capital under the empire. Its famous leaders were
Sunni Ali, Askia Mohamed and Askia Daud.
FACTORS FOR THE GROWTH OF SONGHAI EMPIRE

2. Strong army
3. Trans – Sahara trade
4. Good administration
5. Taxation
6. Islamic faith
DECLINE OF SONGHAI EMPIRE
1. Weak leadership after the death of Askia Daud
2. The Moroccan invasion
3. The empire was too large to control
4. Religious hostility between Islamic and traditional beliefs
5. The shift in orientation of trade towards the Atlantic following the introduction of the Trans-
Atlantic Slave Trade.
FOREST STATES
THE BENIN EMPIRE. Benin Empire was a very small state with the Edo speaking people.
The highest authority at the time where chiefs known as Ogiso which meant the ‘Kings of the
Sky’ and the administrative centre was Ubinu. Between 1388 – 1431, there was a series of civil
wars, which badly divided the Edo. After the death of the last Ogiso, his son Prince Ekaladerhan
left for exile and established himself in Ile-Ife, so when the Edo people requested his return, he
sent his son instead, Prince Oranmiyan who took up the throne.
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EXPANSION INTO CITY-STATE EMPIRE
By 15th C, the empire expanded into a city-state under the leadership of Oba Ewuare the Great
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE BENIN EMPIRE
1. Some of capable rulers the greatest of those was Aware

2. Good centralized system of government
3. Trade
4. Unity
5. Development of Handicraft Industry
DECLINE OF THE BENIN EMPIRE
• Introduction of Slave trade

• Trans- Atlantic trade
• Firearms that were introduced through the European trade caused tribal wars that led to
the final decline of the Benin Empire.
THE EMPIRE OF OYO. Oyo Empire began in the late 14th C or early 15th C likely 1388 –
1431. The people of Oyo were Oranmiyan, their capital was Oyo-Ile and the King of Oyo was
called Alafin. The Bashoran was the leader of the army.
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE OYO EMPIRE
1. It had organized political system headed by a number of great Alafins

2. Strong organized army
5. Slave trade
6. Dahomey tributary
DECLINE OF THE OYO EMPIRE
1. Conflict between Alafin and Basharon

2. Conquest from the Fulani and Dahomey
3. Civil wars
4. Disunity
DAHOMEY EMPIRE. Dahomey rose after the decline of Oyo in the 19thC. It was founded by
the Fon people. It had good leaders such as King Agaja and Houegbadja who built the Royal
Palaces of Abomey.
THE RISE OF THE DAHOMEY EMPIRE IN THE 18th C
1. Growth of centralized and powerful monarchy
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2. Boyul succession system was effective
3. Strong army
4. Good leadership of King Gezo and later Aguja
5. Control of Slave trade
DECLINE OF DAHOMEY
Dahomey declined after the arrival of the French.
ASANTE EMPIRE. Asante or Ashanti Empire was founded as a result of the emergence of
several cities in the region of Kumasi.
The people of Asante were Akan ruled by the Oyuko clan. The King was Obiri Yeboa who was
Osei Tutu. The capital city of Asante or Ashanti was Kumasi. The symbol of Asante union was a
Golden stool. The ruler of Asante was known as Asantehene.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF ASANTE
3. Some of its capable rulers e.g. Osei Tutu
4. Well organized political system
5. Trade
DECLINE - The state declined after the arrival of Europeans.
CENTRALIZED STATES OF CENTRAL AFRICA
Example: Kongo empire, it was founded in the 14th C. The head of the kingdom took the title of
Manikongo or Mwekongo means lord of Kongo. The capital was Mbaza, which the Portuguese
later baptized Sutrador.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF KONGO EMPIRE
1. Technological development e.g. Iron technology

2. Trade
3. Taxation
5. Emergence of traditional leaders with a strong belief in spiritual and magic power
DECLINE OF THE CONGO EMPIRE
• The arrival of the Portuguese

• Slave trade
• Weak leadership after Manikongo Nzinga Nkuwu who acquired up an Embassy in
Portugal. His son Nzinga Mbemba was baptized as Afonso I in 1491. He was a puppet of
the Portuguese and caused civil war in Kongo.
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MWENEMUTAPA KINGDOM. This Kingdom was created under the leadership of Mutola.
Mutola conquered Tongu and Torura of the Zambezi valley. He acquired the title of
Mwenemutapa, which means ‘Master of the conquered lands’. He was a political, military and
religious leader. Mutola died in 1450 and his son Matope inherited, after Matope’s death in 1480
Changamire took over in 1490.
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF MWENEMUTAPA

2. Good leadership of Mutola
3. Availability of valuable goods e.g. copper, iron and gold
4. They controlled trade routes
5. Trading centers
REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF MWENEMUTAPA
1. The arrival of Portuguese who monopolized the gold trade

2. The kingdom became divided into two parts Mutapa and Ruzwi
3. Rebellion from local people
After the death of Matope, his son Nyahuma took over. He was younger than the other Chief so
that Chief rebelled and caused civil war.
THE LUBA STATE. This state is found between the tributaries of river Kongo. The Songiye
people migrated from Katanga led by a leader from the Kangolo clan. The united Kaniok and
from Luba kingdom, Ilungambila married into the Kangolo clan. This intermarriage gave the rise
of Luba lineage of Kalala Ilunga, the founder of Munza as capital of Luba.
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE LUBA STATE

1. Centralized system of Administration where the kingdom had final say in wars and external
trade
2. The development of trade
3. Agricultural Activities
4. The presence of iron technology
THE LUNDA STATE. The centre of the empire lay in the Valley of Nkala River. The Luba
kings took the title of Mwanta. It began as a simple village and their first ruler was called
Mwantagaand. Ilunga Tshibinda who came from Luba married a princess from the area and their
son became the first paramount ruler of the Lunda State.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF LUNDA STATE
1. Iron technology
3. Agriculture activities
4. Good leadership
5. Trade.
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The empire declined after the arrival of Europeans.
END OF FORM ONE TOPICS

WELCOME FOR FORM TWO TOPICS
TOPIC 1:
INTERACTION AMONG THE PEOPLE OF AFRICA
INTERACTION was the way in which people from a given community came into contact with another
community. or
INTERACTION was a state in which people from one community got into contact with one another.
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The contacts among African people resulted from their various struggles to meet their daily requirements
and further social and economic development. Before colonialism, African communities had social and
economic interactions.
A) SOCIAL INTERACTION:
Social interaction took place through migration, religion, war, music, medicine and marriage.
1. MIGRATION. East Africa belongs to four main language groups namely the Khoisan, the Cushites, the
Nilotes and the Bantu. Historical evidences show that the earliest inhabitants of East Africa were of Khoisan
origin. Their speech is described as had “click” sound. It was similar to the language of present day
KhoiKhoi and San of South Africa. They were nomadic hunters and gathers. These early large groups
interacted with the larger Cushites, Bantu and the Nilotes communities that began settling in East Africa
from the first century A.D. The remnants of them include Sandawe and Hadzabe of Tanzania and the Okiek
(Dorobo) of Kenya. The origin home kind of the Nilotes was in the Nile valley in Sudan. Some Bantu
communities of East Africa included Nyamwezi, Sukuma, Chagga and Pare of Tanzania, kikuyu, Kamba.
Luhya of Kenya and Buganda, Basoga and Banyoro of Uganda. Through interaction of one community
practiced medicine interacted with another led to some changes such as introduction of iron technology in
East Africa.
2. RELIGION. Religion played a crucial role in all African societies. Religious beliefs were taken seriously
and affected every phase of life. There was a variety of religious activities in pre-colonial Africa. These
included burial rites purifications, rituals naming of ceremonies and prayers to bless soldiers before they
went to war. Religious activities took place at different levels such as family level, clan level and
community level e.g. The Bushmen of Congo held prayers before going to hunt, as they believed that God
was the source of all food. Among the Asante people of West Africa, the king of Asante (Asantehene) based
his right to office on the possession of the Royal or Golden stool, Asantehene was regarded as the chief
priest. Natural cults also existed in many parts of Africa. Their main aim was to please the spirits and
legendary heroes e.g. the juju practiced in Western Africa the Shona held a cult called Mwani. The king of
Shona (Mwanamtapa) was regarded as decline.
3. WARS. African communities engaged in war from time to time; they fought with various reasons such
as to increase the number of the herds of livestock, to get fertile land for agriculture purposes and
expansion of the kingdom e.g. Buganda conquered Buddu, Karagwe and Busoga to expand their kingdom
by 1839. Egyptian army had established their base at Gondokora the area located around Southern
Khartoum and by 1869, Egyptian had raided and destroyed the Lango and Ancholi religion in the modern
day Uganda.
4. MUSIC AND DANCES. African music and dances brought people together; communities’ rites and
ceremonies were accompanied by songs and dances. Every African society developed songs for work,
Laborers sang while clearing fields, sowing and harvesting goods example of dances were Mdundiko
among the Zaramo and Sindimba of Makonde. The Yomba of West Africa performed Orik music where by
other songs praised or condemned certain characteristics including leadership and relation with neighbors.
Dance were also performed for different purposes; some dance were open to everyone while others
restricted to a certain secret society professional and artisans example Chagga men and women performed
a dance called Rring during wedding ceremonies and Luguru led their dance called Gubi.
5. MEDICINE. Africans had medicine men and women who played important role both spiritually and
medically. Those who practice medicine interacted with many members of the society as patient visited
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some of the well-known medicine men and women. Some medicine men and women were also political
advisors and leaders example KinjekitileNgwale of Southern Tanzania most of the medicine were extracted
from plant roots, barks and leaves e.g. The (name tree) Mwarobaini is mostly used by various medicine in
Matebele.
6. MARRIAGE. Marriage occupies a position of great importance in African communities. Every

member of the society jugs to build their own family. In Buganda, the Kabaka married from different
clans in order to enhance political unity in the kingdom. Therefore, social interactions strengthened
through marriage. At the same time, marriage led to emergence of new culture examples Swahili culture
as the result of mixture of Bantu and Arab culture.
B) ECONOMIC INTERACTION
Africa communities also interacted due to economic factors such as crafts, trade, farming and pastoralism.
1. METAL WORKING. African communities used various kinds of metal to make tools, weapons, utensil
and ornaments; some of the widely used metals were iron, Bronze, Gold, Copper and tin. Archaeologists
have discovered the remains of early in working beneath important religious shrine in the Great lakes
religion dating back over 2,000 years ago. Egyptians were the first people known to have used copper;
Benin the Bronze casters had guild called IgunEronwon through making various metal tools people
interacted due to the need of the commodities through interactions.
2. AGRICULTURE. Many Africans communities practiced agriculture and different types of interaction
took place in the process. Apart from few communities such as the pastoral Maasai who never tilled land;
other communities cultivated a variety of crops by using different farming methods, tools and crops were
passed from one community to another. The Kwari who were purely pastoral community eventually became
cultivators as the results they interacted with agricultural societies.
3. FISHING. Was an economic activity that was practiced by communities that lived near water bodies
such as lakes, rivers and the seas. The Luo were and still are named fishermen in Pre-colonial East
Africa the Ndengereko's fished in the river Rufiji while the Zaramo and other coastal people in the
Indian Ocean, such fishing communities interacted with pastoral and agriculturalist so as to acquire
animal product and agricultural commodities.
5. TRADE. Trade conducted in pre–colonial period was in barter system, the trade network was based
on the need to access what a community did not produce; Example pastoralists exchanged their
animals’ products for vegetable and grains. The limbo clans among the Luo specialized in occupation
such as iron working and pottery. Between 8th– 16thC. AD community from the Sudanic belt engaged
in trade with the communities from North Africa in the Trans – Sahara trade. Among the most
important commodities of exchange were iron, gold, slaves and salts.
6. THE NEED TO SEARCH NEW AREAS. Areas with fertile land and reliable rainfall were very
attractive to the people within the regions or those coming from outside the regions. Agricultural
societies kept on shifting from the area with infertile soil to areas with fertile soil; examples in the
interlacustrine regions were densely populated compared to areas like Central Tanzania and Northern
part of Kenya where population was low.
IMPACTS /RESULTS /EFFECTS/CONSEQUENCES/ OUTCOMES OF THE INTERACTIONS.
A: SOCIAL IMPACTS OF INTERACTIONS AMONG THE PEOPLE OF AFRICA.

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1. Loss of originality: in the process of migrations and trade interactions people moved from one place of
their origin to various destinations, through this interaction probably there was interactions of new values,
customs and beliefs.
2. Emergence of new language. As people of different languages like Bantu, Nilotes and Khoisan meet
with other groups; they developed new languages, which were based on those new related groups of Swahili
language developed in East Africa having most of the Bantu vocabularies.
3. Inter marriage. When people moved from their original areas and established settlement in new areas,
they got married with the natures and established new social relations. These involved social conflicts since
people were united together.
4. Population increased. The places, which were attractive for people’s settlements, become highly
populated. Those regions immigration was common than emigration.
B: THE ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF INTERACTIONS.
1. Growth of towns and cities. Trading activities stimulated the emergence of urban centers along the trade
natures and centers. Areas that produced trade commodities in West, North and East Africa become
remarkable urban center; example Taghaza, Timbuktu, Gao, Kumbisaleh in West Africa, Alex and Rial in
Tripoli and Cairo in north Africa, Malindi, Mombasa. Bagamoyo, Zanzibar, Tabora and Ujiji in East Africa.
2. Exposure of Africa to the external world. The African coast and interior areas were invalided to the
outside world. People were engaged in trading activities and slowly they created trading contacts with the
Europeans. African was producing goods that were observed by the outside world.
3. Intensification of agricultural production. Due to good manufacturing and use of better tools and high
demands of foodstuffs, cash crops and animals products became very important among Africans.
4. Development of technical skills and new areas. Trading activities stimulated the emergency and growth
of technical skills. Africans were able to process gold, iron smelting and cloth making.
5. Over exploitation of African resources. Trade items such as ivory, gold, copper and animals skins,
supplied within African and later to outside world. Later on those resources were highly demanded by the
outside world like Asia and Europe. Therefore, traders take them to outside world of large quantities.
6. The decrease of work force. Many people in the Western Sudan and East Africa interior were captured
as slaves to meet the high demands of slaves by long distance and Trans-Saharan trade.
7. Emergence of classes: The interactions of people on Africa resulted into classes of rich and poor; those
who engaged in trade and agricultural activities became economically powerful than those who did not
engage in these activities.
THE COMING OF THE NGONI

Who were the Ngoni?
The Ngoni were Bantu-Nguni speaking people of Northern Zululand in South East Africa. They were
originally Ndwandwe people under Zwide’s leadership. But when Shaka defeated Zwide, one part of his
group in 1840s moved to East Africa into two groups of the Maseko and Tuta under Zwangendaba. They
moved to Tanzania from Natal and Swaziland between 1840s due to “Mfecane” (time of trouble). They
are currently settled in southwest Tanzania around Songea town.
MOVEMENT AND SETTLEMENT OF THE NGONI TO EAST AFRICA
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They began their movement from South-East Africa in Northern Zulu land under the leadership of
Zwangendaba in 1820. The Ngoni migration took place in the 19th century, and was the last major
movement of Bantu people into East Africa
There were three groups of the Ngoni in East Africa as:-

(i) The Ngoni Tuta (ii) The Ngoni Ngwangara (iii) The Ngoni Maseko
They then crossed river Zambezi and river Limpopo and moved northwards in search of new land. Later in
1835, they divided into two groups. The one group under the leadership of Zwangendaba passed west of
Lake Malawi and settled at Ufipa in 1840. They were attracted to this area here because of the many herds
of cattle around.
Zwangendaba led the biggest Ngoni group that entered in East Africa. They crossed the Zambezi River,
moved through Malawi and Zambia until they reached the fipa plateau in around 1840’s. Zwangendaba
died here in around 1845, and his followers splint up into five sections.
Three sections returned south to Zambia and Malawi while the other two such as Tuta and Gwangara
sections remained at ufipa. Another group under the leadership of Induna Maputo (Maseko Ngoni) passed
East of Lake Malawi and settled at Songea. When Zwangendaba died around 1845, the Ufipa Ngoni
disagreed and split into five groups. Whereby the two groups remained in East Africa such as Tuta and
Gwangara Ngoni, three groups moved out of East Africa that is to say, one group moved to Malawi and the
two moved back to Zambia.
The Tuta Ngoni, the smallest group left in Ufipa, moved northwards fighting and crashing with the
Holoholo near Lake Tanganyika, they disrupted the trade route between Tabora and Ujiji. In the1850s, they
invaded the Nyamwezi capturing many and incorporating them in their ranks. They finally settled at
Kahama South of Lake Victoria. The Gwangara Ngoni under the leadership of Zulugama moved eastwards
to Songea where they met the Maseko Ngoni. The two groups fought and the Maseko Ngoni were defeated
and pushed out of Songea in 1860’s.
Some Maseko moved back to Mozambique while others moved to Kilombero valley where they became
known as the Mbunga. Another splinter group moved to Newala, Masasi and Tunduru. From Songea the
Ngoni raided widely, finally settling southern Tanzania among the Bena, Hehe and Sangu. The Ngoni
migration, which started around 1820s, had ended by the year 1860s.
CAUSES OF THE NGONI MIGRATIONS.
1. The mfecane war. This was the period of political instability and upheavals in South Africa, which led
to the creation of political alliances among the displaced communities. It covered the period 1820 – 1834
which referred as war of crushing the people.
The war was narrated by the Ngoni as Ufuaru that meant the crushing and it was named as Difaune. As a
result of this contradiction wide warrior divided into two groups one was Under shoshangane created Gaza
Empire in Mozambique and Zwangendaba migrated northern wards through central Africa into present day
Tanzania.- One group under MputaMaseko crossed Zambezi River and passed to Eastern side of Lake
Malawi (Nyasa) finally settled in present day Songea district.
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- Zwangedaba lead another groups reached and settled in Ufipa, and in the areas of Lake Nyasa in
1840.Hence Zwangedaba died in 1845.
- The Ndebele under mzirikazi found their settlement in present day Zimbabwe.
- The Kololo under Swebatwane migrated north and built Lozi kingdom a centralized state.
- The Ngoni people were predominantly agriculturalists and pastoralists; in order to protect their traditional
way of life they decided to move northwards to central and Eastern Africa.
2. Boer expansion. Since the Ngoni’s economy depend much on land they wanted to expand southwards
but due to presence of Boers it become difficult to them as they could not extend to west because Kens rub
mountain or to East because of Indian Ocean hence they involved north wards.
3. Dictatorial rule of Shaka: The Zulu ruler was cruel in nature as he severely tortured people and those
who failed to respond to his order were killed. Due to this, some people decided to seek refuge by migrating
to other areas.
4. Overpopulation: This was caused by the fertility of soils and the reliability of rainfall between
Drakensberg Mountains and the Indian Ocean.
5. Pastoralism reason: Some Ngoni people owned large herds of cattle and northwards looking for pasture
and water for their animals. Therefore, they wanted to look for more fertile land for their cattle. They also
experienced famine and drought that led to lack of food and water.
5. The influence of their leaders: Men like Zwangendaba, Maputo and Zulugama provided good
leadership. This encouraged them to move onwards.
6. Overstocking: It could also have been due to overstocking of their animals as they were having spirit of
cattle rustling, i.e. they had great desire to steal -other people’s cattle. For example, they went on driving
away and confiscating other people’s cattle duri--ng their conquest and expansionist wars.
7. Increased knowledge of military tactics by the age regiments: These were powerful military forces
and dedicated to professional war, which was their livelihood. They believed that they could have other
territories through migration.
EFFECTS OF NGONI INVASION OR MIGRATION IN EAST AFRICA
POSITIVE EFFECTS
(i) Ngoni migration accelerated state formation in East Africa. The invasion gave rise to the formation
of bigger political units for defensive purposes. Some societies re-organized themselves after the Ngoni
invasion, forming strong armies reforms to strengthen their societies so as to resist their invasion. For
example, Hehe and the Segu.
(ii) The Ngoni invasion led to the rise on outstanding leaders to prominence. These included Mirambo,
NyunguyaMawe and Mkwawa, who used the Ngoni military tactics to build their states.
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(iii) Introduction of new culture. However, there was spread of Ngoni customs and culture. They enriched
the cultures of the people of Southern Tanzania, for example, people copied Ngoni traditional dances and
annual festivities.
(iv) It led to the introduction of new weapons e.g. assegai, cowhides and shields.
(v) It led intermarriages between the Ngoni and the natives. There were intermarriages between Ngoni
and Nyamwezi, which subsequently led to improved relationships between the invaders and indigenous
people and an increased population.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
(i) It led the loss of lives; this leading to depopulation in some areas where they got warriors this was
especially in southern Tanzania. This was due to the killing of people in the expansionist wars e.g. the
Mariti remnants of Rugarugas killed so many people.
(ii) It led to displacement of some tribes from their original homeland. That means the natives of the
areas where Ngoni settled like the Yao were forced to settle in unfavorable areas.
(iii) It intensified slave trade in East Africa. Firstly, they themselves engaged in capturing people and
selling as slaves. Again, people running away from the Ngoni invaders were once captured by Arab slave
traders and sold off as slaves.
(iv) It led the destruction the of the east African people economy. In this case, the long distance trade
and even agriculture was disrupted. For example, since people were running away from the invaders, they
disrupted the normal farming, leading to famine. Then they grabbed the natives’ cattle. Furthermore, the
caravan routes from Bagamoyo to Ujiji and through Tabora were insecure.
(v) It led the destruction of property and villages. Ngoni were moving in large groups destroying crops
and other properties wherever they crossed. Villages that tried to resist were in most cases burnt down.
(vi) It led famine and hunger. There was widespread famine due to the scotched-earth policy of fighting
circumstances, crop could neither be planted nor harvested, and people were forced to abandon farming.
(vii) It led to increased warfare among the African societies, including those areas that had been peaceful
before.
TOPIC 2:
SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION IN PRE-

COLONIAL AFRICA SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Refers to the mode of production existing in a particular place at particular time. Modes of production
involve productive forces that are human labor, instrument of labor, economic activities and objects of labor
and production.
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MODES OF PRODUCTION: Is the relationship between production and productive forces including the
following; human labor, surplus production, instrument of labor, objective of labor and population.
HUMAN LABOR: Is the consciousness and purposeful activity of people to produce material wealth.
PRODUCTION: Is a major in the series of economic processes that brings goods and services to people. It
includes creation, distribution and consumption.
MEANS OF LABOUR: Are the things used in production such as hoes, machines, roads, buildings etc.
OBJECTIVE OF LABOUR: Are things upon which man’s labor is applied (mostly land).
PRODUCTIVE FORCES: Are means of production created by a society especially objects and instrument
of labor.
RELATION OF PRODUCTION: Are simple and direct relations which people enter to one another in
actual production process either exploitive or exploited class.
CLASS STRUGGLE: Are conflicts that developed between exploitative mode and non –exploitative
modes example capitalism and socialism.
TYPES OF SOCIAL ORGANISATION PRODUCTION
A: COMMUNALISM MODE OF PRODUCTION
This was the first mode of production to exist in pre-colonial African societies and is divided into two
namely.
1. Primitive communalism, the first mode of production through which all societies passed was primitive
communal ism. It is called "primitive‟ because of the low level of productive forces and "communalism‟
because there was no exploitation of man by man. This mode of production existed for much longer period
than any other mode as it ranged from the emergence of man more than one million years ago.
2. Advanced communalism, during that era man advanced in his tools through various discoveries like
iron tools. It is because of this technological advancement that is why it came to be known as advancement
communalism The nonproductive members of the society such as the elders, disabled and children were
exempted from work due to their disabilities.
The invention of agricultural tools encouraged man to cultivate bigger plots of land. Rapid increases in
population also encouraged people to increase their farms so as to get more food, which could feed the
growing population.
Some of African societies in the present days are still practicing communal mode of production. These
include;
The Tindiga and Hadzabe of Singida and Lake Manyara and Central Tanzania.
The Dorobo (Okiek) of Maumau forest and Tesoin Uganda.
The Mbali found in the equatorial rain forest of the Congo DRC.
The bushman (san) of South Africa.
The KhoiKhoi of Kalahari Desert of Botswana
The Tur of Ghana.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNAL ISM

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1. Absence of exploitation, there was no exploitation among the people in a community. All the able-
bodied members of the society worked hard and shared what they produced.
2. Low level of production, the level of productive forces were low hence none or very little surplus was
produced. The implements used in food procurement were crude and simple.
3. Dependence on nature, in communalism life was entirely dependent on nature therefore the
environment dictated how man lived.
4. Communal ownership, the communal ownership of properties was a major characteristic of

communalism. The major means of production like land, tools and minerals were owned by the community.
5. Hunting and gathering, this was the main occupation in these communities; people were grouped
together in collective groups known as hunting bands to facilitate this means of production. This later led
to the development of stock raising and agriculture then it brought the division of labor.
6. Subsistence economy, due to low level of development of science and technology people produced
enough food for their consumption.
7. Lack of specialization, Because of limitation of their science and technology (knowledge) these people
learnt to perform all types of jobs. They worked together in marking roots, hunting and looking for food
later on very simple division of labor based on gender occurred.
8. People in communal society treated each other equally, there was no standing army and ruling classes;
even elders were not lords or rulers.
9. Learning by doing, people in communal societies shared knowledge. This was acquired through learning
by doing, youth and children obtained knowledge and skills from their elders.
FACTORS FOR TRANSITION FROM PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM TO SLAVERY AND

FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION.
1. Neolithic revolution is the term for the first agricultural change describing the transition from nomadic,
hunting and gathering to permanent settlement. Neolithic revolution brought socioeconomic changes such
as establishment of permanent settlement, extension of division of labor based on age and sex, emergence
of specialization, surplus production and spread of diseases due to permanent settlement.
2. Advanced in science and technology, this turning point gave improvement in agricultural production.
The tools produced were sharper and stronger than the older ones. The improvement of tools led to the
expansion of socioeconomic activities beyond hunting and gathering.
3. The reliable rainfall and fertile land, Allowed the expansion of agriculture especially the cultivation
of permanent crops such as banana in Uganda.
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4. Population growth, by either natural increase through giving birth or artificial means through
immigration that was associated with transformation of the social organization and forming of strong
empire.
5. Development of permanent settlement, even with nomadic pastoralist or shifting cultivation the area
of operation became limited as the number of people increased due to the Neolithic revolution.
B: SLAVERY MODE OF PRODUCTION.
SLAVERY refers to a situation in a society where a person is owned by another purposely as an instrument
of production.
SLAVERY MODE OF PRODUCTION was the second mode of production and the first exploitative
mode of man by man. The emergence of surplus production created two different classes these were the
rich and the poor. Under slavery systems slaves could not acquire wealthy and could not cultivate own land.
Slavery in Africa existed in; Egypt where they constructed dams and pyramids.
Chagga, Haya, Ganda, Hehe. Kerewe and Sambaa in East Africa interior.
Along the coast of East Africa, slaves were used in carrying loads buildings, cities, constructing dams and
irrigation scheme. Slavery in Africa never existed as an institution except in Egypt Muslim communities
and on the coast of East Africa.
FEATURES OF SLAVE MODE OF PRODUCTION

1. Existence of two classes, that is the slave masters who were exploiters and the slaves who were exploited
group.
2. Private ownership of the major means of production. The slave masters owned slaves, cattle and all
implements of production.
3. Low productive force, under the slave mode of production the productive forces were still low though
more advanced compared to those used during communalism.
4. Existence of surplus production, there were extra products due to the use of advanced tools and
improved skills of man to control his environment. The slave masters owned surplus production produced
by slaves.
5. Existence of political institutions, these began to emerge and existed in various areas example slave
masters had state apparatus such as army, prisons and police which were employed in exploiting and
suppressing slaves.
6. Class struggle existed between slaves and slave masters, the slaves started to resist in form of strikes,
rebellions, idling and running away.
C: FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION (FEUDALISM)

The term feudalism originated from the Germany word “feud “which means fees. In this context fees
refer to payment of tax.
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Feudalism; was the third mode of production and second pre-capitalist mode of production based on
exploitation of man by man. The economy of feudal society was based on private ownership and renting of
land and livestock by the ruling classes.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FEUDALISM
1. Agriculture became the major economic activity: Following the discovery of iron technology
productive forces were improved drastically.
2. Payment of rent to the property owners; rent was paid in various forms.
Labor rent; existed in form of labor or service in which peasants (serf) were required to work for
three days in week for the property owners.
Rent in kind: The serfs regularly had to deliver the quantities of his products to the property
owners. The products could be in form of grain, cattle or vegetables.
Money rent: Was the system in which money used as a major means of paying rent.
3. Exploitation of man by man, example peasants (serf) were exploited by property owners and the
distribution of production was not equal.
4. Little freedom to peasant, peasants were tired due to various restrictions as they were treated as
children.
5. Private ownership of major means of production, such as land, mining sites, houses and cattle all
these belonged to feudal lords.
6. Division of labor, this based on age and sex where men specialized in military while women
specialized in farming and taking care of children.
7. Existence of classes, property owners as exploiters and serfs as exploited class.
8. Existence of strong political empires, example Bunyoro, Buganda and Karagwe. Feudalism in Africa
existed in various forms. Its nature depended on place in which it was practiced for instance societies that
exercised feudalism were those found in the inter lacustrine region of East Africa, South Africa, West Africa
and the North Eastern Africa
9. Improved productive forces: Especially tools applied in agriculture and military warfare, this was
brought about by iron technology. Generally, African kingdoms such as Buganda and some forest states of
West Africa, used means of production centered around either land or livestock-especially cattle-peasants
could use the land freely but they were required to pay rent.
FEUDAL RELATIONS/FORMS OF FEUDALISM
1. Nyarubanja system: In this form of feudalism the major means of production was land. Under
Nyarubanja system in Buhaya and Karagwe there was two classes, that is the Batwazi (ruler) and Batwana
(serfs). These two classes had to pay rent in kind and rent in labor services to the property owners.
In Buganda Nyarubanja system known as Mvunjo and Busulo, there were two classes that is Bataka (chiefs)
and the poor people who rendered labor service and paid of their products to the property owners known as
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Bakopi. Under the system labor services provider was known as Akasamvu and part of their products was
provided to the ruling class known as Obusulu. Bunyoro was the kingdom-practiced feudalism in East
Africa. The kingdom was divided into provinces known as Saza’s under chiefs.
In addition, there was caste system in East Africa under this feudal system there was two classes, which
were Bahima (pastoralists), and Bairu (agriculturalists). Bahima who were pastoralists dominated and
employed the Bairu who were agriculturalists. It was common in Rwanda, Burundi and Buhaya.
2. Umwinyi system: was another form of feudalism found along the coast of East Africa. Wamwinyi
controlled the productive forces such as land, serfs and tenants; also monopolized the political and
economic power. The serfs and tenants were given land by Wamwinyi (feudal lords) to live on them in
return of labor services and tributes which were paid to Wamwinyi. Before Arabs colonization, The
Mwinyimkuu was the greatest property owners and ruled Zanzibar with the help of Shehe in Unguja and
Diwani in Pemba.
3. Ubugabire system: was another form of feudalism practiced among the Tutsi and Hutu in Rwanda and
Burundi. The Tutsi (donor) also known as SEBUJA could transfer their cattle to the Ifutu (recipient) as
sometimes known as BUGABIRE. The Omugabire and his family were obliged to perform several duties
for the masters including house-building cultivating.
4. Ntemi system: This was practiced among the Nyamwezi and Sukuma. The power of ruler was based on
the control of land The Mtemi organized his people to open up new land wherever it was available. The
process of opening up new land was known asKutema.
MERITS OF FEUDALISM
(i) The rich supported the poor with food during drought and famine.
(ii) The weaker people in the society were protected by the king or the rich land owners. For example,
among the Rwandans, the Tutsi had an obligation to protect their tenants, the Hutu.
(iii) The landowners gave all poor people in the society a piece of land to cultivate.
(iv) The society was highly stratified, with each class of people knowing their position and role.
(v) There was peace in the state as the rich classes maintained law and order.
DEMERITS OF FEUDALISM
(i)The rich exploited labor force of the poor.
(ii) Only a few people in society owned land.
(iii) There was inequality in society between the rich and the poor.
(iv) The peasants were forced to undertake military duties and endanger their lives for their property owners.
(v) It encouraged inter-community warfare as property owners fought in order to increase their land and
vassals.
BASIC ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the term social organization and production
2. Identify the types of social organizations and production that existed in Africa up to the19th century
3. What is communalism mode of production?
4. Identify the characteristics of communalism
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5. Show examples of the societies that had communalism up to the 19th century
6. What is slavery and slave mode of production?
7. Explain the features of slavery in Africa.
8. Show areas where slavery was practiced in Africa.
9. What is feudalism as mode of production?
10. Explain the characteristics of feudalism.
11. Show societies in east Africa that had feudalism up to the 19th century.
12. Explain the feudal relation (forms of feudalism) that existed in the following areas. (i) Interlacustrine
region of Lake Victoria (ii) Indian Ocean coast of East Africa.
TOPIC 3:
AFRICA AND EXTERNAL WORLD
EARLY CONTACTS WITH MIDDLE EAST AND FAR EAST

Early contact was a period when East Africa began to interact with people from Middle East and Far East
as early as 200 BC. These contacts were mostly developed through commercial activities. The early visitors
were Persians, Syrians, Indians, Chinese, Lebanese, Burma and Arabians. The visitors managed to travel
to the coast of East Africa through the use of Sea Vessels with the help of South- Eastern monsoon winds.
Trade contacts between East African coast and the Far and Middle East intensified between 8 th and 10th
Century when many traders from China, Indonesia, India, and Arab came to trade to African countries.
Such commercial contacts are evident from Archaeological findings such as China porcelains, coins, and
foreigners tombs in areas like KilwaKisiwani and Old Bagamoyo. The Early contacts were facilitated
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through legitimate trade; the second phase of Contacts (from 10th century onwards) included slaves among
the commodities taken from East African coast.
MOTIVES/AIMS OF THE CONTACTS BETWEEN AFRICA, MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

SOCIAL MOTIVES
(i) Spreading of Islamic religion, Islam religion began in the Middle East in 7th AD from there it spread
to many parts of Asia. In addition, Arabs wanted to spread their religion to new parts of the world including
Africa.
(ii) Seeking refuge, some visitors who came to Africa experienced religion and political persecution in
their countries so they came in search of peacefully place to settle.
(iii) Establishment of settlement, some visitors decided to live permanently in Africa especially along the
coast and they built permanent stone houses in the Arabic style.
ECONOMIC MOTIVES
(i) Commercial exploration, some of the early visitors came to explore Africa and assess its resources.
They wanted to know the climatic conditions, mineral resources, wildlife and economic activities found on
the African continent. They plan to exploit resources available.
(ii) Trade, many of the early visitors were interested in products from Africa to take back to their home
countries.
GOODS EXCHANGED BETWEEN AFRICA, MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

Origin of Goods brought to Africa Goods taken from
Visitors Africa
Arabia Beaker, Iron pans, swords, glass ware, daggers, beads, Ivory, Gold, Slaves,
ornaments. tortoise shells, horns,
China Porcelains, bowl, plates, silk and clothes. copper, iron and
Persia Pots, glass bowls, swords and ornaments. coconut oil.
India Cotton cloth, metal spears, beads, swords and daggers.
Iron pans, bowls beakers and swords.
Syria
Stone pots and jars
Burma
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EFFECTS OF THE EARLY CONTACTS BETWEEN AFRICA AND MIDDLE AND FAR EAST
A: POSITIVE SOCIAL EFFECTS

(i) The rise of coastal city States, these states included Mogadishu, Zanzibar, Mombasa, Kilwa and Sofala,
they were once small unimportant coastal villages but they grew into cities due to settlement by foreigners.
(ii) Development of Swahili language, Swahili language and culture developed as a result of intermarriage
between the people of East Africa Coast towns. Swahili language consists of roughly 65% of Bantu words,
30% of Arabic words and other few Indian words. It provided a common language for the African and
Arabs on East Africa coast to use in trade.
(iii) Spread of Islam, Arabs and Persians who settled along the Coast of East Africa spread Islam along
the coastal state of East Africa. It also extended into the interior. Arabs built Mosque wherever they settled.
This was alongside with the introduction of Islamic laws in order to maintain justice and order and these
laws were taken from the Muslim Holy book (Quran) and they were administered by the Kadhi (Judge).
(iv) New Architectures designs, the Coastal city-states adopted new style of building. For example, the
Persian traders who settled along the coast introduced building using stone style similar to that found in
Persia. Evidence of buildings seen in Historical sites such as ruins of KilwaKisiwani and Zanzibar.
(v) Introduction of new style of dressing, the people of Africa adopted new style of dressing from the
foreigners. Examples those who converted the adopted the Islamic mode of dressing. This included the
buibui (a long black rib for women), kanzu (a long while ribe for men), vails for women and barghashia (a
small cap) for men.
(vi) Intermarriage, the foreigner intermarried with African, creating a new race of half-castes.
NEGATIVE SOCIAL EFFECTS

(vii) Cultural interference, this was experienced though interacting with foreigners and adopted their
customs. Some Africa forgets their traditional religion, language, mode of dressing and food. This interfered
African way of life.
(viii) Warfare and depopulation, Contacts brought slave trade between African and Arabs. The demand
of slaves caused warfare between African communities. The wars caused insecurity, loss of life,
depopulation and underemployment in many parts in Africa.
(ix) Social stratification, through trading with foreigners, some Africans acquired greatly wealth. This led
to the emergence of super rids class of people among the Africans. These people exercised a lot of power
and influence in the community. As result there was greatly stratification, with a big difference between the
have and have not.
B: POSITIVE ECONOMIC EFFECTS
(i) Introduction of new crops, new crops such as rice, wheat, cloves, sugarcane and orange were
introduced to the African continent from the Middle East and Far East. Their crops improved the diet of
African. In fact, some grew so well the many people adopted them as their stable foods. For example, rice
is a staple food among many people along the Coast of East Africa.
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(ii) Exposing Africa to the world, African contacts with the Middle and Far East exposed this continent
to the rest of the World. Visitors who came to Africa also travelled to other parts of the world. Africa
became involved in the world economy, African products such as Ivory, Gold, Leopard skin and copper
became popular and were sold all over the World and in turn African got access to products from outside
the world.
(iii) Introduction of money economy, Foreigners introduced the use of currency in trade. This was more
convenient and replaced barter trade as the method of exchange. Coins begun to be minted and used in the
East African city-states.
(iv) Introduction of new technology, People from the Far East and Middle East brought new technology
to Africa. For example, they introduced advanced navigation techniques and the art of keeping records by
writing. These things helped African along the Indian Ocean shoreline to travel further. Fishermen could
also sail into deeper, get larger catches and dhows, and still used in some fishing communities.
NEGATIVE ECONOMIC EFFECTS

(v) Unequal Exchange, Traders from the Far and Middle East traded with African using goods with
unequal values. They took goods of high value such as slaves, gold, ivory and animal skin in exchange of
low value items such as beads, cowrie shells and colored clothes. These commodities from Africa were
then sold at great profits in foreign markets; this means that the foreigners gained a lot of expenses of the
African.
(vi) Slave Trade, Oman Arabs introduced slave trade to East Africa. Sultan Seyyid Said introduced clove
plantations in Zanzibar and then got slaves to work in them. In additional they sold slaves to Europeans
who began sugar plantations in America.
(vii) Exploitation of African resources, due to high demand of African commodities in outside world
African resources were greatly exploited. For example, large number of elephants and rhinoceros were
killed for their horns and many strong young people were captured and sold as slaves. Therefore, this
contributed to reduction of African resources.
(viii) Decline of Local industries, the introduction of foreign goods led to the decline of African local
industries. Due to the availability of many varieties of clothes, utensils and other tools from abroad few
people bought local products so as a results local production also declined.
THE CONTACT BETWEEN AFRICA AND EUROPE
THE COMING OF PORTUGUESE

The Portuguese became interested in controlling the Indian Ocean trade in the 15 th century due to the
commercial capitalism in Europe. At the time, there was great demand for gold, silver silk and spices
especially among the kings and wealthy, people, gold and silver were used to make coins and expensive
ornaments.
At that time Portugal was a poor country with a small population, it was greatly overshadowed by its larger
neighbor Spain. At the beginning of 15th century Portugal had begun to exceed in one area; Navigation.
Portugal Price Henry the navigator set up a navigation school in the country and encouraged exploration
voyages. By sailing to Africa, the Portuguese hoped to control trade and enrich the country.
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In the 1470’s The Portuguese landed on the Gold coast of West Africa. They built a port which they called
Elmina. From this fort they controlled the gold trade between Africa and Europe.
In 1487,Bartholomew Diaz, a Portuguese explorer reached the Southern cape of Africa and called it the
Cape of Good Hope. On 1st March 1498, Vasco da Gama reached Malindi on the East African Coast.
The same year he arrived in Calicut, India and became the first European to sail directly from Europe to
India.
MOTIVES/AIMS OF THE CONTACT BETWEEN AFRICA AND THE PORTUGUESE
A: ECONOMIC MOTIVES
(i) Finding sea route to India, in the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks had occupied a large part of the
Middle East, blocking the overland trade route between India and Europe. Therefore, Europeans could not
get much valued silk, spices and Gold from Asia. The Portuguese came to Africa as they attempted to find
a sea route through which they could trade with India.
(ii) Trade, the Portuguese wanted to trade with Africans and replace the Arab middlemen who took African
goods to Europe. Portuguese traders got valuable items such as ivory, gold and gum from Africa and sold
them profitably in Europe. In exchange, they brought European cloth, copper and brass items to the
Africans. This trade helped to strengthen the Portuguese economy in the 15th century.
(iii) Creating Portuguese Trade Empire, Portugal wanted to dominate the trade between Asia, Africa and
Europe and creating a trading empire. To achieve this the Portuguese had to overcome the Arab traders who
dominated the trade. In addition, it was necessary to prevent other European nations from colonizing the
African coast because the world interferes with Portuguese trading interests.
(iv) Exploiting of African resources, Portugal was a poor country, so Portuguese were in search of
resources that could bring them wealth and recognition in Europe. Therefore, they established settlements
and plantations on the Islands of Sao tome and Principle and they used African labor to grow sugar cane
there. The produced products were exported to Europe and America.
(v) Establishment of strategic ports, along the East African coast there were many natural harbors that
could serve as stop over point for Portuguese ships. The sailors could rest and restock their supplies at those
harbors. Portuguese built forts at some of those harbor in order to protect their trade from Arabs and other
European competitors. For example, of such forts are Elmina Castle in Modern days Ghana and Fort Jesus
in Mombasa Kenya.
B: SOCIAL MOTIVES
(i) Adventure, Some Portuguese explorers visited Africa in search of Adventure, through their advanced
ships building and Navigation skills enabled them to travel everywhere in search of new land to explore.
These voyages were supported by the leader in Portugal especially Prince Henry The navigator.
(ii) Spreading Christianity, The Portuguese felt that it was their duty to spread the Christian faith and
reduce the influence of Islam along the coast of Africa.
(iii) Search for the King Prester John, there was a rumors that this Christian King named Prester John
whose Kingdom was believed to be somewhere around Ethiopia in North East Africa. The Portuguese
wanted to find this King and form alliance with him against the Muslim.
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THE PORTUGUESE EXPLOITATION RESULTED INTO DISCOVERIES OF POTENTIAL
AREAS
The Portuguese established trade with societies found in the coastal areas. They also created central point
where ships could stop on the way to India. After establishing trade, the Portuguese obtained items such as
ivory, gold, copper and silver; they exchange them with cloth, guns, gunpowder etc.
By 15th C Portuguese succeeded to establish their rule in East Africa. After that the Portuguese built the
Fort Jesus in Mombasa which could strengthen their military power thus establishing the effective control
over the East Africa coastal areas.
1592 was the built of Fort Jesus.
1698 was the broke down of Fort Jesus.
1499 was the year when Vasco da Gama returned back to Portugal.
THE IMPACTS OF PORTUGUESE INVASION IN AFRICA

THE ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF PORTUGUESE
(a) Introduction of crops especially cash crops in Africa e.g. Sugarcane, yellow maize, cassava, rice,
pineapples, potatoes etc.
(b) Decline of trade; the trade between East Africa, Far East and Middle East was interrupted by the
Portuguese.
(c) Change of major trade routes.
(d) Exposed Africa to the external world.
(e) They built several forts, example; Fort Jesus in 1592 in Mombasa, Fort at Kilwa.
(f) They acted as the introducers of new arts to the indigenous of Africa continent.
SOCIAL IMPACTS OF PORTUGUESE

(a) Decline of cities and states.
(b) Growth of Swahili language. E.g. new Portuguese words i.e. Mvinyo from word Vincho, Meza Etc.
(c) Insecurity and loss of manpower.
THE REASONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF PORTUGUESE

1) They suffered from tropical disease like malaria.
2) The climate conditions of East African coast were unhealthy for the Portuguese.
3) Social, culture and religion differences i.e. Muslim against Christians.
4) Loss of trade due to Portuguese taxes and restrictions.
5) Harsh treatments and punishment practiced by Portuguese in their leadership.
6) Role played by Oman to the coastal city people. Hence that capture of fort Jesus marked the end of
Portuguese in East Africa around 1700.
THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE
SOUTH AFRICA BEFORE THE COMING OF EUROPEANS

The Earliest Inhabitants of South Africa were The San (Bushmen) and the Khoikhoi then followed by Bantu
people who inhabited South Africa.
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THE SAN: The San people were short and had light brown skin. They had click sound in their language.
They lived in highland areas of South Africa. Their main economic Activities were hunting and gathering.
They had permanent settlement and they lived in caves.
KHOIKHOI: The Khoikhoi resemble the San but they are taller, Khoikhoi means “men of men” in their
language. The San group helped the Khoikhoi to graze their animals. The frequent contact between San and
Khoikhoi as they referred to one group of Khoisan.
THE BANTU: These made up the largest group, this was the early inhabitants of South Africa. They
include the Iswana, Venda, Gueza, Zulu, Ndebele, Swazi, Shona, Xhosa and Ngoni. They lived a settled
life and grew crops such as maize, beans and pumpkins. They used iron tolls and produced enough food
which encouraged population growth. The surplus encouraged trade between the communities.
THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE

The Dutch or Boers came from Holland (Netherland) and firstly settled at the cape in Table Bay in April
1652 under the leadership of Jan Van Riebeek.
Dutch farmers called themselves - “BOERS”. When they settled at the cape they called themselves by the
name of Afrikaners that meant the “whites of Africa” who developed language known as Afrikaans.
Dutch had a company known as United Dutch East India company (UDEIC). The company had trade
with India and other Arabs in Asia. At the cape, they grew vegetables, fruits and kept animals such as
cattle.They had barter trade with Khoikhoi exchanging tobacco and alcohol for the cattle.
REASONS FOR DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE

1. The cape was a good place where ships could stop to be refueled.
2. The cape had a good climate to support settlement of the whites. (Temperate and cool climate).
3. The Dutch wanted to produce vegetable and fruits for the ships which sailed to India.
4. The cape could provide fresh water for the sailors.
5. The cape could be a base of projecting their ships on Atlantic and Indian Ocean.
6. The cape was a center for caring sick people.
THE EFFECTS/IMPACTS OF THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE
(i) Enslavement of African, Boers established large plantations, so they needed labors to work to their
fields so African were forced to provide their labor.
(ii) Displacement of the African communities, The Dutch displaced the native Africans from the fertile
areas and took their livestock by force.
(iii) Occurrence of social segregation, The Dutch thought that they are superior so they mistreated and
exploited the African and buying foundation for the Apartheid.
(iv) Expansion of European settlements, Dutch established settlement at the cape in 1685 and their
families increased to 150 families.
(v) Introduction of new culture, The Boers introduced the Dutch culture to South Africa that involved
their way of life which was totally different from that of African.
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(vi) Political structure of the Khoikhoi was destroyed.
(vii) Dutch raided cattle from the Khoikhoi.
AFRICAN REACTIONS TO THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT
THE SAN: They resisted Dutch settlement by raiding the Boers cattle’s and Boers took revenge by the
hunting down the San in order to wipe them out so many san people were killed.
THE KHOIKHOI: The Boers occupied the traditional Khoikhoi grazing land so many Khoikhoi were
enslaved and forced to work on Boers farms in 1659, The Khoikhoi declared war on the Dutch famers and
took the war then hundreds of cattle and sheep died.
THE BANTU: Bantu groups included the Zulu, Ndebele, Swazi, Ngoni, Tambu and Xhosa communities.
They cultivated variety of crops such as sugarcane, melons, maize and beans. The level of production they
had reached enabled them to accumulate surplus and trade began to be conducted among them. The Boers
got the Great Fish River, they encountered the Xhosa who lived around that region. The Boers fought the
major wars against the Xhosa. The Xhosa called these war “Wars of possession” but the Boers called them
“Kaffir wars”.
THE KAFFIR WARS OR WARS OF DISPOSSESSION.

These were series of wars carried out by the Xhosa from 1779 against Boers – at the great fish river.
The first three wars were in 1779, 1789 and 1803.
The fourth (known as Ndhalambi) happened in 1812
The fifth (known as Makanda) in 1819.
The sixth in 1834.
The seventh in 1846>
The 8th (Malenjin – 1850 –1853)
The last resistance by the Xhosa (Mlakaza was an advisor to one of the Xhosa).
The Battle of Vegkop of 19th October 1836.
Ndebele under Mzilikazi fought against the Boers in the Orange Free states.
The Battle of the Blood River on 11th February, 1837.
ZULU UNDER Dingane fought against Boer settlement in natal.
Anglo Zulu war.
Zulu under Cetshowayo fought strongly and defeated the British at the Battle of Island lwana.
But later the British suppressed the Zulu during the battle of Ulundi 4th July, 1879.
MFECANE MOVEMENTS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

The word ‘Mfecane’ originated from zulu word which means ‘crushing’. Mfecane was the period of wide
spreading warfare, plundering, disturbances, destruction and migrations among the southern African tribes
dominated the first half of nineteenth century. This was the period of serious upheaval among the Bantu-
speaking groups in southern Africa, the period when emerging small chiefdoms were waging expansionism
wars among themselves. This was in the high area which lies between the Drakensberg Mountains, Kalahari
Desert and the Limpopo River. By the late eighteenth century, and early nineteenth century, the Ndwandwe,
Mthethwa, and Ngwane were emerging as powerful kingdoms south of the Highveld. The powerful
chiefdoms with chiefs ambitious to expand their possessions began the conquest and assimilation of
neighboring groups. The all turmoil commenced around 1810’s when Zwide of Ndwande andSobhuza of
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Ngwane fought over land along the Pongola River and Sobhuza was defeated after which he led his people
further inland to the area that is known as Swaziland today. After defeating Sobhuza, Zwide came into
conflict with Dingiswayo of Mthethwa over other resources like land and water. Both kingdoms became
more centralized and militarized. The Zulu were still a small group among the Mthethwa by this time. The
Ndwandwe appeared victorious again in 1818, Dingiswayo was killed, and his forces scattered. Shaka who
was previously a warrior in the Dingiswayo’s army, had already ascended the chief of the Zulu under full
support of Dingiswayo upon the death of Senzangakona his father in 1816. As the Mthethwa nation fell
apart after Dingiswayo's death Shaka who became ambitious to create new strong kingdom, used the
opportunity to defeat all the chiefdoms in the area. Zwiderealised that Shaka could become a threat and
decided to stop him, thus became the Shaka’s great enemy, but was defeated in 1818 by the Zulu’s superior
strategy and disciplined army. In 1926, under Zwide’s successor Sikhunyani , they challenged the Zulu
forces again and were completely destroyed. Nguni speaking people, the Ndebele and many other tribes not
ready to be ruled by Shaka emigrated. Thus Zulu became very vast strong kingdom in southern Africa. This
period between 1810’s-1850’s is what is known as the period of Mfecane.
CAUSES OR REASONS OF MFECANE

(i) Population pressure, Zulu land is part of the Eastern corridor of South Africa between the Drakensburg
Mountains and the Indian Ocean. Due to the favorable climate and absence of diseases such as malaria, its
population tended to increase rapidly. As the population increased conflicts between those societies became
common and intensified leading to the Mfecane.
(ii) Shortage of land, the people who occupied Zulu land were farmers, but the existing land was not
enough due to population pressure, therefore the search for more land caused conflicts that later contributed
to the outbreak of the Mfecane.
(iii) The role of Shaka, Shaka pursued an aggressive and expansionist policy to expand his Kingdom, Zulu
state. He attacked many states in the attempt of expanding his state, this action created conflicts that
contributed to the outbreak of the Mfecane.
(iv) Expansion of cape whites, there was the great desire by whites at the capes to expand in the interior
in order to acquire more land. Therefore, the expansion of whites in cape worsened the shortage of land and
thus crushes among the tribes in the interior.
(v) The control of trade at delagoa bay, trade in ivory with the Portuguese in Delagoa Bay was another
factor provoked conflicts among them. Because of the desire to control trade some Nguni tribes began to
attack others in order to control and acquire more tribute.
(vi) The coming of the Boers, during the Boer Trek, the Boers left Cape Town away from British control
and moved into the interior of South Africa, the penetration of the Boers into the interior of South Africa
intensified the pressure on land which led to conflicts that caused the Mfecane.
EFFECTS OF MFECANE
(i) It led to the loss of thousands of lives, as it was the warfare and crushes among the people, many chiefs
and common people lost their lives in the course of fighting.
(ii) It caused depopulation in many communities, thousands more were uprooted from their homes and
were forced to travel great distances. Example of these were Ngoni and Ndebele.
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(iii) Destruction of properties, refugees moving in larger groups fleeing Shaka’s army caused destruction
in many areas they passed through.
(iv) Emergence of any new kingdoms, many migrating tribes went to establish strong states where they
settled. For example, Zulu empire emerged as a very strong political entity with very wide range expansion
base.
(v) It led to the decline of many central and east African kingdoms, those kingdoms which could not
stand against the military strength of the tribes from the south declined. Example of those kingdoms that
were destroyed partly due to Nguni invasions were the Lozi, RozwiandTumbu.
(vi) Famine and hunger, although the mfecane in many ways promoted the political development of
southern Africa, it also caused great suffering. Thousands died because of famine.
(vii) It led to the more European penetration into the interior,As many areas became depopulated, made
it very easy for the Dutch famers (Boers) to easily take over the place when they were looking for new
lands to establish homes. Great numbers of people were displaced and frightened communities left their
own areas in places like the Orange Free State, Natal and the Transvaal occupied by whites.
EAST AFRICA UNDER OMAN’S RULE 1840.

The Oman Arabs helped East Africans to defeat Portuguese along the coastal in 1698. Oman now became
rulers. Therefore, people of East Africa were not free apart from defeating the Portuguese.
In 1741, Mombasa established her independence chief domain under Mazrui family; this was an order from
Arabs family of Oman in origin the Mazrui family was conquered by Sultan Seyyid Said of Oman. From
1840 onwards, Sultan Seyyid Said becomes the master of the East African coast.
MOTIVES/AIMS OF OMAN ARABS IN EAST AFRICA.

1) To have clear control/monopoly of trade existed at the coast especially Indian ocean trade.
2) They wanted to control all the city-states along the coast.
3) To stop the spread of Christianity led by Portuguese and maintaining Islamic culture.
WHY SULTAN SEYYID SAID SHIFTED HIS CAPITAL FROM MUSCAT OMAN TO
ZANZIBAR
The following were the factors for sultan Seyyid Said to shift his capital from Muscat Oman to Zanzibar in
1840.
1) Good climatic condition supported the settlement of Arabs.
2) Fertile soil for agricultural purpose especially clove and coconut products.
3) Deep natural harbor in Zanzibar for importation and exportation of goods.
4) Trade activities examples controlling the Indian Ocean trade.
5) Abundant fresh water for irrigation and soiling.
6) To avoid conflict in his home after killing his brother Iman said.
IMPACTS OF OMAN ARABS (SULTAN) DOMINATION IN EAST AFRICA.
A: ECONOMIC IMPACTS.
1. Increase of slave trade.
2. Land alienation.
3. East African people were exposed to international trade.
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4. The expansion of trade.
5. Introduction of new cash crops example; coconut and cloves.
6. Establishment of feudalism where African become serfs and tenants
7. Exploitation of African resources.
B: SOCIAL IMPACTS.
1. Death due to resistance against the Arabs
2. Spread of Swahili language.
3. Development of Swahili language. E.g. Addition of Arabic words like Sali, habari etc.
4. Spread of Islamic religion.
5. Slavery activities.
SLAVE TRADE IN INDIAN OCEAN SEA BOARD
Slave: Is the person who is illegally owned and controlled by another person and is forced to work for them.
Slavery: Is an act of owning and using slaves.
Slave trade: Is the activity of buying and selling human beings like other commodities.
Slave trade in East Africa began after the arrival of Portuguese in 15 th Century up to 1873 during the
SayyidBarghash treaty or free treaty.
Africa experienced two types of slave trade.
1. The Indian Ocean slave trade which was conducted by Asians.
2. The Trans-Atlantic Ocean slave trade conducted by European merchants.
1. THE INDIAN OCEAN SLAVE TRADE

Main peoples involved: Arab traders, European merchants, African chiefs e.g. Mirambo and
NyunguyaMawe, The Nyamwezi, The Kamba, The Yao, Buganda, Banyoro, Khartoumers.
The Nyamwezi: They were called Nyamwezi (people of the moon) because they came from the West
direction in which the new moon is first seen. Their involvement in slave trade was partly caused by the
demand for slaves in the interior. They dealt in ivory, copper, slaves and wax they wanted to acquire
commodities like glass, spices, clothes, mirrors, guns in exchange for slaves.
The Role of chief Mirambo

Mirambo was born around 1830 AD and spent part of his life as a captive of the Tuta Ngoni in Bugoma.
He organized a strong army of highly paid mercenaries (rugaruga) who were the basis of his power.
He established friendly relations with KabakaMutesa of Buganda with whom they trade in salt, slaves, iron
implements grains and livestock. He acquired guns from Arab and Swahili traders and this helped him
during his empire building process.
He controlled major trade routed in his territory by imposing taxes on traders passing through his area.
Between 1860-1870, Mirambo carried out extensive conquests
Vinza and Tongwe and recruited some abled men for his army and sold others in slavery.
Unfortunately, when Mirambo died in 1884, his empire also collapsed because it lacked a military leader
as powerful and courageous as him.
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The Role of NyunguYamawe: The name NyunguYamawe was a praise name meaning “Pot of stones”
Nyungu was a prince of the NyunguYembe ruling family but failed in 1865 after the Arabs had beheaded
the Chief Mnwasele.
After the Arabs had beheaded the chief of Nyunguyamawe was terrified and ran away in 1865 and
established himself at Kiwele south from where they systematically attacked and defeated the people of the
regions.
His society was strategically located such that he controlled all trading activities along the routes. From the
East African coast to Utipa, Tanganyika and other trading activities. This economic progress contributed to
his political development.
He conquered people and those who tried to oppose him were punished severely and others sold off as
slaves. Unlike Mirambo ‘s empire that collapsed immediately, Nyunguyamawe ‘s empire went on for many
years after his death mainly because of economic organization and efficient political system he had created.
Nyungu’s rulers took over the collection of ivory from the conquered clients and sent it to him at Kiwele.
He formed a strong centralize administration with his own rulers (vatwale) placed over conquered
chiefdoms directly responsible for him.
The role of Akamba: These lived in southern Kenya highlands. Their ancestors lived here as hunters and
shifting agriculture when they grew rich, some Kamba communities bought slaves from the coast to do
their farming. The YaoThe role of YaoThe Yao were the most active East African slave traders. This was
mainly because of the growing demand for slaves at the coast and also the nature of the Yao society. It was
the custom for ambitious Yao rulers to increase their power not just by capturing territories but also by
raiding their neighbors for slaves who then became their personal followers.
The role of Buganda: These lived in the central region of Uganda. Their importance was significant in the
commercial life of the region; they traded in Bark cloth, ivory and slaves. They were friendly to Arabs who
supplied them with guns that they used to protect and expand their Kingdom.
The role of Khartoumers: These were Egyptians and Sudanese traders who dealt in ivory and slaves. They
were semi-official representatives of the Egyptian government with several hundred armed men in their
pay. Banyoro, Buganda and Bunyoro were enemies, kabakaMutesa I stopped slave traders from going to
Bunyoro. However, they dealt in backcloth, slaves and salt.
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REASONS FOR THE EXPANSION OF THE INDIAN OCEAN SLAVE TRADE
1. The Oman Arabs who were ruling the East African coast at the time introduced clove plantations
in Zanzibar and Pemba. These plantations required large numbers of labors to tend to them.
2. There was also a high demand for slave labor for the French sugar plantations in Mauritius and
Reunion Island. Initially, the French mostly depended on the area around present-day Mozambique for
slaves, but by the 1770s the demand exceeded supply. Hence, the French came further north, to East Africa,
in search of slaves.
3. Slaves were needed as porters. They ferried goods such as ivory and gold from interior of Africa to the
Coast. This was important for the ivory trade, especially to the American, Indian and British traders who
took part in it.
4. Portuguese slave traders supplied slaves to the Portuguese coffee and sugar plantations in Brazil.
In the first half of the 18th century, the Portuguese expanded their plantations. As a result, their sources of
slaves in West Africa and Mozambique became inadequate, so they came to East Africa.
5. Slaves were in great demand as domestic workers and soldiers in the Muslims nation Arabia. The
Quran forbids Muslims from enslaving other Muslims. Thus, the slaves had to come from non-Muslim
regions such as the interior of East Africa. There were major slave markets in Zanzibar, Bagamoyo, Pemba,
Kilwa, Mikindani and Mombasa.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SLAVE TRADE.

There were the characteristics which prevailed during slave trade.
1. There were several human torture and transits.
2. Humiliation and dehumanization of the slaves.
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3. Slave were chained and forced to carry heavy loads like salt, ivory and copper.
4. They were brutally whipped by their organizers.
5. They were blended like animals. Those who were unfit were killed or left to die on the way.
COMMODITIES EXCHANGED
From interior to the coast –Ivory and slaves, animal skins, minerals.
From the coast to the interior caravans brought clothes, salts wine, glass ware beads and ornaments.
HOW SLAVES WERE OBTAINED (TECHNIQUES USED TO OBTAIN SLAVES)

Slaves were obtained through various ways:
(i) Through raiding village and capturing people.
(ii) Through selling prisoners of war obtained from local civil wars.
(iii) Through selling criminals.
(iv) Through selling of domestic slaves.
(v) Through ways of laying and ambush.
(vi) Through use of trickery and false pretense.
(vii) Through inter-tribal wars many Africans become destitute.
IMPACTS OF SLAVE TRADE IN INDIAN OCEAN SEA BOARD.
SOCIAL EFFECTS
(i) Depopulation; many people were taken to work as slaves and others died on the way.
(ii) Insecurity and fear among the people.
(iii) Development of inter-states war.
(iv) Human torture and suffering
(v) Hunger due to lack of good in areas where slave trade operated.
(vi) Growth of Arab towns such as Tabora and Ujiji.
(vii) Eruption of diseases among overcrowded slaves. E.g., The Spaniards introduced Syphilis.
(viii) Displacement of people and many became homeless.
(ix) Introduction of Swahili language, this was introduced in land and is now being widely spoken in
Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and eastern Congo.
(x) Introduction of Islamic religion, Islam as a religion was introduced by the Arabs and it spread,
especially in Yao land and in Buganda land.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS
(i) Killing of economic activities, agriculture, pastoralism and industries were killed due to lack of
manpower.
(ii) Technology stagnation, no innovation was made as all able-bodied people were taken as slaves only
children and old ones were left behind.
(iii) Underdevelopment of East Africa, slave trade increased dependence on European capitalist countries.
Generally, slave trade had negative effects in East Africa and it created many problems
(iv) Introduction of new foods. E.g. maize, pawpaws, rice, and groundnuts.
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(v) The increase of farming plantations, in some areas especially the clove plantations were slaves
worked.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SLAVERY ON ITS VICTIMS

(i) Damage of slave's self-worth.
(ii) Inferiority complex before their masters.
(iii) Sufferings due to difficult work.
(iv) Separation of families and homes.
(v) Loneliness.
(vi) Stress due to unsure about their future, survival and food.
(vii) Fear and Insecurity.
A TRADE ROUTE: is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the
commercial transport of cargo.
MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING TRADE ROUTES
2. TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE
Refers to that type of trade that involve three continents America, Africa and Europe.
The Atlantic slave trade was divided into two eras, known as first and second Atlantic system.
(a) The first Atlantic system
This was the trade of enslaved Africans primarily to South American colonies of the Portuguese and Spanish
empires; it accounted for only slightly more than 3% for all Atlantic slave trade. It started (on a significant
scale) in about 1502 and lasted until 1580, when Portugal was temporarily united with Spain.
(b) The second Atlantic system
This was the trade of enslave Africans by mostly British, Portuguese, Brazilian, French and Dutch traders.
The main destinations of this phase were the Caribbean colonies, Brazil and Americas a number of
European countries built up economically slave dependent colonies in the New World. Amongst the
proponents of this system were Francis Drake and John Hawkins.
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ORIGIN OF TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE
The Portuguese were the first foreigners to capture slaves off the coast of West Africa. They built a fort on
Arguin Island (Mauritania) where they bought gold and slaves from Gambia and Senegal. Most of these
slaves were taken to plantations in Portugal and Southern Spain. By 1471, the Portuguese expanded their
gold and slave trading activities to Ghana. In 1482, they built Elmina castle to serve as their base there.
COMMODITIES OF EXCHANGE. The major commodities of exchange in the triangular trade were;
AFRICA – Exported slaves, gold, ivories and animal skins.
AMERICA- exported sugar, cotton, Tobacco, Gold and Silver.
EUROPE – Supplied manufactured goods such as clothes, gunpowder, glassware, sugar and tobacco.
MAP SHOWING TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE
(i) The rise of capitalism, this mode of production depended on exploitation of one man by another.
Capitalism emerged in Europe after the decline of feudalism in Europe especially the first stage of
capitalism mercantilism where slaves became part of the commodities to be traded to accumulate wealth.
(ii) Discovery of marine technology, the invention of gunpowder, shipbuilding, compass direction, and
motor engine acted as a pushing force for the rise of slave trade, it facilitated the transportation of the
commodities and slave dealers.
(iii) The discovery of the new world, on 24 October 1492 Christopher Columbus discovered a new world
that opened a new chapter as far as slave trade was concerned it brought high sky demand of cheap labor
to work in the new plantations in the Caribbean islands.
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(iv) The profitability factor, this acted as an attracting force for many mercantilists to join a trade based
on unequal exchange imagine exchanging human being with spices, umbrella, gold, ivory with guns,
mirrors and cloth.
(v) Accumulation of wealth, Mercantilists accumulated a lot from this trade which enabled them to sustain
super profits obtained and in addition to that, many crops could not be sold for profit, or even grown in
Europe.
(vi) The expensiveness of White slaves, Before the mid of 17th century the European mercantilists
depended on indentured labourers, criminal convicts, contract labourers and refugees from Europe who
proved to be expensive and undependable compared to Africans who were not paid anything apart from
their basic needs for survival and were slaves for life.
(vii) The establishment of plantations, after the discovery of the new world, many Europeans flocked to
America; these included the British, French, Portuguese and the Dutch. Many of these immigrants
established plantations that caused more demand for slave labor. The increased demand contributed to the
development of Trans–Atlantic slave trade.
(viii) Accessibility, the accessibility between the new world and the West African coast facilitated the rise
of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. The distance from West Africa to the new world is very narrow thus it
made it possible for the transportation of goods between the two regions.
(ix) The inability of the indigenous people, at first the Europeans were using Native Americans, red
Indians to provide cheap labor on the plantations and mining centers; but these later died in huge numbers
due to plague. This called for the importation of African slaves which contributed to the rise of the Trans-
Atlantic slave trade.
(x) Climatic conditions of the New World, meant that Africans could easily live there since they were
used to tropical climates and had immunity of tropical diseases more than people from Europe and Asia.
They were able to withstand diseases and conditions of the New World.
(xi) The existence of seasonal winds, like the northeast trade wind, north equatorial current, the southwest
and the Gulf streams encouraged the growth of this trade by enabling the vessels of the merchants to sail to
Africa, New World and Europe.
IMPACT OF THE TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE
ECONOMIC EFFECTS
(i) Removal of African labor, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade was associated with the uprooting of many
Africans who were taken to provide cheap labor on European plantations in America. The ones who were
taken were between the ages of 15 and 35 who made up the productive force in Africa.
(ii) Stagnation of African technology, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade contributed to the stagnation of
African technology. It led to the flooding of European manufactured goods which were exchanged for
slaves.
(iii) Decline of African agricultural production, there was decline in agricultural production due to the
loss of labor. Those who were taken as slaves were the ones who were very active in farms, thus their
removal led to shortage of labor consequently causing the decline in agricultural production.
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(iv) Decline of African traditional industries, due to these goods Africans abandoned production and
exchanged their fellow Africans with the Europeans goods. The manufactured goods from Europe also
destroyed African traditional industries by killing the market for African local goods.
(v) Land alienation, Africans were robbed of their best arable land and were turned into serfs and tenants
who had to sell off their labor to Arab landowners for their survival. Watumbatu and Waamidu provided
their labor in coconut and cloves plantations.
SOCIAL EFFECTS
(i) Depopulation, it led to depopulation because millions of Africans were uprooted and exported to
America as cheap labor. It is believed that during the 400 years of slave trade, around 100,000,000 Africans
were taken as slaves.
(ii) Famine, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade contributed to famine in Africa. The trade was characterized
with insecurity because of slave trading activities, the insecurity made it difficult for people to engage in
agricultural production.
(iii) Destruction of African culture, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade was associated with an influx of
foreigners especially Europeans. This led to a destruction of African traditional values because Africans
were coping European culture.
(iv) Separation of families, some abandoned their homes due to insecurity, some died while trying to
escape and some were taken away as slaves.
POLITICAL EFFECTS
(i) Decline of states, some states declined because they were weakened when their subjects were captured
and sold as slaves. For example, Wanyasa were greatly weakened by frequent slave raids from their Yao
neighbors.
(ii) The rise of states, some strong states arose due to accumulation of wealth from slave trade. E.g., the
Yao state under Machemba, Nyamwezi under Mirambo and Buganda kingdom under KabakaMutesa.
TOPIC 4:
INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM
The Meaning of Industrial Capitalism
Capitalism is the social, political and economic system based on private ownership of the major means of
production. It first developed in Europe during the 15th century when feudalism collapsed.
Under the capitalism system companies and individuals own and direct most of the resources used in
production of goods and services. Capitalism underwent different stages before reaching its maturity. These
stages included:
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1. Commercial or mercantile capitalism
2. Industrial capitalism
3. Monopoly capitalism
1. Commercial or mercantile capitalism: Was the first stage of capitalism where by its economic system
was based on trade and commerce. It took place between the year 1500 and 1750. The merchants obtained
wealth through trade activities. A lot of wealth was accumulated during this period and therefore increased
new demands that resulted into development of another stage of capitalism known as industrial capitalism.
2. Industrial capitalism: This was the period when machines begun to be used for production in industries.
The transition to industrial capitalism was the period when mercantile capitalism was giving way to
industrial capitalism. This stage of industrial capitalism took place between the 1750s and 1870s.
The transition was manifested by five major events namely:

(i) Political revolution (ii) Agrarian revolution (iii) Demographic revolution (iv) Commercial revolution
(v) Transport revolution
THE DEMANDS OF INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM
(i) Needs for raw materials, the increasing production due to expansion of industries needed large
quantities of raw materials supply. These materials included cotton, coffee, tea, iron ore, palm oil, sisal,
sugar cane, tobacco and rubber. The available raw materials could not meet the demand needed by
industries. This resulted into the search and control of the sources of raw materials.
(ii) Need for Market, due to the investment of capital in production, industrial goods flooded the European
markets. Overproduction and under consumption became a critical problem among the industrial capitalists
hence they were forced to look for markets outside Europe.
(iii) Need Areas for investment; due to unreliable markets and high concentration of capital in Europe,
profit marginalization occurred. As a solution new areas for investment were needed among other areas,
Africa provided the best areas for investment of such capital. In Africa the tropical crops could do better
compared to other countries it was also a good source for non-agricultural raw materials such as minerals
and forest products.
(iv) Need areas for Cheap labors, due to labor consciousness caused by working class in Europe and
Britain in particular, the need to search for cheap labor become important. This was a measure taken to
compete in production for profit maximization.
(v) Need area for settlement; also they demanded the area for surplus unemployed personal population in
their countries.
REASONS FOR THE INCREASING DEMAND OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN 19TH

CENTURY
(i) Competition in industrial production, European capitalist nations increased the demand for industrial
development as a result of competition in industrial production.
(ii) American independence, resulted in the development of the industrial sector. By the beginning of the
1870s, Europe could not easily enter U.S.A since it had introduced protective tariffs to keep out foreign
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manufactured goods and protect its industries. By the 1860s, markets for manufactured goods and sources
of raw materials in Europe had greatly declined.
(iii) Accumulation of wealth, in order to ensure this, they decided to invest the wealth that was being
obtained in industries into other areas outside Europe.
(iv) Overpopulation and unemployment, the problem of overpopulation and unemployment was also
rising in European countries. Therefore, the solution to those problems was sought outside Europe.
(v) Demands for raw materials, the highly demanded raw materials were cotton, oil, sugar cane, ivory,
rubber and iron ore. Most of these raw materials could not be found in Europe in large quantities. In fact,
those tropical crops could not grow in Europe. Following this Europe decided to produce such raw materials
in Africa, India, New Zealand, Australia and China. In those areas raw materials were produced in large
quantity than in Britain and other nations in Europe.
AGENTS OF INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM

There were about four groups of agents of industrial capitalism in Africa namely:
1. Explorers 2. Missionaries 3. Traders
1. EXPLORERS. During the nineteenth century, the major aim of European powers was the exploration
of Africa. In east Africa, exploration was done by the prominent explores such as Speke, Burton, Grant,
Samuel Baker, Henry M. Stanley and Dr. Livingstone, while in central Africa and parts of Congo the
prominent explorers were Dr. Livingstone and later Henry M. Stanley. And in West Africa the prominent
explorers included Richard Lander, Dr. Barth Mungo Park, Clapperton, Dr. Baikie, Gaspard Mollien and
Cailie.
The journey of exploration was financed and supported by European capitalists. The main aim was to gather
information about Africa because they needed a wider knowledge of the continent. They also wanted to
know about the raw materials which African had to sell and the location of the main centers of population.
Moreover, they were interested in the knowledge of transport potentialities of African great river systems.
For example, the British explorer, Mungo Park in 1780s, followed by Clapperton and Richard Lander
explored the Niger and gathered important information about the economy and politics of West Africa.
THE ROLE PLAYED BY EXPLORERS IN THE COLONISATION OF AFRICA

(i) They reported back about the potentialities of the African resources, Clapperton reported about the
river Niger to the British government while Speke reported about the potentiality of Lake Victoria and
named it Victoria to honor Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom.
(ii) They provided important information about the nature of African societies, they reported about
the hostility, calmness and hospitality of the African people. This information played a central role for the
European colonialists during the decision making process regarding the colonization of Africa.
(iii) They explored important mountains and researched the geology, climatic conditions, topography,
lakes and animal species in Africa. This knowledge later attracted European powers to colonize Africa.
(iv) They provided messages to their government about the evils of slave trade, and the areas where
slave trade was still conducted. Dr. Livingstone's third journey through Tanganyika and Lake Regions of
central Africa was targeted for that as a result he informed the English that the Yao's land was still
characterized by slave raids and the effects of slave trade such as sufferings, insecurity.
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2. MISSIONARIES. By the 19th century, missionary activities had started in Africa. The pioneers were
the protestant churches of Europe and America. It was only later that Roman arrived especially from France.
The domination of missionaries were the London missionary society, the church missionary society, Roman
Catholic missionary society and the universities mission to central Africa (UMCA). Few Christian
missionaries were directly active agents of imperialism. They were essential ingredients of the increasingly
assertive European access to Africa. However, in most cases European Christian played an important role
in promoting and shaping the advent of European capitalism.
THE ROLE PLAYED BY MISSIONARIES IN THE COLONISATION OF AFRICA

(i) They acted as interpreters and propagandists at the time of treaty making, Moffat stayed among
the Ndebele for about 30 years serving the British South African company (BSAC) for treaty making
between the companies (BSAC) and King Lobengula.
(ii) They acted as advisors to African chiefs, the British missionaries of the church missionary society
convinced Kabaka to accept protectorate.
(iii) They introduced Western civilization to the interior through education, this aimed to prepare
people of low ranks to serving colonial masters at the time of colonization.
(iv) They softened the minds and the hearts of Africans, their activities were influenced by European
imperialists' interests by preaching and emphasizing the spiritual beliefs such as “give to God what which
belongs to God," and "give to Ceaser what belongs to Ceaser”. In the long run this preaching weakened
African opposition and shaped the regions for future colonial administration.
(v) They converted Africans to the new faith, they were easily employed as puppets to extend colonial
rule. Typical examples are the converts of Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Ghana who were able to protect the
British economic interests and paved the way for future colonization by the British.
(vi) They reduced resistance among African societies; this was done by converting some societies and
preaching obedience to administrators.
(vii) They Introduced new crops, Horner grew coffee at Bagamoyo around 1870 the church missionaries
society grew cotton in Uganda. This prepared people to acquire the skills, which were important for future
cash crop production during the colonial era.
(viii) They helped in the abolition of slave trade; they planned for successful Christianization of the freed
slaves as they preached the word of God. They wanted to create the conducive and peaceful environment
for the development of legitimate trade which was exploitative in nature and was after capitalists’ interests.
(ix) They had closer links with rulers and interfered even in political matters, they allied European
imperialism while they were working in the interior of Africa. This situation provoked the hostility from
African rulers. In this case, missionaries appealed strongly for the protection from their home governments,
which later led to effective colonization.
3. TRADERS. Traders were among the first Europeans to visit the interior and coastal areas of Africa.
They came under the influence of capitalists who also supported missionaries and explorers.
Their main aim was to exploit the new sources of raw materials, markets and new areas in which industrial
capitalists had to invest their capital. Examples of traders are William Mackinnon, James Stevenson,
Harry Johnston and Carl Peters.
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THE ROLE PLAYED BY TRADERS IN THE COLONISATION OF AFRICA
(i) They opened a new an exploitative system, therefore, Africa became the target for European interests.
This resulted in stiff rivalries and competition among European industrial nations.
(ii) They introduced legitimate trade; this involved the importation of European manufactured goods.
Thus, the chain of dependence was created and the African local industries and the arts were destroyed.
(iii) They exposed Africa to the world capitalist system of economy, the use of currency, banking and
credit facilities began to be witnessed by Africans. This resulted into exploitation of African resources. The
fair and quick turns obtained by traders attracted European colonialists to come into Africa.
(iv) They opened communication systems, this laid the foundation for future colonial infrastructure. For
example, the road from Lake Nyasa to Tanganyika known as Livingstone road was opened by traders and
was used during the colonial administration.
COMPANIES AND ASSOCIATIONS

Companies and association were among the most important agents of colonization of Africa. Agents
organized themselves into companies and associations. They received finance from their home government
so as to operate effectively and differently in those areas, where the governing powers had their economic
interests. They aimed at financing the exploration that showed the interest of coming to Africa.
Examples of the association included the Royal British Geographical society, financed by John Speke to
explore the river Nile. Another was the African Association of British, which in 1788 financed Mungo Park.
Its major aim was to explore and identify the areas suitable for agriculture, which could produce enough
materials for export. Another concern of that association was to identify the navigable rivers, mineral
deposits and assessing the market available for industrial goods.
In the abolition of slave trade, merchant companies became increasingly involved in the interior of Africa.
The major aim of these companies was to establish the so-called “legitimate trade”. This was trade in
commodities and other resources that industrial capitalist required as raw materials or as food for the urban
working classes. The legitimate trade did not involve the selling and buying human
Several companies in Africa were established at strategic points for the purpose of collecting important
commodities for export and supplying manufactured goods from Europe.
In East Africa examples of these companies were the Imperial British East African Company
(I.B.E.A.C) founded in 1886 by William Macknnon. It was also known as the British East Africa
Association. Another company was the Germany East African Company (G.E.A.C) founded in 1884 by
Carl Peters. In West Africa examples of companies formed included the Royal Niger Company (R.N.C)
which was formed by George Turban Goldie in 1884.
The association was concerned with commercial activities. King Leopald expected that the company could
improve the lives of native as well as civilizing them, exploiting natural resources and abolishing slave
trade and slavery in the region.
In central Africa the company prevailed was the Livingstone central Africa Company (L.C.A.C). it was
formed by Scottish capitalists James Steven in 1878.
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In south Africa there was the British south Africa company (B.S.A.C) formed by Cecil Rhodes as a
private company and operated in south and central Africa by the year 1889, the company was given a royal
charter that included the full powers to administer the company.
THE ROLE PLAYED BY COMPANIES IN THE COLONISATION OF AFRICA.
(i) They exploited African resources, these resources were highly needed by the European capitalists in
their industries. In all parts of Africa Company played a crucial role of collecting raw materials and carried
out trade activities.
(ii) They eliminated local middlemen, this was carried out by the companies which attracted the
imperialists powers to control Africa.
(iii) They encouraged their home government to colonise Africa, for example, the Royal Niger Company
encouraged the British to colonize Nigeria after gaining the control of the different trading areas in the
region.
(iv) They Signed treaties, the company played an important role of signing different treaties with African
local chiefs. These treaties helped imperial powers to claim and justify the colonization of particular
territories, especially during the Berlin Conference. One example was a treaty signed between Harry
Johnston and chief Mandara of Uchaga in 1884 to control thirteen square kilometers of land in Kilimanjaro.
In addition, Dr. Carl Peters of the society for German colonization signed treaties with a number of chief
between Pangani and Rufiji. These treaties were later used by the German government to control
Tanganyika.
(v) They created infrastructures; these included commercial centers, administrative headquarters, roads,
railways and waterways. They were allocated in those areas where they operated where by later on were
used by the imperial powers to transport administrators to colonize and impose laws on the land.
(vi) They paved the way for colonization of Africa; they suppressed African resistance through a police
force used to maintain peace, order and stability within the region. For example, in East Africa, the German
East African Company recruited Swahili, Sudanese and Buganda soldier to counter the coastal Arab
resistance of 1888-1889.
(vii) They provided important information about economic potentiality of African areas; Africa was
exposed to the imperial powers which aimed to colonize the continent.
(viii) They provided rudimentary administration in areas of their operation, some company leaders
such as Sir. George Turban Goldie of the Royal Niger Company, Harry Johnston, the representative of
Cecil Rhodes of the British South Africa Company, attended the Berlin Conference of 1884-188 5. They
also notified the conference about areas where they operate on behalf of their mother countries.
(ix) They played an important role of marking of the administrative boundaries, which were later
identified as boundaries of the European spheres of influence. They prevented any other rival European
imperial power from taking their territories. This was evidenced in East Africa where the German East
Africa Company marked the area of the German in the Anglo-German rivalry and achieved the 1886
agreement. While in South Africa the British South Africa Company managed to map the claims of Britain,
thus preventing the Portuguese from interfering in the British sphere of influence.
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ABOLITION OF SLAVE TRADE
Refers to the state of ending slave trade. Or was the act of freeing slaves and stopping the use of human
being as commodities. Britain was the first nation to Establish abolition of slave trade campaign. In 1833,
Britain abolished slavery, in 1865 U.S.A also abolished and the total abolition of slave trade in East Africa
took place during the colonial period.
REASONS FOR THE ABOLITION OF SLAVE TRADE
ECONOMIC REASONS
(i) Capitalist production, this involves two classes of societies, which are the capitalists who control the
major means of production and the workers who are employed by the capitalists. For the workers to be
effectively employed, they must be free and not slaves.
(ii) Need for markets, due to the industrial revolution, there was increased production of industrial products
in Europe that lacked enough demand; this forced the British to abolish slave trade so that markets can be
created in Africa for their manufactured goods.
(iii) Need for raw materials, due to the industrial revolution, there was increased demand for raw materials
in Britain. The existing raw materials were limited to supply due to the mushrooming of industries. This
situation necessitated the abolition of the slave trade so that Africans can produce the needed raw materials.
(iv) The use of machines, the industrial revolution was characterized by the use of machines in the
production process, these machines replaced human labor. The owners of the machines campaigned for the
abolition of the slave trade because slave labor had become redundant.
(v) French and British competition over sugar production, for so long period, the British had a
monopoly on sugar in the European market. The sugar was produced by slave labor in the British West
Indies. The British was selling their sugar at very high prices thus making huge profits. However, by the
end of the 18thC, the French West Indies and re union islands were producing sugar in large quantities and
selling at a cheaper price thus making more profits than the British. This situation made slave labor in
British West Indies useless thus forcing the British to abolish the slave trade.
(vi) The rise of men with new ideas, Prof. Adam Smith (challenged the economic arguments that were the
basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labor is cheaper and more productive than slave
labor, Rousseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men.
(vii) The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa, and began raw materials directly from
Africa and America to Europe, which led to a decline in slave trade.
SOCIAL REASONS
(i) Religious reasons, the religious bodies contributed to the abolition of the slave trade in Africa. They
argued that slave trade was against the will of God because he had created all people equal but slave trade
was treating Africans as an inferior class. The Christians denounced slave trade in the name of God and
argued that it must be abolished.
(ii) French revolution of 1789, the French revolution of 1789 had a role to play in the abolition of the slave
trade. The slogan of the revolution was fraternity, liberty and equality. Philosophers such as Rousseau
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campaigned for the abolition of slave trade. These philosophers claimed that slave trade was against the
ideals of the French revolution thus it had to be stopped.
(iii) Humanitarian movements, the humanitarians such as Granville sharp and Thomas Clarkson played
a certain role in the abolition of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. These people argued that slave trade had
caused a lot of suffering to the people thus it had to be abolished. These efforts were followed by British
declarations of 1807 and 1833 which abolished slave trade and slavery.
TACTICS USED TO ABOLISH SLAVE TRADE

Abolitionist and humanitarians used several methods to pressure nations to abolish slave trade in the world.
These tactics include the following;
(i) They used campaign meetings, sometimes they asked freed slaves to address the realities and how they
were mistreated in slavery.
(ii) Anti-Slavery trade patrol ships from Britain; they patrolled the seas to prevent ships from sailing
from Africa with slaves.
(iii) Intellectuals and writers used books, newspapers and magazines to condemn slavery and slave trade.
(iv) Treaties to stop slave trade were signed between nations. Some of the treaties signed between the
Sultan of Zanzibar and the British in East Africa were;
• In 1807, British parliament outlawed slave trade for British subjects.
• In 1817 British negotiated the “the reciprocal search treaties” with Spain and Portugal.
• Equipment treaties signed with Spain 1835, Portugal 1842 and America 1862. In east Africa in 1822
Mores by treaty was signed between captain Moresby and sultan Seyyid Said it forbade the shipping of
slaves outside the sultan's territories. British sips were authorized to stop and search suspected Arabs
slave carrying dhows.
• In 1845, Hamerton treaty was signed between Colonel Hamerton and sultan Seyyid Said. It forbade the
shipping of slaves outside the sultan's East Africa territories i.e. beyond to the North.
• In 1871, the British set up the parliamentary commission of inquiry to investigate and report on slave
trade in East Africa.
• In 1872, sir. Bartle Frere persuaded sultan Barghash to stop slave trade but not much was achieved.
• On 5th march 1873, the sultan passed a decree prohibiting the export of slaves from mainland and closed
of slave market at Zanzibar. Zanzibar slave market was to be closed within 24 hours
• In 1876, sultan decreed that no slaves were to be transported overland.
• In 1897, decree left slaves to claim their freedom themselves
• In 1907, slavery was abolished entirely in Zanzibar and Pemba.
• In 1927, slavery ended in Tanganyika when British took over from Germany after the Second World
War.
EFFECTS OF THE ABOLITION OF THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

(i) Foundation of sierra Leone and Liberia, these areas were established by the Europeans powers as
settlements for the freed slaves. They received freed slaves from America. It should be noted that the Trans-
Atlantic slave trade uprooted millions of Africans who were supposed to offer labor in America.
(ii) Introduction of legitimate trade, there was introduction of legitimate trade that involved the buying
and selling of natural resources, Example palm oil and cocoa. The colonial powers introduced legitimate
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trade so that it can facilitate the acquisition of raw materials and markets which were crucial in Europe after
the industrial revolution.
(iii) Exploitation of hinterland, before the abolition of the slave trade, the colonial powers operated along
the coast of West Africa searching for slaves, but after the abolition of slave trade they penetrated the
interior searching for raw materials and market where they can sell their manufactured goods.
(iv) Increased spread of Christianity, the European powers increased the spread of Christianity after the
abolition of slave trade. Christianity was a way of compensating for the ills committed by slave trade. This
religion was also spread to counter the spread of Islam in West Africa.
(v) Increased provision of social services, the colonial powers increased the provision of social services
especially education. The main aim of colonial education was to train Africans to become better producers
of raw materials that were needed in Europe. Colonial education was also supposed to change the mentality
of Africans to prefer European goods thus created a ready market for them.
(vi) Improvement of the agricultural sector, the colonial powers improved the agricultural sector by
introducing better methods of farming to increase the production of raw materials. It should be noted that
the colonialists discouraged the production of food crops in Africa.
(vii) Linguistic studies, the colonial powers studied native languages so that they can be able to translate
the Bible into local languages. This move was to convert many Africans to Christianity. The languages that
were studied by the imperialist were Hausa and Fulani.
BRITISH OCCUPATION AT THE CAPE

Britain took control of the cape during the period of Mercantilism in Europe. In 1580 Sir Francis Drake
became the first British man to round the Cape of Good Hope.
At the end of 18th century, The British became interested in seizing the cape colony from the Dutch.
The British first occupation of South Africa was in 1795 when they attacked and defeated the Boers at the
Cape. There was a peace treaty between the Dutch and the British in 1802 and the Cape was given back to
the Dutch in 1803. However, in 1806 the British decided to re-occupy the Cape by defeating the Dutch.
MOTIVES FOR THE BRITISH INTERESTS IN THE CAPE

(i) They wanted to protect their ships on the sea route to India.
(ii) They wanted to control the trade route on seawater (India & Asia).
(iii) They wanted to protect themselves against ships of enemies.
(iv) They wanted to get raw materials, market and area for investment.
(v) They wanted to increase colonies.
TACTICS USED BY THE BRITISH TO OCCUPY THE CAPE

(i) Introduction of land legislation system, they aimed at discouraging pastoralism among Boers and to
encourage sedentary farming since the policy limited the size of an individual's land. The Dutch thought
that the British introduced the land law to take land from the Boers and redistribute it to the landless
Khoikhoi so they opposed the land law.
(ii) Abolition of slave trade and slavery in 1807, The British government abolished slave trade in all their
colonies and offered compensation for slaves but the money was only paid in London as a result the majority
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did not get their compensation. However, freeing slaves endangered the economic survival of the Boers as
they depended much on slave labor.
(iii) Imposition of the English language as the as the official language, of administering the law and
justice and the medium of instruction in schools in 1822. Hence, English language replaced the Dutch as
he official language.
(iv) Abolition of internal trade restriction imposed by the Dutch company, officials on the farmers and
other settlers at the cape. This created more trade opportunities as they could now trade freely without
strictly control from the administration.
(v) Introduction of the pass in 1809, to reduce the exploitation of African labor as the system required
African workers to carry passbooks which indicated their residence and employment, and those who did
not carry them were regarded as criminals. The pass prevented the Africans from moving from district to
district or moving into areas occupied by Europeans.
(vi) Introduction of contract system, through this the Boers were to sign contracts with their workers. In
those contracts, they were to mention the wages and other fringe benefits that they gave to their workers.
Therefore, the Boers regarded the contract system as British interference in the traditional Boer-Africans
relationship of master-servant.
(vii) Introduction of the Black circuit court system in 1811, in order to reduce acts of violence committed
by European employers against African employees. The law angered the Boers who considered themselves
a superior race and thus natural masters of the Africans.
(viii) Introduction of English law, as the basis of the legal system in South Africa.
(ix) Provision of financial aid to the British settlers by the British government, this encouraged more
of its citizens to immigrate to the Cape as a result in 1820 some 300 British settlers arrived in South Africa
increasing the total white population by almost 12% within weeks.
THE BOERS TREK

A TREK simply means a movement of people from one place to another in large groups.
BOER TREK was the migration of the Boers from the Cape of Good Hope to other interior parts of South
Africa in order to find new settlement areas.
The historical background of the Boers movement can be traced back with the arrival of British towards
the end of 18th century, who established their administration at the cape colony. With presence of British,
everything at the cape changed into negative to Boers. For example, Bores were now treated of equal status
with the Africans. The migration took place from 1830s to 1840s where the Boers moved in groups of
families at different times to different parts of interior South Africa, in a movement that later became known
as the BOERS GREAT TREK.
REASONS/CAUSES FOR THE BOERS TREK

(i) Introduction of British government, British established their settlements at the Cape of Good Hope
early in 19th century. Here, both Boers and natives were under British domination. The Boer did not want
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to be under the British government, that’s why they decided to move out from the Cape of Good Hope, to
interior where they could establish their independent states.
(ii) Abolition of slavery and slave trade, the other fundamental change that British rule brought about was
the ending of the slave trade and then the total banning of slavery. The British abolished slavery and slave
trade in 1833 which was established by the Boers. Nevertheless, many of the original Dutch settlers were
extremely unhappy about the emancipation of slaves.
(iii) Introduction of English language as an official language, the coming of the British led to
introduction of English language as an official language in 1822 that was to be spoken by all people at the
cape. This made the Boers to become discontent hence Boer Trek.
(iv) Shortage of land at the cape, the coming of the British at the cape led to increase of population. The
Cape of Good Hope became overpopulated. This led to shortage of land hence Boers decided to move to
interior in search of the new land for agricultural undertakings.
(v) To transform the Composition of the local white population, the British encouraged the immigration
of British settlers of South Africa with the aim of transforming the Composition of the local white
population.
(vi) British Introduced land privatization, this put limitation on the amount of land that one could own.
This violated the Boers practice of owning large farms.
EFFECTS OF BOERS TREK

(i) Establishment of Boer Republics, the movement of the Boer from the cape to interior led to the
establishment of two Boer Republics which were Transvaal Republic and Orange Free State.
(ii) Occurrence of Afro-Boer Wars, the movement of the Boers to the interior led to conflicts between the
Boers and Africans. This was due to the fact that Boers confiscated natives’ lands. A good example of those
conflicts was the Zulu war with the Boers in 1837.
(iii) It accelerated mfecane movements on the interior Southern Africa; this is due to the fact that their
penetration increased shortage of land in the hinterland.
(iv) The Boers had in the interim developed their own culture and language, in the interior areas where
they settled.
(v) Discovery of Minerals, The Boer Trek also led to discovery of minerals in the interior parts of South
Africa. The minerals discovered in the interior were: Diamond discovered at Kimberley in 1867 Gold
discovered at Witwatersrand in 1880’s.
(vi) The Boers lost touch with their homeland, their movement to the interior of South Africa developed
a new language and culture known as Afrikaans and referred to themselves as Afrikaners.
(vii) The British regarded the Boers as rebellious, The British colonial government felt responsible for
the cruel treatment to these Boers and hence influenced Boers to move to the interior part of South Africa.
(viii) The Boers forcefully took African resources, such as land and livestock in the interior of South
Africa.
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BASIC ASSIGNMENT/ ACTIVITIES TO DO
1. Explain the meaning of industrial capitalism

2. Explain the demands of industrial capitalism
3. Explain the roles of the agents of industrial capitalism in preparing Africa for colonialism
4. Outline the major causes of the Boer Trek in South Africa.
5. Write shot notes on the effects of the Boer Trek on people of South Africa.
6. What are motives of the British at the Cape?
7. Explain why the Boers managed to defeat the Africans in the interior of South Africa.
8. Mention five tactics used by British to occupy the Cape.
END OF FORM TWO TOPICS
WELCOME IN FORM THREE TOPICS
TOPIC ONE
ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIALISM IN AFRICA.
Colonialism can be defined as the domination and subordination of one country by another powerful
country economically, socially and politically. It is largely, the direct subordination of one country by
another country politically, socially and economically with the aim of exploiting its resources.
By the second half of the 19th century, the imperialist powers from Europe in particular, established
colonialism in Africa in order to meet their capitalist demands such as raw materials for their industries in
Europe, new areas of investment where they could invest their capital, market areas for their
manufactured merchandise (goods), cheap labor and areas to settle the surplus population which was
increasing at an increasing pace especially soon after the industrial and demographic revolutions in Europe
from the 1750’s
STAGES OF COLONISATION
The colonization of Africa was not an overnight process, rather a slow process that was well organized.
The process of colonialism was fundamentally of three (3) main stages namely,
1. The first phase was the penetration of the agents of colonialism namely explorers, missionaries and
traders who are in other words referred to as the forerunners of colonialism.
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2. The second phase was the intensive scramble for and partition (division) of Africa amongst the
imperialist powers from Europe in particular. The process of the scramble for and partition of Africa
was characterized by rivalries and conflicts, things which led to the summon of the Berlin Conference
(the Feast of the Beasts) from November 1884 to February 1885 under the then German Chancellor
Edward Otto Von Bismarck. The main objective of the conference was to divide Africa amongst the
imperialist powers as peacefully as possible.
3. The third phase was the establishment of colonial rule from 1880’s to 1900. This phase was
characterized by the establishment of company rule, establishment of colonial economy and
suppression of African resistances (reactions) against the colonial rule.
AGENTS OF COLONIALISM IN AFRICA AND THEIR POSITIONS (ROLES) IN THE

COLONIZATION PROCESS.
INTROCTION: Colonial agents were the Europeans who came in Africa in order to pave way for the
process of colonialism. For instance, Missionaries as the people who came on behalf of their home
government in order to accomplish the three major objectives: To spread civilization, Spread Christianity
and to do commerce. The case of Traders came in Africa in order to look for raw materials and area for
investments. Whereas the Explorers came in Africa in order to search for information that was needed by
the capitalists (David Livingstone, Henry Morton Stanley and Samuel Baker.
The agents of colonialism were/are the forerunners of colonialism. These were in three stages as follows;
1. EXPLORERS .This was the first group which came to Africa for the purpose of colleting various
information about Africa especially the geographical information about Africa. Examples of some
explorers are/were Barton and Speke 1856, they passed Tanganyika to Uganda, they discovered Lake
Victoria, the name of the Queen of England by then, Henry Morton and Stanley, David Livingstone (born
on 19th March 1813 and died on 1st May 1873; he died of malaria and internal bleeding due to dysentery)
a famous explorer in East, Central and South Africa, De Brazza etc.
THE ROLES OF EXPLORERS

1. They informed the colonialists of the geographical position of Africa that helped and guided them in
the process of dividing Africa.
2. They provided valuable information about economic potentialities of Africa like the existence of
minerals, fertile soil and so forth, which attracted the colonialists to Africa.
3. They participated in the abolition of slave trade and gave information on the slavery that was taking
place in the interior of Africa; such information was used by the abolitionists to abolish slave trade
in Africa, a move which prepared the fertile grounds for the establishment of colonialism in Africa.
4. They sketched the map of Africa showing all the potentialities found in Africa, the map was so very
important as far as the process of colonization was concerned. David Livingstone mainly did this.
5. The explorers signed some bogus treaties with some friendly African Chiefs, the treaties that provided
the basis for the colonization of Africa.
6. Some other explorers came to Africa in order to open up the interior for commerce. For instance,
between 1878 and 1880 Joseph Thompson surveyed the region between Dar-es-Salaam and Lake
Nyasa in order to construct a road for Zanzibar’s Sultan. William MacKinnon came for the purpose
of opening a short route from the coast to Lake Victoria via Kilimanjaro to develop commercial
activities in the interior of East Africa.
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2. MISSIONARIES. These were so called religious people who came to Africa on behalf of their home
governments in the pretext of civilizing Africans, spreading Christianity and abolishing slave trade,
who considered it as an illegal/illicit/illegitimate trade. However, these people had a hidden mission
of softening the hearts and minds of Africans to accept colonialism as easily as possible. That is why
some Africa’s scholars argue that the church was part and parcel of the capitalist system as it acted
as a tool for exploitation of the Africans.
Examples of some early missionaries in Africa were Ludwig Krapt, John Rebman, and John Moffat
from Britain. They established missionary societies, by the 19th century; the whole continent was full
of evangelical societies like the;
i) The Holy Ghost Mission from Britain (1837)

ii) The Church Missionary Society (CMS) from Britain 1799.
iii) The Scottish white fathers from Scotland (1791).
THE ROLES OF THE MISSIONARIES IN THE COLONIZATION OF AFRICA.

(a) They provided information and feedback to their home countries about the nature of the people of
African population, structure and of course the natural resources.
(b) They brainwashed and softened the hearts and minds of the Africans. They used Holy scriptures as
documented in the holy bible like “The poor are the blessed for them the kingdom of God,” Leadership
comes from God” Do not admire what your friend possesses, forgive those who wrong you.”
(c) They trained Africans in western education in missionary schools to meet the production needs of the
colonialists.
(d) They largely succeeded in abolishing slave trade in Africa.
(e) They conducted many treaties with the African local chiefs on behalf of their home governments. For
example, Stanley in Buganda, Francis Coillard of the Paris evangelical society was very instrumental
in persuading Chief Lewanyika of Southern Rhodesia in 1890 to sign a treaty with the British South
African Company.
(f) Some missionaries provided social services for other colonial administrators in case of shortage. For
example, accommodation, schools and colleges.
(g) They divided Africans along religious lines as one of the ways of ruling Africans via divide and rule
tactic.
(h) They introduced European culture to the Africans; the missionaries regarded the Africans as barbaric.
3. TRADERS. These came to Africa purposely to look for raw materials, markets and new areas for
investments. They established legitimate trade and encouraged the production of commodities such
as cotton, coffee, and rubber, cocoa and so forth.
Examples of the early traders in Africa were James Stevenson, William Mackinnon, Harry Johnson, Karl
Peters, Cecil Rhodes, and George Goldie and so on. These traders opened up different companies
(Chartered companies) in Africa for the purpose of meeting their capitalist demands. Such companies
include.
a) The German East African Company, which was founded by Karl Peters on 28 March 1884.
b) The Imperial British East African Company (I.B.E.A.C.O), which was founded by the British trader
William MacKinnon on 18 April 1886.
c) The Livingstone Company, which was founded in 1878 by James Stephen to trade ivory, gold and other
products in East Africa.
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d) The United African Company (U.A.C) in 1881 and to the Royal Niger Company in 1886.
e) The British South African Company, which was founded by Cecil Rhodes in 1889.
f) International Du Congo
THE ROLES OF THE TRADERS IN THE COLONIZATION PROCESS.

1) They provided financial support to the colonial governments in the construction of physical
infrastructure such as roads, railways, and harbors in order to facilitate the exploitation process.
2) They conducted business on behalf of the colonial governments in their respective areas of
administration in Africa.
3) The traders signed bogus treaties with the African local rulers on behalf of their home governments.
For example, Sultan Mangungo of Msowero in Kilosa and Karl Peters on behalf of Germany on 29
November 1884.
4) The European traders bought manufactured goods from their countries to Africa.
5) They opened routes to the interior of Africa laying the foundation for future European exploration. The
colonialists later on used the routes, which were used by the traders.
6) The traders competed for and exploited Africa’s resources, this in turn created rivalry between
European countries for the right to control resources in various parts of Africa.
7) The traders encouraged settlers to come to Africa to invest in various sectors like agriculture, mining
etc. and the traders gave settlers loans with dear interests as one of the ways of encouraging them to
come and stay.
HOW THE COLONIAL AGENTS PAVED WAY FOR COLONIZATION OF AFRICA
The colonial agents played a very great role in the whole process of colonization of Africa in the following
ways:
i) They facilitated and speeded up the process of the scramble and partition of African continent
among the imperialist nations, through important information that was provided to their home
government.
ii) They consolidated colonialism through constant assistance, in the process of colonialism e.g. some
explorers became governors, whereas missionaries trained collaborators in their schools.
iii) They led to the abolition of slave trade whereby, all colonial agents participated in its abolition
good example; missionaries preached against slave trade by regarding it as against the will of God,
traders on other hand introduced legitimate trade.
iv) It led to the spread of Christianity by training catechists who under took the role of converting
Africans in the new religion and adaptation western culture which led to de-culturalization of
Africans.
v) Missionary won the confidence of African people and reduced the African resistance against
colonialists, some African chiefs gained materially, militarily, and politically from the strangers
they usually allowed and sometimes encouraged them to stay on. E.g., king Kasagama of Toro
pleaded for the extension of the stay of lugard.
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vi) They led to the introduction of commercial agriculture whereby cash crops and plantations were
introduced at the expense of African self-sustaining agriculture.
vii) They integrated African economy into money economy I this case, African became the source of
raw materials for the European industries.
viii) They led to the establishment of so-called legitimate trade by monopoly companies, which was
unfair to the Africans and only favored the Europeans. This was because African resources were
exploited to the maximum.
ix) They promoted disunity among the indigenous people that promoted civil conflict defending the
white man’s’ religion e.g. in Buganda religious war between 1885-8 among the Catholics and the
protestants.
THE SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA.

The meaning of the concepts.
The word scramble simply means fight for something or struggle for something normally by many in order
to get it before others do. The word partition means divide something into small portions.
Generally, the scramble of the European powers over Africa was the process of fighting for colonies in
Africa, which took place in the second half of the 19th C.
The scramble for and partition of Africa were very remarkable events in the African history. They were a
beginning of the end of African freedom. The scramble for and partition of Africa covered remarkably short
period from 1884 to about 1900. It involved the occupation of the interior of Africa by European nations.
The scramble for and partition of Africa were due to European economic and political changes. Largely,
the European capitalist powers quarreled against themselves for fighting in Africa, which they considered
very important and potential for them. The scramble for and partition of Africa led to the complete
confiscation of African independence and sovereignty to the European powers.
FACTORS FOR THE SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA.

By and large, there are two (2) main schools of thoughts, which explain the motives (reasons) behind the
scramble for and partition of Africa, namely Eurocentric school of thought which combines reasons as to
spread Christianity in Africa, to abolish slave trade, to civilize Africans and so on. On the other end of
spectrum, there is Afro-centric school of thought by African scholars and believers.
1. ECONOMIC FACTORS
a) Industrial Revolution in Europe. This was the primary factor, which led to the scramble for and
partition of Africa and later on total colonization of Africa. The Industrial Revolution was the drastic
change in the industrial production system that firstly occurred in Britain in 1750. This period was
characterized by inventions of machines and mushrooming industries in Europe. The industrial
revolution led to the construction of many industries in Europe something, which led to industrial
competition over raw materials, and of course, markets for the European manufactured goods. Such a
competition led to the rise of the five (5) major capitalist demands such as raw materials, areas for
investment, cheap labor, areas to settle the surplus population and market for the European
manufactured goods. All these demands led to the scramble for and partition of Africa, hence
colonialism. Industrial revolution led to the needs of industrial demands as follows;
i) Demand to get both agricultu-ral and mineral raw- materials. This was because agricultural
raw materials like c-offee, cotton; sisal as well as mineral raw materials such as gold, diamond and
copper were highly needed in Europe just to feed their hungry industries. As raw- materials in
Europe were highly obtained in competitive leading to be sold in high price. Thus, low profit to the
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industrial owners (Europeans) in that case, to solve these problems Europeans decided to come in
Africa where they would get cheap raw materials.
ii) Demand to get market for the European Manufactured goods. This caused the scramble for
and partition of African continent simply because with invention of new technology together with
application of heavy machines in Europe, European powers found themselves producing to the
surplus, which could not be consumed completely within their (reach) country. The only solution
was to find market elsewhere (outside) so that they could sell their surplus manufactured goods for
high profit African in particular.
iii) Demand to get cheap labor needed in European’s plantations and mines. This caused the
Scramble for and partition of African continent simply because with invention of new technology
as well as application of heavy machines in Europe, they opened up large plantations which needed
intensive labor, worse still it was expensive to hire (employ) European labor because they needed
high pay compared to African labor who in a sense could work under meager (low) pay, thus a
need to come in Africa where they could get cheap African labor to maximize their profit.
iv) Demand to get areas where they could invest their surplus capital. This is because European
powers since primitive accumulation of capital had invested heavily to the extent that they had
surplus capital. The accumulated capital needed to be invested somewhere else for further profit
making in this case Africa having not been invested by any power was seen the only place where
European powers would invest their capital. Hence, Europeans scrambled the area.
v) Demand to get areas where they would settle surplus population. This was because with better
improvement of social services like medical care, water supply, as well as good housing facilities
it was apparent that large population in Europe were un employed eventually been in fear over
being engaging in evil things like robbery, prostitution, and other chaos Europeans decided to come
in Africa so as to get areas which would be used to settle such surplus population as the way to
minimize and remove chaos that would affect their population.
vi) Due to the demand to solve different movements as pioneered by workers and proletarization
in Europe or trade unions: Such movements were like Chartism, Ludism and new model trade
unions as these demanded high payment, good working condition, and the reduction of working
hours. In this case, production in Europe became very expensive and fall in profits of the
bourgeoisie (capitalists).
2. Strategic reasons. The colonization of Africa was also motivated by the strategic reasons, as some
areas were considered more attractive than other was economically, thus, the scramble for and partition
of Africa. Such areas included those which had potential minerals like gold, diamond, and copper which
had accessibility to the interior, fertile soil and enough people to supply labor power in the colonies;
3. Prestigious reasons. Some European powers especially the imperialist ones considered the scramble
for and partition of Africa towards colonization as a prestigious thing. The more colonies one country
had the more powerful it was considered.
4. European balance of power. The issue of balance of power was considered to be one amongst the
main reasons for the scramble for and partition of Africa. Following the European nationalism, for
example German nationalism in 1870’s led to the need of balance of power for example after the
Franco-Prussian war of 1870 to 1871, France lost its two potential provinces Alsace and Larraine to
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Germany as the result, France looked for Tunisia and Morocco in Africa as a way of balancing the
power, hence the scramble for and partition of Africa.
5. Humanitarian reasons and civilization reasons, some European scholars argue that the scramble for
and partition of Africa was for civilizing Africans who were considered to be barbaric i.e. totally
uncivilized, killing one another, undertaking slave trade and other animal like practices.
6. Due to the role played by the colonial agents: This is because colonial agents (Missionaries,
Traders, and Explorers) provided the information/ feedback and reported on the economic
potentiality of Africa that persuaded their home government to come and take over African countries.
Thus through the information given they paved way for the colonization of Africa since Africa
became globally known.
FACTORS, WHICH MADE SOME AREAS IN AFRICA TO EXPERIENCE MORE INTENSIVE

SCRAMBLE THAN OTHERS.
European powers were interested with different parts (areas) in Africa. This was because these areas
would help Europeans to meet their demands as they had special qualities and significances. Some of
the areas that experienced intensive Scramble in Africa were as follows.
1. Easy accessibility to the interior/ Accessibility to the interior. Areas like Egypt and the Nile valley
and of course the Congo basin have easy access to the interior since the areas have big rivers, which
made navigation easier done during the colonial era. The transportation of raw materials was possible.
Thus, those areas, which had easy access to both the interior and the coast, experienced more intensive
scramble than others. In this case, areas, which had navigable rivers as if Congo, Niger and Nile were
highly, scrambled by different European powers some of the powers who showed much interest here
included Portugal, Belgium and France.
2. Presence of fertile land// Agricultural Potentialities: Those areas which had proven soil fertility
which ensured both growth and development of agriculture and growth of cash crops such as palm oil,
cotton, coffee, sisal, rubber and so on were more scrambled than other areas. Some of these areas were
like shire highlands in Malawi, Kikuyu high lands in Kenya and many other places that were fertile
attracted many European powers because such areas were vital particularly in provision of reliable
rainfall and good fertility which eventually fueled quick development of Agricultural activities. Other
areas with fertility soil were Niger basin, Congo basin, and Nile valley. In these areas, different
European powers showed much interest to ensure that they take lead of it. The well-known powers
whose ambition was stifle included Britain, France, Belgium, and Portugal.
3. Presence of minerals/ mineral potentialities: Those areas, which were naturally endowed with
minerals such as gold, diamond, and copper, experienced more intensive scramble than others. These
areas attracted mostly the European powers because of its presence of valuable minerals like gold, silver
and diamond, which were essential for the provision of raw materials to feed their hungry industries.
In this case different areas in Africa assumed to be potentiality as witnessed by Angola, Nigeria, Gold
coast, presently called as Ghana and Congo (DRC). In all these areas different European powers showed
much interest but the most over leading powers were Belgium, Britain France and Portuguese.
4. Dense population/areas with high population. Those areas, which had dense population, were mostly
preferred because they ensured constant supply of labor as opposed to those areas, which had no dense
population. The dense population did not only ensure constant supply of labor but also the source of
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market for the goods, which were produced in the colonies. Some areas in Africa that had high
population were like Cameroon, Senegal, Gold coast, Ghana and Nigeria.
5. Geographical location. Those areas, which were geographically located in areas with conducive
climatic conditions, were more scrambled than others were. For example, those in the equatorial region
like the Congo and Niger basins were more scrambled by the European powers than others.
Nevertheless, the process of the scramble for and partition of Africa led to the conflicts amongst the
European powers, which threatened the peace amongst those powers. For example, the Congo crisis,
the Egyptian crisis, the Niger crisis and so on. All these crises necessitated the call for the Berlin
conference in order to divide Africa as peacefully as possible.
a) The areas, which were too strategic, strategic areas, attracted Europeans in Africa because these areas
would enable them to meet their demands, which all together focused on economic gain. In this way
different parts (areas) in Africa became too strategic as such they motivated European powers to have
more interests over such areas. Good example is Egypt that had Suez Canal. The British occupation of
Egypt could make them benefit from the canal as it could be used as a shortcut and gateway to the trade
caravans (ship) between Asia Africa and Europe through Mediterranean Sea.
More than that Egypt assumed of great significant during the Scramble for and subsequently the
partition of Africa because it had substantial population, which could provide cheap labor in the
capitalist investments. Cheap labor in Egypt was expected to increase profit maximization.
Again Egypt had Nile River which seems to be of a great importance because it enabled (served) for
Agricultural purpose in which both food and raw-materials needed for European industries and food
for the industrial workers could be easily obtained, above all it would serve for navigation purposes.
It served also as attraction to tourists due to its historical significances in which many people were
attracted to visit the place. In this case scrambling over this place was expected to be of great benefits.
Egypt was so special to Europeans due to its strategic that it had this is because the place is regarded as
the ancient places in which different civilizations like Greeks, Romans and many others passed here.
Hence taking this area meant that the given powers were expected to learn many things to them.
In addition, Egypt became to be regarded as too strategic during scramble for and partition of Africa
due to its technological background it had. This is because different technological discoveries were
made in Egypt also various scientists who discovered different discoveries originated from Egypt
because of this the area provided a forum through which European regarded it as strategic areas.
Another strategic area was Uganda because it is a source of Nile River in this case to make constant
flowing of Nile River European powers became attracted over Uganda.
Mean while Kenya became to be regarded as a strategic area because Uganda that was needed for
constant flowing of Nile River was a land lacked country (country with not port) thus a need to control
Kenya so that it could eventually serve European over controlling Uganda by using Mombasa port to
transport different goods/cargoes from Europe going in Uganda. The most outstanding European
powers who had much interest in this place were Britain and France.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Account for the reason behind the scramble for and partition of African continent.
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2. Why the scramble for and partition of African continent took place during the last quarter of the 19th C
and not before or After?
3. What were the main factors for the European Scramble for and Partition of Africa?
4. Why African continent was scrambled during the 19th century?
Why some areas in Africa were highly scrambled by European imperialist power during the 19th C.
2. Why the position of Egypt became of more special during the Scramble for and subsequently the partition
of African continent?
THE BERLIN CONFERENCE OF 1884 TO 1885.
The Berlin Conference was the imperialistic conference, which was held in Berlin the capital city of
Germany and named after the city in which it was held. The conference was firstly proposed by Portugal
due to its claims over Congo and West Africa. It was held from Sunday, 15 November of the year 1884 up
to Thursday, 26th of February of the year 1885. Under the leadership of the Germany’s Chancellor by then
who was a lawyer by profession Edward Leopold Otto Von Bismarck. (1st April 1815- 30th July 1898).
The main agenda of the conference was to divide Africa peacefully for the interests of the capitalist nations.
Africa was not represented in the Conference, nevertheless, Denmark and the United States of America
attended the conference as observers only.
This conference is also called the Congo conference or West Africa conference. The countries, which
participated in the conference, were Austria- Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy,
Netherlands, Ottoman Empire, Russian Empire, Spain, Sweden–Norway, The United Kingdom and the
USA.
EVENTS LEADING TO BERLIN CONFERENCE
Berlin conference came into being due to the following events;
a) Due to the information spread by missionaries, explorers and indeed traders about African in Europe.
This is because these agents of colonialism fade substantial information on richness of Africa like
presence of rivers, minerals, as well as its fertility. It was through these information European powers
became motivated over the continent.
b) Due to the pressure caused by the rise of industrialization in many European powers particularly during
the period of monopoly capitalism in which it created economic demand in terms of raw materials,
markets as well as areas where they would invest their investment.
c) Due the result of the Scramble for Africa in order to acquire areas where they would meet their desire,
indeed prompted the need to have the Berlin conference because European power were almost to fight
in many parts of African continents such areas included Congo basin, Niger delta and south Africa. The
way forward to get out of this was to have the Berlin conference that would eventually divide to each
power peacefully.
d) Due to the role played by a Germany chancellor Otto Von Bismarck in which after discovering the
possibility of the eruption of war he decided to call the Berlin Conference to avoid war among the
scrambling nations.
WHY WAS THE BERLIN CONFERENCE HELD IN GERMANY?

1. Germany unification made Germany the most powerful and influential nation not only in Europe but
also in the world by 1870.
2. Germany’s industrialization which made Germany to be in need of colonies for raw-materials and areas
for investment that is why Germany responded to the request of Portugal as quickly as possible.
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3. The role and personality of Chancellor Edward Otto Von Bismarck he was very ambitious leader who
wanted recognition by other European leaders that is why he called (summoned) the Berlin conference.
4. The hostility between France against Germany the conflict is rooted from the Franco-Prussian war of
1870-1871. Germany summoned the conference in order to check the French expansionism in Africa.
THE OBJECTIVES OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE OF 1884 TO 1885.

1. The first and the foremost objective of the Berlin Conference of 1884 to 1885 was to divide Africa
amongst the imperialist powers as peacefully as possible because of the process of the scramble and
partition of Africa which had generated hatred/hostility amongst the imperialist powers.
2. Portugal’s request for the conference in order to check for its claims in the Congo Basin and West
Africa, thus the request by Portugal was one of the agenda which necessitated the summon of the
conference in 1884.
3. To abolish slave trade and slavery in Africa and establish the so-called legitimate trade.
4. It was called in order to discuss the European balance of power amongst the European nations.
5. Bismarck aimed at taming (to control easily) the French hostilities, after its defeat during the Franco-
Prussian war of 1870.
6. To deal with matters related to European trade and territorial claims in Africa.
7. To discuss and settle the existing territorial disputes over the Congo and Niger basin as well as other
parts of African continent.
8. To avoid military confrontation among the imperialist powers that was eminent among the imperialist
powers especially after the joining of Germany as a late comer in the process after taking over colonies
in Togo, Cameroon, South west Africa (Namibia) and what came to be known as Germany East Africa
the present Tanzania, Burundi and Rwanda.
THE TERMS / AGREEMENT/ PRINCIPALS/ RESOLUTIONS REACHED DURING THE

BERLIN CONFERENCE 1884 – 1885.
The Berlin Conference passed different resolutions, which later caused the process of colonization of
Africa; these resolutions are as explained here below:
i) The Congo basin was declared a free state under king Leopard of Belgium and the Niger River
was free for navigation to all imperialist nations. It recognized Leopard’s so- called international
association as the legitimate authority in Congo basin. In return, the Belgium king to allow
European traders and missionaries free access to the area.
ii) They agreed that strong and sophisticated military weapons were prohibited to be brought in
Africa. They allowed light weapons to be used in Africa. This aimed to maintain security in the
colonies and to avoid the accessibility of such strong weapons to the colonized subjects (Africa).
iii) They agreed that effective occupation should be implemented by the imperialist nations this was
through setting Administrators in the colonies who were to supervise tasks
iv) They agreed that in case of the resistance by Africans to the colonial occupation, no any European
country should give help to the Africans to fight fellow European.
v) They agreed that all colonial powers should take initiative measure to abolish slave trade and
slavery in their colonies and to allow free access to the colonial agents in the interior as to
campaign against slave trade and spread civilization in the interior.
vi) They agreed that in case of any disputes among the imperialist powers they should solve it
peacefully without the use of force.
vii) They agreed that if a nation occupies a coastal area it had to extend it legally, to the interior and
to colony of another colonial master.
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viii) Principle of notification, it was agreed that any power requiring any part of Africa was supposed
to inform another power in order to escape misunderstanding among the powers.
ix) The conference also agreed that areas in Africa already proclaimed protectorate by European
nations before conference should remain in their hands, such areas included the Congo and those
territories which Germany had annexed like Togo, South West Africa (Namibia)
THE EFFECTS OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE ON AFRICA.

The Berlin conference had the following impacts or effects on Africa as follow.
1. It partitioned or sliced Africa amongst the European nations into the colonial possessions and fixed
boundaries in their interests. For instance, Britain got 27 colonies, France got 12 colonies, Germany
got 9 colonies and Belgium got 2 colonies.
2. It led to the loss of Africa’s independence and sovereignty to the European nations, which established
colonial rule.
3. It led to the abolition of slave trade and the introduction of legitimate trade, which was of course
beneficial to the imperialist powers.
4. It led to much suffering amongst African people under the colonial administration especially when they
(Africans) resisted against colonialism.
5. It divided the ethnic groups in Africa into separate boundaries something, which implanted the spirit
of disunity amongst them. For example, the Makonde in Mozambique and Tanganyika, the Luo in
Kenya. Sudan and Uganda and the Maasai in Kenya and Tanzania by then Tanganyika.
6. It planted the seed which led to the outbreak of the First World War (1914 - 1918) and the Second
World War (1939 - 1945) because the conference did not satisfy the ambitions and interests of some
nations i.e. dissatisfaction in territorial arrangements in Africa. For example, Germany was not satisfied
by the conference for other powers like Britain got the Lion’s share.
7. European nations introduced new systems of administration in Africa. The German and British
employed direct rule and indirect rule respectively in their colonies, while the French and the
Portuguese used the assimilation and later on association policy to administer their colonies in Africa.
8. The Berlin conference marked the beginning of colonialism in Africa. Many European powers took
control of various parts of Africa, forcing African to work for them.
9. It led to the introduction of foreign European languages in Africa to ease colonial administration in the
colonies. For example, Francophone the French-speaking countries such as Senegal, Mali, Ivory Coast
and Benin. Anglophone (English-speaking) countries such as Kenya, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Ghana, and
Nigeria. Lusophone (Portuguese-speaking countries such as Angola. Guinea Bissau and Mozambique.
THE PARTITION PROCESS.

a) Introduction.
The partition process of East Africa between Germany and Britain took place between1884 to 1890. It
was completed into two (2) agreements between them.
i) THE ANGLO-GERMAN AGREEMENT OF 1886.

This was the agreement between (Britain) and Germany. The reason for this agreement was Germany’s
recognition of Karl Peters’ treaties. On arriving back in Berlin from East Africa in February 5th, 1885,
Karl Peters presented his treaties to Bismarck and Kaizer William. Kaizer granted him the imperial
charter. The area was by then to come under the society for the German colonization when it became
chartered, the society came to be known as German East African Company. The Germany recognition
of Karl Peters’ treaties threatened Britain’s interests and provoked the Sultan who protested and
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appealed to Britain for intervention another reason is that the British and German companies interfered
with each other thus causing rivalry.
THE TERMS OF THE TREATY

In the Anglo – German treaty of 1886 between Germany, Britain and the Sultan, the following agreements
were reached.
a) The Sultan’s spheres would be Zanzibar, Pemba, Lamu, Kismayo, Bravo, Merka, Mogadishu and the
10 miles’ coastal strip on the mainland.
b) The German spheres of influence would be; the present day Tanganyika and Dar –es-Salaam.
c) Britain part would be roughly the today’s Kenya.
THE ANGLO-GERMAN AGREEMENT OF 1890 (HELGOLAND TREATY).

The reasons for this agreement were first the Agreement of 1886 had fixed no boundaries in the West of
Tanganyika and Kenya. Second, the question of Uganda, Karl Peters was already in Uganda to make treaties
for German colonization. However, by then Britain had already colonized Egypt and that had to guard the
Suez Canal. Third, the religious conflicts amongst religious groups in Uganda. The Christians who were
led by the Christian missionaries (White fathers) against the Anglicans, the Muslims and the traditionalists
under Kabaka. The conflicts led to the killings of missionaries and Christians as a whole. Therefore, the
missionaries seriously called upon the colonization of Uganda. The Anglican missionaries called upon the
British government while the white fathers called upon German government.
TERMS.
In the Anglo – German Agreement of 1890, there were only two parties, the German and the British. The
Sultan did not matter by then. The following are the terms of the agreement.
a) Britain spheres would be Zanzibar, Pemba, Kenya and Uganda.
b) German sphere would be Tanganyika and an island in the North Sea called HELGOLAND. That is
why this agreement is sometimes referred to as the HELGOLAND TREATY OF 1890 in which
Germany gave up the claims to Witu.
ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN AFRICA.

Immediately after the Berlin Conference on 26th February 1885, the European powers managed to establish
their rule and control over Africans. The establishment of control was made effective between 1885 and
1912 when African countries became under the colonial rulers.
As introduced earlier, the situation whereby one powerful nation dominates and controls the other weaker
nation politically, socially and economically and establishes exploitative structures is known as
COLONIALISM. The country, which dominates the other, is known as a COLONIZER whilst those,
which are colonized, are known as COLONIES.
Colonialism is a situation where by a powerfully/ strong nation invade and dominate the weaker nation by
establishing exploitative nature. OR,
Colonialism refers to the political, social and economic system through which one strong and powerful
country/ Nation dominates the weaker one in all aspects of their life such as economically socially and
politically. It can also refer to the direct subordination of one country by another country, politically,
socially and economically with the aim of exploiting her resources.
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By and large, colonialism was not accepted in Africa with open arms, thus, it was not easy to establish
colonial rule in Africa, hence various techniques/tactics were used to establish colonial rule in Africa as
follow.
1. DIPLOMACY. This was one of the tactics, which were used by the imperialist powers to establish
their colonial rule in Africa. This was practically done through agreements of treaties, which were
signed between African chiefs and the agents of colonialism. The treaties signed were bogus; hence,
many African chiefs lost power and independence. Example Carl Peter signed a treaty with Chief
Mangungo of Msovero in Morogoro in 1884; Johnson hurry signed a treaty in 1900 with Daud Chwa
of Buganda such treaties made Africans to be encroached (under) colonial rule.
2. GUNBOAT DIPLOMACY. This is the way of making another nation accepts your demands through
intimidation (force). This technique was mostly used in the areas where their chiefs seemed to be
reluctant to offer their areas to the colonialists. E.g., Sultan of Zanzibar surrendered a treaty to Carl
Peter of German because he used this technique; captain Lugard in Nigeria used the same approach.
3. MILITARY CONQUEST. The colonial powers used military conquest in areas where diplomacy
failed and when and where Africans resisted against the colonial rule; such tactics were used to
suppress Chief Mkwavinyika Munyigumba Mwamvuyinga of the Hehe (1891-1898), Mkwawa died
in June 1898 when he was only left with his two servants. Sergeant Merkel cut off Mkwawa’s head
and dispatched it to Germany for Governor Von Liebert, offered 5,000 rupees to the person who would
bring him Mkwawa’s head. The skull was finally retured to Tanganyika on 9th July 1954. Isike
(Nyamwezi), Kabalenga (Bunyoro), Kaitolel Arap Samoei (Nandi).
4. COLLABORATION. This was the colonial system of administration that created alliances between
groups of Africans with the colonial powers against other African groups. Such a situation occurred
when two (2) African groups were in conflicts. Thus, the weaker one cooperated with Europeans in
order to get protection and support against its enemy. Examples of the African rulers who used
collaboration method were Mangi Mandara of Moshi who cooperated with Germans against Mangi
Sina of Kibosho in 1891, Chief Merere of Sangu who collaborated with the Germans against Mkwawa
of the Hehe.
5. IDEOLOGICAL METHOD. In this tactic, the colonialists introduced western ideologies to soften
the hearts and minds of Africans to accept colonialism. For example, the Christian missionaries
introduced Christianity, which went hand in hand with the provision of colonial education, which was
of course offered, to the sons and daughters of African chiefs only. As a result, those who were
converted to Christians became loyal to the colonialists, hence colonialism. That’s why some
historians argue that “colonialism came armed with two weapons one in each hand, the bible in
the left was presented first and the gun later”
6. APPLICATION OF RACISM. This was the ideology, which internalized the belief that a certain
race was superior to other races. The African black color was insulted to be the color of the devil,
which was always painted in black color, and angels in white color as Europeans are, this brought
inferiority complex amongst African.
7. ADMINISTRATIVE TECHNIQUES. For example, Britain used indirect rule tactic of

administering its colonies in order to do away with African’s resistances and France used assimilation
and later on association Policies to administer its colonies.
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8. Through deportation of some of the tribal leaders who were exiled away to stop resistance. Good
example, Jaja of Opobo was deported to West Indies in 1891. Mwanga of Buganda and Kabarega of
Bunyoro were exiled in Seychele Island as they resisted colonial rule.
9. Through divide and rule approach. Here colonizers on tribal lines, economic lines, divided the
Africans and religious e.g.in the Ganda tribe was given education and white caller jobs while the
northerners were to provide cheap labor. The Catholics were segregated in the British colonies and all
leadership posts were given to the protestants such acts kept African disunited and easy to be ruled.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CHARTERED COMPANIES IN AFRICA.

During the early phase of the establishment of colonial rule in Africa, the colonial governments used charted
companies to administer the colonies on their behalf.
N: B A charter is a written statement describing the right that a particular group of people should have.
OR
A written statement of the principle and aims of an organization, therefore, chartered companies are
organization qualified according to the principles and aims for which they were/are established. Basically,
the chartered companies were trading companies; the European colonial powers opted to use the chartered
companies in order to reduce the administrative costs.
Some of the chartered companies, which operated in Africa by then were; The Imperial British East African
Company (I.B.E.A. Co 18th April 1888 under Sir William Mackinnon). The German East African Company
(G.E.A. Co 28th March 1884 under Karl Peters), the British South Africa Company (B.S. A 1889), The
Royal Niger Company (RNC 1886 under George Tauban Goldie) The Dutch West India Company (D.W.I.
Co 3rd June 1621).
THE ROLES OF THE COMPANY RULE IN AFRICA.

1. They became active in abolishing slave trade especially in the interior of Africa.
2. To administer the colonies on behalf of their home governments.
3. To suppress and stop any African resistance against the imposition of the colonial rule. For example,
the I.B.E.A. Co played an important role in suppressing the Nandi resistance in Kenya and so did the
G.E.A. Co in Tanganyika against the Hehe under chief Mkwawa.
4. To carry out construction of physical infrastructure in their respective areas of administration so as to
ease the exploitation of African’s resources. For examples, they constructed roads, railways and
harbors to ease the transportation of laborers and raw materials in the colonies.
5. The companies under their leadership entered into bogus treaties with the African local chiefs in order
to expand more spheres of influence on behalf of their home government.
6. They opened up plantations in Africa so as to meet the very necessary capitalist demands, raw
materials in particular.
FAILURE OF THE COMPANY RULE IN AFRICA.

1. Remoteness of some areas. The company traders had difficulties in penetrating the interior of Africa
because of thick forests and lack of reliable infrastructure, roads in particular.
2. The company administration faced widespread resistances and hostility from the people of the
interior of Africa; therefore, instead of concentrating on trading activities, the companies spent much
time and money to suppress African resistances from the ethnic groups which were found in the
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interior of Africa. For example, the British trader Peter West and his thirty workers were attacked by
the Nandi in Kenya in 1888, Abushiri bin Salim revolted against the Germans in Tanganyika.
3. Running of the colonies was expensive due to lack of enough capital. For instance, staff wages and
salaries this made the companies bankrupt hence, they could not get the expected profits something,
which led to the failure.
4. Lack of enough and experienced Personnel to administer the activities of the companies. The
staff employed by the companies was mostly military officers who were not diplomatic and competent
enough to fulfill the various duties that they were assigned to them.
5. Language barrier. This is rooted from the fact that upon the arrival of the colonialists, Africans had
no access to formal education. The traders did not know all the vernaculars that were used by the
Africans by then something which led to communication breakdown, as the result some of the roles
were not effectively done, hence the failure of the company.
6. Imperfect competition between and amongst the companies. For instance, for the case of East
Africa the Imperial British East African Company under William Mackinnon had regular clashes over
the region against the German East African Company under Karl Peters something, which made the
companies fail to execute their functions. The clashes led to the first Anglo – German Agreement of
1886 and the second Anglo – German Agreement of 1890.
7. The threat of tropical diseases. Such as malaria. By then malaria was known to have no cure. It thus,
claimed the lives of many agents of colonialism such as explorers, missionaries and traders. As a
result, some of the traders did not go into the interior to trade as per the charter of their companies,
besides they fell short of personnel due to death hence failure.
8. Mismanagement or maladministration. Some chartered companies failed to execute their duties as

effectively as possible due to mismanagement of funds. In this case, some leaders of the companies
misallocated the funds for some objectives, which were not in accordance with the charter for which
the companies were established. For example, it is historically recorded that Cecil John Rhodes (5th
July 1853 went to South Africa aged 17 he entered the diamond at Kimberly in 1871 when he was 18
years, he died on 22 June 1893) had the vision of constructing a railway line from Cape Town to Cairo
–Egypt, the project which had started costing his company (BSC) hence failure.
AFRICAN RESISTANCES AGAINST COLONIAL RULE.
Etymologically, the term resist comes from a Latin word “RESISTENTIA” from the verb resistere which
means hold back in Standard English language. By and large, resist means to refuse to accept something
and try to stop it from happening or to fight back when attacked. One can define the term resist as dislike
or opposition to a plan, idea.
African resistance means negative reaction against colonialism that involved the use of weapons by African
societies. It was the phenomenon whereby Africans became hostile to European encroachment. Before and
during colonialism Africans started to resist against Europeans. This is due to the naked fact that colonialism
was not accepted in Africa by both hands. Several factors like land alienation, forced labor, etcetera led
Africans to resist against colonialism.
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Resistances of Africans against Europeans were highly involving Africans, who tended to use poor weapons
to resist while opposing colonial rule.
TYPES OF AFRICAN RESISTANCES.

There are two (2) types of resistances and these types are categorized while looking at the size or timing
as follows:
According to size
There were two (2) categories according to size, small-scale and large-scale resistances.
1. Small scale resistances
These types of resistances involved one tribe fighting against the colonialists and they basically covered
a small area e.g.
• Hehe Vs. Germans
• Jaja of Opobo Vs. British
• Mandinka (under Somare Toure) vs. French.
2. Large scale resistances
They were types of resistances that involved more than one tribe fighting in unity against colonial rulers.
Examples
• Majimaji war (it involved the Yao, Matumbi, Bena, Sangu, Mbungu, Ngoni, Zaramo, Sangu and
Bena and other tribes on the southern part of Tanzania by then Tanganyika who resisted against the
Germans)
• Ndebele and Shona against the British
According to timing
Primary resistances
Africans against Europeans fought these resistances at the early stages of colonial rule in Africa before
(1885).
Secondary resistances
Africans against Europeans fought these resistances during the colonial era (after 1885).
Case studies
E.g. of resistances in Africa involved:
1. Ndebele and Shona resistance vs. British

2. Nama and Herero vs. Germans
3. Somore Toure (Mandinka vs. French)
4. Jaja of Opobo vs. British
5. Majimaji war in Tanganyika vs. Germans
6. Mau Mau Resistances vs. British
Ndebele/Matebele and Shona resistance against the British (in Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)
Introduction: Shona and Ndebele are societies that are found in Southern Rhodesia. The Shona carries its
origin in Southern Rhodesia while Ndebele can be traced to further parts of South of Africa.
The origin of Ndebele/Matebele can be deduced to be from South Africa. The Ndebele migrated from
South Africa into Southern Rhodesia.
Due to the Mfecane war, Ndebele under Msilikazi started to migrate to north from the southern part of
South Africa in 1830s, the war resulted in Shortage of land.
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As they reached Southern Rhodesia, they met the Shona. They built relationships with the Shona and in
the end; the Ndebele turned Shona into their servants.
The 1880s was a time when Europeans under the B.S.Ec. and several missionaries reached southern
Rhodesia. Among the famous missionaries involved was R. Moffat who stayed in southern Rhodesia for
not less than 30 years.
Europeans in southern Rhodesia started to collaborate with Shona while being against Ndebele.
During the time of Lobengula, who started to control Southern Rhodesia in 1880s, a position he took over
after the death of Msilikazi, he (Lobengula) signed a treaty with B.S.Ec. In this treaty, he was promised to
be given:
In the end, Lobengula gained nothing. Hence in 1883-1887 was the time when Ndebele under Lobengula
started resisting against the British (up to this time Shona used to collaborate with the British).
NDEBELE/MATEBELE AGAINST BRITISH

The resistance started in 1893, Ndebele against the British while Shona collaborated with the British.
Factors for Ndebele resistance against the British

1. “Mwari and Mlimo” cult. Africans (Ndebele) believed that the Rinderpest disease (was brought by
the British). Hence, they started to fight.
2. Cultural interference - the British started to help Shona from being punished by Ndebele leaders,
before the British rule, Ndebele chiefs were allowed to punish Shona.
3. Failure of the treaty between Lobengula and the British, the British did not meet the agreement;
they did not give Lobengula all that they had promised him.
4. Land alienation the British under B.S.Ec. started to take land from the Africans for opening their
economies hence the alienated Africans started to fight to regain their land.
5. Introduction of taxes - Africans were forced to pay cash tax an action that Africans were against as
a result they started fighting more.
6. Forced labor with less pay (conscription) - Africans was forced to work on colonial economies,
without being paid or with little pay, (hence Africans started to fight).
7. Harsh treatment/maladministration from the colonial government as coercive forces continued to
harass Africans hence Africans resisted against this situation.
8. Cattle confiscation - Europeans started to take cattle from Ndebele by force hence resulting into
resistance. At the end of this war Ndebele were defeated by the British hence, they obeyed the
British rule like Shona.
NDEBELE AND SHONA RESISTANCE AGAINST THE BRITISH (CHIMURENGA WAR)
Chimurenga is a word in the Shona language roughly meaning “Revolutionary Struggle” During the
resistance between Ndebele and British (1893 – 94) Shona used to collaborate with Europeans.
In 1896, a war erupted that involved Ndebele against the British, during this war, Shona also started to
resist against the British, this resistance was called Chimurenga war.
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During Chimurenga war, Shona and Ndebele used to fight separately against British that they failed in the
resistance:
FACTORS FOR CHIMURENGA WAR

The factors that led to Chimurenga war were the same as those that led to the Ndebele war against the
British (in 1893). Some of these factors were:
1. British continued to take land from the Africans to open several economic activities, thus alienating
Africans.
2. Africans continued to be forced to work as cheap laborers in colonial projects.
3. Introduction of taxes, Africans were forced to pay tax in cash hence Ndebele and Shona resisted against
this.
4. Harsh treatment (Africans were treated badly hence they resisted).
5. Africans decided to resist trying to regain their political power.
6. Local beliefs (Mwari and Mlimo Cult)
Effects of Chimurenga war

In 1887, both Ndebele and Shona were defeated (therefore, they agreed to be under the British Colonial
rule). The resistance had several effects to both as follows:
1. It led to the destruction of properties to both.

2. Since Africans’ properties were destroyed, Africans decided to destroy infrastructure built by the
British colonialists.
3. It led to death of both Africans and Europeans even though the death toll for Africans was much higher.
4. The British colonial masters were forced to change their administration style to reduce resistance from
Africans.
5. The resistance cost a lot; large sums of money were spent by the British to buy weapons and other
things needed for the war.
6. It led to the eruption of hunger for the Africans.
7. The war ended with the Shona and Ndebele being defeated.
8. It resulted into the decline of economic activities for both sides, for Africans (Ndebele and Shona) and
for the British.
9. It led to insecurity and lack of peace and harmony.
Failure of Ndebele and Shona on Chimurenga
Activity
“Failure of Africans on their resistances against colonial imposition was due to technological
backwardness.” Discuss.
Chimurenga war ended with Africans being defeated. The failure of Ndebele and Shona was due to the
following factors:
1. Africans had lower technology levels hence they used poor weapons while Europeans used much better
and more powerful weapons.
2. Africans lacked experience in fighting compared to the Europeans.
3. Africans had a weak economic base so they failed to resist for a long time.
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4. Disunity among the Africans while at first (1893) Shona collaborated with the British and in 1896
Shona and Ndebele fought separately against British.
NAMA – HERERO RESISTANCE AGAIST GERMANS (1904 – 1907)
ORIGIN OF NAMA AND HERERO
The origin of Nama and Herero can be deduced in South West Africa (Namibia). Nama was under the
leadership of Hendrick Witbooi and Herero under Samuel Maherero.
Before the intrusion of Europeans in South West Africa Nama and Herero were in good relations. Starting
from 1880s Europeans started to increase in large numbers in South West Africa and they decided to
collaborate with Samwel Maherero (leader of the Herero) this action led to the conflict between Nama
against Herero societies.
Early 20th Century was a time when conflicts started between Herero against the Germans. Starting from
1904 Nama and Herero started to resist against the German colonial government.
FACTORS FOR NAMA – HERERO RESISTANCE AGAINST GERMANS
Several factors lead to Nama Herero resistance against Germans as follow:
1. Germans started to take land from the Africans id est. land alienation, thus alienating Africans while
opening their projects.
2. Africans were forced to work in colonial economic activities while being paid very little. That is forced
labor
3. Europeans introduced taxes in form of cash something that Africans rejected. (This form of cash taxes
were different from the forms used in pre – colonial times).
4. Harsh treatment from the colonial government: the Germans (due to the nature of German
administration) treated Africans badly.
5. Cattle confiscation: German colonial masters started to take cattle from the Africans by force hence it
resulted to resistance.
6. Loss of political power, so Nama and Herero fought trying to regain their power from the German
Colonial government.
Effects of Nama – Herero resistance against Germans
At end of this war (1907) Nama and Herero were defeated (Africans failed to continue fighting). The end
of Nama and Herero war against Germans had the following effects:
1. It led to the destruction of properties for both Europeans and Africans.

2. It resulted to death of both Africans and Europeans.
3. It brought hunger and famine for the Africans.
4. It taught the German colonial masters a lesson, as they changed the way of controlling their colonies
(instead of using force they started to use peaceful ways of controlling their colonies).
Failure of Nama and Herero

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Nama and Herero were eventually defeated and were under German colonial power. (Nama and Herero
were totally defeated). The reasons for this defeat were:
1. Africans (Nama and Herero) had poor weapons compared to Europeans e.g. of weapons used by
Africans were Arrows and spears).
2. Due to disunity - Africans fought separately (Nama and Herero used to fight against Germans
separately).
3. Africans were less experienced in fighting compared to the Europeans.
4. Africans (Nama and Herero) had poor economic base thus they could not continue fighting for a
long time.
MAJIMAJI RESISTANCE (1905-1907). By the 19th century, Germans had defeated many East African
Societies such as the coastal states. In 1904, the prophet Kinjeketile Bokero Ngwale aroused at Ngarambe
near Rufiji River. Kinjeketile started to mobilize people under the use of local belief; he introduced the use
of the magic water in which some traditional medicine powder like had been added, as a weapon in war
against the Germans.
By 1905 he mobilized a pilgrimage in Ngarambe he believed that the water could be used to defeat the
Germans and turn the German bullets into water. The word Maji comes from the Matumbi vernacular
“Mashe” which means water in English Language.
After the pilgrimage, on Monday, 31st July 1905 the war started, Africans on the Southern part of
Tanganyika like Matumbi, Ngindo, Lugulu, Ngoni against the Germans (they started by destroying the
colonial masters’ cotton plantations).
N: Germans hanged B. Kinjeketile due to treason on 4th August 1905. KINJEKETILE amongst the Matumbi
means KIMENIITIKIA in Kiswahili language.
FACTORS FOR MAJIMAJI UPRISING.

Majimaji resistance was a result of several factors:
1. Africans were forced to grow cash crops e.g. Cotton in the southern part of Tanganyika.
2. Introduction of hut tax (being in cash it affected many Africans as a result they decided to resist.
3. Harsh treatment from the colonial Government e.g. Africans were highly punished by the German
colonial government akaris.
4. Colonial government used coercive forces like police, army, tended to force Africans to work in the
colonial plantations (as a result Africans resisted).
5. Africans were against Arabs, Akidas and the Jumbes who were appointed by colonial government to
supervise the colonial economic activities.
6. Exploitation from the colonial Government e.g. colonial Government tended to export of a lot of
natural resources with high value from Africa while importing less value goods.
7. The hatred of the Jumbes and Akidas who were quite unpopular.
8. The German askaris slept with the Ngido wives something, which embarrassed the Africans.
9. The influence of Kinjeketile Ngwale who was charismatic and religious leader who through
his intelligence, he mobilized his fellow Tanganyika has to fight against Germans.
10. Cultural interference by the Germans, the Christian missionaries in particular who set on
fire the African’s traditional sacred huts
EFFECTS OF MAJIMAJI RESISTANCE.

Majimaji resistance had several effects to both Africans and Europeans. Some of these effects were:
1. It led to the destruction of properties e.g. Cotton plantations, railways and houses.
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2. Depopulation occurred due to death of several Africans and a few Europeans.
3. It taught the colonial government a lesson (Germany changed the system of administration (instead
of using force, they started to use peaceful ways).
4. At the end, Africans were totally defeated.
Why the failure of Africans on Majimaji resistance?

Africans failed due to:
1. Lack of experience in fighting wars compared to Europeans.
2. Poor weapons compared to the Europeans.
3. Disunity among the Africans.
4. False belief in water (can be used as a weapon)
5. Poor economic base for the Africans meant they could not fight for a long time.
6. Poor organization amongst Africans.
MAU MAU RESISTANCE.

Mau mau was a secret (or underground) movement of Africans in Kenya. The Kikuyu tribe started to fight
secretly. At large Maumau movement had three class struggle being Government (colonial Government)
settlers (who were Europeans and Asians) and Africans. To the large extent Maumau, war was a result of
the first and second world wars, which led to ex-soldiers who started to organize their fellow Africans to
resist against European colonial masters.
Factors for the Mau Mau movement (rebellion) in 1952
Mau Mau movement in Kenya started due to several factors:

1. Africans were restricted to grow coffee in Kenya highlands thus, they resisted.
2. Colonial government took land from the Africans giving it to the settlers (this was done through Crown
Land Act of 1919). In this Act, land was granted to the Queen of England for 999 years.
3. Introduction of hut tax, matiti tax, head tax etc to the Africans resulted in the negative response from
the Africans (Africans were required to pay tax in cash).
4. Introduction of forced labor – the colonial government used force to get Africans to work on the settlers’
plantations.
5. The use of laws and ordinance e.g. Colonial Government introduced Identity Cards for Africans
“Kipande” system. The identity card was to show one’s place of occupation.
Effects of Mau Mau resistance

Mau Mau war had several effects to both Africans and Europeans e.g.:
1. It led to death of many Africans (almost 3,000 people died).
2. The destruction of properties had a great financial impact to the colonial government. It is estimated
that it cost almost £50,000 to restore destroyed property.
3. It taught a lesson to both Africans and Europeans e.g. Europeans started to change the system of
administration.
4. It led to the destruction of properties to both Africans and Europeans (but Europeans were highly
affected).
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5. It affected many settlers while they failed to continue with production due to the shortage of labor and
the war itself.
6. It led to the declaration of the state of emergence in Kenya.
7. It raised Kenyans’ awareness and consciousness about their freedom and at the end of the day Kenya
regained its independence in 1963 under Mzee Jomo Kenyatta.
8. It led to imprisonment and assassination of radical political leaders. For example, Dedan kimath was
assassinated while several others imprisoned like Jomo Kenyatta.
The Nandi resistance (1890-1906) by Koitalel Arap Samoei who died on 19th October 1905.
THE REASONS AS TO WHY AFRICAN REACTED AGAINSTCOLONIAL RULE IN AFRICA.

African resisted/ reacted against the imposition of colonial rule because of many reasons these were;
a) Because colonial rule was an alien (new) foreign to the Africa in a sense that it was imposed to the
Africans by the European imperialists therefore Africans did not recognize and accept it.
b) Colonial rule was undemocratic and illegitimate to the Africans since the Africans did not elect the
colonial rulers, Hence Africans decided to react against it so as to get democratic and legitimate
government that will fulfill African’s interests.
c) Colonial rule were too oppressive, harsh and exploitative to the Africans especially the forcing of
Africans to work, pay taxes confiscate all African resources like land made Africans not to tolerate
rather to fight against colonialist.
d) Colonialists interfered with African important interests such as land, trade traditional and customs i.e.
women circumcision. Hence, Africans decided to react against. Example Mandinka resistance against
France.
e) African did not want to be controlled by the colonialist as a result they wanted to regain their lost
sovereignty and their independence where by that time was under the hands of colonialist.
f) African reacted against colonialist because they were against cash crops production, which they saw
that was of no benefit to Africans especially during the colonial economy. This was because Africans
were forced to produce cotton, sisal and coffee, which were not easily consumed in Africa due to
shortage/ absence of industries. Thus, Africans decided to react against e.g. Maji Maji war against
cotton cultivation in Tanganyika.
g) African reacted against colonial rule because colonialist introduced Christianity, which killed African
local beliefs as a result to maintain their beliefs Africans divided to react over European.
FACTORS, WHICH DETERMINED THE NATURE OF AFRICAN RESISTANCES OR

REACTIONS.
As shown in the types of African resistances, it is obvious that the nature and ways of resistances differed
in Africa. While some societies had, active resistances other resisted passively or decided to collaborate
with the colonial invaders. There are various factors, which explain these differences, such factors include.
1. The level of development. People who had achieved great developments such as weapons like guns,
strong leaders and high production in agriculture and other sectors of the economy were able to stage
up stiff active resistances against the colonialists. For example, chief Marere of the Sangu allied with
the Germans to defend himself against the strong army of Mkwawa of the Hehe.
2. Ignorance of some rulers in several societies. Some rulers were ignorant of the white men’s
ambitions because they thought that Europeans would be friends who could provide them with security
so they collaborated with them but it was too late when they became aware of imperialistic ambitions
in their societies.
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3. Presence of Missionaries in many societies led to the rise of collaboration. European missionaries
urged their converts to refrain (to stop) from resisting because such actions were signs of backwardness
and endangered the souls of those who might fight actively, most of the rulers who had allowed the
British to extend colonial rule in Eastern and Northern Uganda.
4. Individual interests among the leaders, either made them fight actively or conduct collaboration.
Those who fought were trying to protect their political positions, because they feared that the white
men had planned to overthrow them from leadership posts. Some rulers who were weak could not
fight back thus they chose to collaborate with the whites, for example Kahigi of Kihanja of Bukoba in
Tanganyika was the weakest leader in Buhaya, so he decided to ally with the Germans.
5. Outbreak of disease e.g. Render pest reduced cattle, due to that Lenana leader of the Kaputie and
Matapata Maasai and Sendeyo, a leader of the Loita Maasai collaborated with the whites.
WHY COLLABORATION?
African collaborated with Europeans because of the following reaons;
a) Wrong perception, many African chiefs had wrong perceptions about the colonialists that were just
visitors who would go back soon to their homes. When they realized that they came to stay they
changed the resection e.g. Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda
b) Existence of missionaries, missionaries’ brainwashed the Africans to accept colonialism through
Christian indoctrination and mission the education that softened Africans’ hearts and minds e.g.
“Resistance means backwardness”. Hence, such societies collaborated with the whites.
c) Existence of enmity between two or more local African tribes, e.g. the Sangu and the Bena
collaborated with Germans to fight against the Hehe.
d) Military motives, some African societies collaborated with the Europeans with the motives of
acquiring weapons to use them in future. E.g., Menelik II in Ethiopia deliberately collaborated with
Italy to acquire weapons.
e) Source of commerce and trade, some African societies collaborated because they regarded
Europeans as the source of commerce and trade by collaborating with them they would become rich
e.g. Buganda.
f) They were weak militarily some of the societies allied with the foreigners because they were
incapable to fight against the invaders and they saw that it was fruitless as they were weak militarily.
g) Natural calamities, some African societies also made alliances with the whites because they had
suffered greatly from natural calamities e.g. small pox, jiggers, drought, famine and so forth.
ETHIOPIAN’S RESISTANCE 1889 – 1913
Ethiopia under their leadership of Menelic II managed to wage an active resistance over the Italians. This
came into being following the death of John IV in 1889 which Menelic signed the Uccil treaty on May 2,
1889 that made him to be an emperor.
Later Italians became confident over attacking Ethiopia so as to compel (defeat) Menelik. It rule on 1895
in which during the 1896 at the battle (war) of Adowa the Italians were greatly defeated something that
made Menelick II becomes most popular leader among the Ethiopians.
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In October 1896, the Italians signed the treaty of Uccial that recognized Ethiopia as full sovereign state
(independent state).
REASONS FOR THEIR RESISTANCE
Ethiopia under Menelik II resisted against Italian rule became of the following:-
Italians expanded their boundaries to the Maghreb as well as the white country of Ethiopia this made the
Africans to fight over them. The Italians stopped Menelick II from negotiating the diplomatic exchange of
envoys with France and Russia.
This is because the Uccial treaty stipulated that Ethiopia was under the Italian’s protectorate and That
Menelik II was not allowed to make any alliance and mediation with the British, France and any other
European power.
WHY ETHIOPIAS WERE NOT COLONIZED IN THE 19TH CENTUARY?
Ethiopians were not colonized like any other African countries because of the following reasons:
I. Due to religious beliefs in which the Ethiopians shared single religion which united them against their
enemies Christianity.
II. Ethiopian was lack to have leader who was talented on leadership and organization. In this case leader
Ethiopian had diplomatic relations with Europe since the 18th C from Italy and Portugal she got
weapons powers, in the 18th C Ethiopia captured some Briton.
III. Ethiopia had diplomatic relations with Europe since the 18th C from Italy and Portugal she got weapons
with which to resist the Italian invasion victoriously (that helped them to resist the over the Europeans).
IV. Due to under estimation of Ethiopian strength through the treaty of Uccial Ethiopia and Italy agreed that
Ethiopia would be under Italian protection and that she treaty, Italy sent troops to punish Ethiopia but it
was badly beaten.
V. Geographically Ethiopia was a mountainous country with deep valley and caves, which eclipsed the
resistors from being seen by their enemies, and there for, was able to wage guerrilla warfare.
VI. Ethiopia possessed a very stable, efficient, and well-organized army compared to any other African
experience and knowledge in wars this mode them able to defeat against enemies.
VII. Ethiopians had established long a high spirit of national feeling and national unity, thus everybody had a
role in defending the country against European rule.
VIII. Due to little economic motives and lack of mineral potentials in Ethiopia. This is because Ethiopia had a
generally unpleasant climate characterized by long period of drought and most of the soils were rocky or
sandy with small fertile ports, again it had no raw – materials like minerals and agricultural products.
These made Europeans to remove their interest to colonize the country.
Revision Questions.
1. Account for the Ethiopia’s successful resistance against colonialism (Necta 2010 Qn. 9
2. Why Ethiopia was not colonized during the colonial rul
REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF AFRICAN RESISTANCES

Many African societies did not accept European domination and showed the reactions in different forms of
resistances. However, their effort was confronted by severe attacks and defeats from colonial powers. These
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were mainly as the Europeans were using superior weapons such as the maxim guns and cannons, which
were sophisticated while Africans used inferior weapons such as spears, clubs, bows and arrows, which did
not match with those of the Europeans.
a) Europeans used modern war techniques that made them easily attack the Africans. Africans
depended on their closed forts, which were the main targets of attacks from the white enemies. For
instance, the Germans demolished Mkwawa’s fort at Kalenga in 1894.
b) Europeans had quicker means of mobility that enabled them to penetrate the heart of Africa such
as the Congo forests and other areas easily. For instance, in West Africa colonialists used horses,
while along the coast of East Africa Germans used steamboat to attack Abushiri at Pangani.
c) Europeans had much knowledge of the heart of Africa, strategic areas and the nature of various
people of Africa and their location. White missionaries, explorers, conveyed all such information to
them and traders who visited Africa earlier thus it became easy for them to defeat Africans.
d) The Europeans had strong and stable economies that enabled them to fight for a longer period,
unlike Africans who were still in the subsistence economic that could not sustain them.
e) The Europeans had common goals of colonizing Africans in their fights unlike African societies
who lacked unity and were sometimes fighting each other or one another. For instance, the Sangu
and Bena were attacking the Hehe, while Mangi Rindi attacked Mangi Sina.
f) Some African societies suffered internal weaknesses on the accounts of slave-raiding activities,
disputes and expansionism. A typical example was in Jos Plateau in Nigeria and Southern
Tanganyika, where some African societies attacked or raided other societies in order to acquire slaves
to sell them to the European traders.
g) Africans had wrong superstitious beliefs. For example, the people of Southern Tanganyika were
made to believe in the idea that water from Ngarambe Pool would change the white man’s bullets into
water, ‘Maji Maji’, which was not true. As a result, many people were killed by the German armed
forces.
h) The capture and execution of African leaders demoralized their warriors, thus leading to their
defeat. A good example was the capture and execution of Kinjeketile Ngwale on 4th August 1905 and
Mpanda of Southern Tanganyika, during the Maji Maji uprising.
i) Africans were destabilized by natural calamities because of the war; these included famines and
infectious diseases such as smallpox and others. Good example of Maasai society suffered from cholera
in 1879 to the extent that they failed to fight violently.
j) Africans lacked good leadership and unity. This occurred, as some of the leaders were reluctant to
cooperate with others. Hence, each tribe entered the war on its own. As a result, it was easy for the
colonialists to defeat them.
k) Due to the betrayal from among Africans. This caused the failure of African resistance against
colonialists simply because; some Africans betrayed their fellow Africans by deciding to collaborate
with the white men against their neighbors this eventually weakened their unity, Good example is Sangu
and Bena allied with the Germans to defeated their neighboring Hehe.
Though Africans were defeated by the Europeans, their reaction against colonial invasion was marked
as the early nationalist reaction in Africa and made them gain self-respect and were considered to be
heroes of Africa.
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TOPIC TWO
THE COLONIAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS.
MAJOR TYPES OF COLONIAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS

The creation of colonies by imperial powers in Africa was a crucial thing in the 20 th century, after the
scramble for and partition of the African continent. The colonial powers that immediately occupied Africa
after the Berlin Conference of 1884 to 1885 were Britain, France, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Germany and
Italy.
Although all these European powers had the same economic goals of occupying the African continent, they
did not use uniform approaches in establishing their colonial administrations. For instance, the Portuguese,
French and Belgians applied assimilation policy in their colonies and later used the association policy. On
the other hand, the British employed indirect rule in many of her colonies except Zimbabwe where they
applied direct rule. Likewise, the Germans in Tanganyika used direct rule as their system of administration.
The major types of colonial administrative systems were direct rule, indirect rule, assimilation policy
and association policy.
INDIRECT RULE
INTRODUCTION:
This was the colonial administrative system whereby African traditional rulers were involved in
administering their fellow Africans at the local levels on behalf of the colonial governments while the
colonial officials and administrators at the higher level.
Indirect rule also can be defined as the administrative systems applied by the British whereby Africans were
ruled indirect through local ruler’s support.
Sir Fredrick John Lugard who was the British High Commissioner to Nigeria in 1900 initiated the indirect
rule. The British in their colonies adopted the system especially where she had peasant economy like in
Nigeria, Tanganyika, Ghana, Cameroon and Uganda.
Lugard urged the British to use indirect rule in all the colonies. In 1922, Lugard wrote a book titled of the
dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa to show the validity of indirect rule. The system was applied in
other British West African colonies such as Ghana and Gambia.
THE MOTIVES/REASONS FOR THE APPLICATION OF INDIRECT RULE.

WHY DID THE BRITISH USED INDIRECT RULE?
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The major reasons that made Europeans to initiate and apply the indirect rule system of administration in
Africa were:
1. Lack of manpower; Colonial power found out that African societies were too large to be governed
or ruled directly without the assistance of the indigenous people or natives that’s why they decided
to use indirect rule.
2. Communication problem; An African chief or king was an important link between the African
people and the colonial authorities. He understood his people’s language and culture and he was a
symbol of authority in the society, was trusted and listened to. That why British used indirect rule.
3. To avoid resistance; In places like Nigeria there were powerful local rulers with strong armies.
Indirect rule made Africans to believe that their fellow Africans not whites exploited them.
4. Indirect rule was cheap; The local rulers were rewarded with gifts like old clothes, chairs, necklaces,
and beads. They were also given protection, paid salaries and also given good accommodation as
opposed to the whites who demanded high salaries and expensive privileges. In Uganda for instance,
the British depended on the Baganda system of administration because there was already a structured
system line of local authority.
5. In other areas, indirect rule was used when the system of direct rule had proved failure. For
example, the British colonial government decided to use indirect rule in Tanganyika to avoid what
happened to the Germans during the Maji Maji rebellion in 1905-1907.
6. Physical difficulties in Africa; the thick forests, tropical diseases, wild animals, hostile tribes, little
knowledge about the interior, climatic conditions, lack of transport and lack of infrastructures forced
the British to use indirect rule.
7. It was a suitable technique of governing the illiterate people of Africa; It was difficult to organize
them through the radio and other means of mass media. The use of African leaders was the best
method of governing them.
8. Lack of enough army; The British did not enough army hence they used this system to escape the
war which when fought possibly they could be defeated because they had few soldiers and few
military weapons.
9. Preparing Africans for their independence; Lugard introduced this system with the aim of
preparing Africans for their independence. It was seen as a suitable method by which Africans would
be able to rule themselves when they get independence.
WHY INDIRECT RULE WAS INDIRECT.
i. Indirect rule was indirect because the British used local rulers to organize and supervise various colonial
economic activities such as cash crop production, tax collection and building colonial infrastructures
such as railways and roads on their behalf.
ii. The British colonialists used local African rulers in administering punishment to their fellow Africans
on their behalf.
iii. The British colonialists used African local rulers to resolve disputes (conflicts) where the conflicting
individuals were African natives on their behalf.
iv. The British government issued orders to the African local rulers who then had to convey to the ruled
Africans ready for implementation. Thus African – rulers had no independence in decision-making.
v. The system shifted the blame on African rulers making them be hated by their fellow Africans for their
support of colonial rule evils such as exploitation and oppression from these fellow Africans.
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF INDIRECT RULE.

The following were some of the strengths of indirect rule:
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1. It avoided African resistances by appointing traditional rulers to rule on their behalf. Hence, all
complaints were directed to the traditional African rulers.
2. It was cheap, as local chiefs were used to mobilize their people to pay taxes and work as forced
laborers.
3. It was successful to make African leader puppets of Europeans and always to serve the interest of
the European powers.
4. It facilitated colonial production which ensured constant supply of raw materials that were supervised
and monitored by local chiefs who were on the grassroots.
THE FOLLOWING WERE SOME OF THE WEAKNESSES OF INDIRECT RULE:

1. Indirect rule created imbalance in development amongst African states. Areas which had local
chiefs assisting the colonial government had development in social services like schools, hospitals and
roads while those which had no chiefs in their areas had no or inadequate social services. Such situations
had led to many conflicts among Africans after independence. The African local rulers were favored in
all aspects of life as opposed to ordinary Africans. For example, the colonial education was given to
the sons, daughters of the chiefs only while the sons, and daughters of nobodies had no access to such
an important social amenity that is education.
2. It had created social differences amongst Africans. The chiefs’ families and royal families got
privilege of getting social services such as education, hospitals and many more while the rest of the
community were not getting such facilities.
3. Tribalism developed as an impact of indirect rule. African chiefs who were entrusted to rule on behalf
of the colonialists considered themselves superior to others in their land. For example, Kabaka Mwanga
of Buganda created disunity amongst Ugandans when he declared the Buganda kingdom independent
in 1960.
4. African chiefs became puppets of the colonial administrators and did not serve their people.
Hence founding the fertile ground for neo-colonialism in Africa, which is still practiced in Africa
PROBLEMS WHICH BRITISH FACED IN IMPLEMENTING INDIRECT RULE SYSTEM IN

NIGERIA.
REASONS WHY INDIRECT RULE FAILED IN EASTERN AND SOUTHERN NIGERIA.
1. Absence of centralized administration; There was no centralized administration like that of the
Sokoto Caliphate or the Buganda Kingdom. Among the Ibo of the Eastern Nigeria, the society was
organized in clan system. Hence there was no single centralized leadership that was acceptable through
out the region which could promote indirect rule system.
2. Development of influential group of literate people; In the Yoruba states and Abeokuta there
developed an influential group of literate people. By 1893Abeokuta became independent from the
British rule hence the British stopped to rule them. This literate class mobilized the natives to oppose
British administration through indirect rule in their states.
3. Introduction of new policies of taxation; This was created by captain Lugard in order to support
administrative expenses. British started demanding taxes, not exempting women, children and animals.
This stimulated bitter protests and riots which were organized by women and children.
4. Introduction of warrant chiefs (puppets chiefs); The British introduced puppets chiefs among the
Ibo who were empowered to enforced laws and to introduce and demand new taxes from the people.
This stimulated riots between 1929 and 1930 among the Ibo
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THE EFFECTS OF INDIRECT RULE IN AFRICA
Some of the effects of indirect rule in Africa were:
1. The white settlers confiscated large portions of land from the Africans. This situation made many
Africans to be alienated from their ancestral land.
2. It boosted tribalism; Indirect rule reinforced separate ethnic identities and delayed the development
of national political consciousness. They used ethnic groups against each other because the British
feared that national activities might lead to countrywide resistance against colonial rule.
3. Weakened traditional administration; Traditional rulers became subordinate of the British. They
were used to implement the British policies such as forced labour and taxation.
4. Exploitation of Africans and their resources; Africans were economically exploited through forced
labor, land alienation and tax payment.
5. The white settlers were favored much in land distribution, employment, representation in legislative
council and areas for settlements. They were also given loans for developing or opening settler farms.
6. Emergence of puppet class among the Africans; This group of Africans were the major setback
during the nationalist movement. For example, in Uganda where the Baganda demanded more power
in the constitution than other tribes who were not involved in indirect rule.
DIRECT RULE
This was the colonial system of administration whereby European officials at the top position, Arab Akidas,
governed the colonies and Liwalis were at the bottom.
It was a colonial administrative system by which Africa colonies were ruled directly by using European
personnel alone.
This refers to a system of administration in which traditional, political and administrative organizations and
leaders are replaced with European system.
Direct rule was mainly used in the colonies which had large population of white men such as Southern
Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and Algeria. It was also used by the Germans in their colonies of Tanganyika,
Namibia, Cameroon and Togo. British led by Cecil Rhodes also used direct rule in Southern Rhodesia
(Zimbabwe). The white settlers eventually won the wars and occupied the fertile land in Mashona land and
Matebele land.
THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF DIRECT RULE.

The following were some of the strengths of direct rule:
The system solved the shortage of employment amongst the European population. For example,
Germany offered employment to its people in the colonies it occupied. Hence, it managed to reduce the rate
of unemployment of its people.
The system managed to suppress African resistances, since it ensured that the colonies had enough white
military officials to safeguard their interests. For instance, the Abushiri war of resistance of 1888 was
suppressed by the German colonial administration.
SOME OF THE WEAKNESSES OF DIRECT RULE WERE:

1. The use of harsh and brutal means to make Africans meet colonial demands such as production of
raw materials and paying taxes. Their approach led to many sufferings of the Africans that included
death or imprisonment.
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2. It undermined the pre-existing African traditional rulers. For instance, the German administration
in Tanganyika removed the African traditional rulers, replacing them with Arab Akidas, and Liwalis
from the coastal areas.
BRITISH DIRECT RULE IN ZIMBABWE/ REASONS AS TO WHY THE BRITISH SETTLERS

USED DIRECT RULE IN ZIMBABWE.
There were various reasons that made the British colonial rule in Zimbabwe to opt for the direct rule
administrative system. Some of those reasons were:
1. To ensure full control over African communities; The British aimed at having full control of
Zimbabwe’s economy in order to have access to the natural resources such as the fertile land and
minerals.
2. Availability of good number of whites; Many settlers were stationed in Zimbabwe. Settlers were
assured of employment to serve the administrative purposes of the colony.
3. Effects of the chimurenga war; The Europeans lost trust in African traditional leadership after the
Chimurenga uprisings of 1896 – 1897.
4. Resistance of the British leadership and supremacy; Through using white mercenaries, armed
white police officers and the native affairs department, the British managed to overcome
resistances from the African communities that they controlled.
5. Destruction of traditional and political organizations; The traditional systems of administration
and political organizations such as the indunas had been destroyed during the British conquest of the
territory.
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN DIRECT RULE AND INDIRECT RULE SYSTEM OF

ADMINISTRATIONS.
Direct rule and indirect rule had profound similarities (Comparison) as explained here below:
➢ Both were administrative system, which aimed at exploiting African, and providing benefits to the
colonialists.
➢ Both systems utilized coercive apparatus like police, army, the prisons and the judicial to suppress
the Africans who would resist against the system.
➢ Both had racial discrimination because whites were favored and considered superior race than
African thus encouraged racial segregation over the Africans. All high-ranking jobs in the
government were reserved for Europeans while Africans held the lower positions of jobs in their
local areas.
➢ Both were racist in nature, because, German administration employed the use of harshness in their
ruling the same to Britain in the whole process of the collection of taxes forces became to be common
to intimidate Africans pay such Tax.
➢ Both were imperialist instruments of administration that aimed at exploiting the colonies to the
maximum so as to meet the demand of capitalist. This is because in all levels land, labor and raw
materials were taken from African.
➢ Both made use of African assistance in the process of promoting colonial exploitation e.g. the British
indirect rule used local African chiefs. German direct rule made use of Akidas and Jumbes.
➢ Both encouraged conflict to Africans.
➢ Both systems of colonial administration used African traditional chiefs to supervise colonial works
in their areas. However, African rulers who supported the colonial administration did not get full
support from their people; they were regarded as puppets or traitors.
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THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DIRECT AND INDIRECT RULE
❖ The direct rule did not use traditional African chiefs as their intermediaries while the indirect rule used
African chiefs. For instance, in Kenya the British used some Kikuyu chiefs as paramount chiefs, like
Chief Koinange wa Mbiyu and many others. Germans used direct rule in her colonies in Africa
including Tanganyika.
❖ The indirect rule practiced by the British did not experience great enmity from the Africans because
African traditional chiefs were involved in the colonial administration and their subjects were loyal to
them. This was not the case with direct rule employed by the Germans, since they experienced frequent
resistances due to their harsh and brutal treatment of Africans.
❖ It was easy for the indirect rule administration to convince African traditional chiefs to mobilize their
subjects to participate in various colonial tasks while the direct rule administration encountered
difficulties in mobilizing Africans to perform their colonial duties and as a result opted to use force to
make Africans participate in their various colonial duties. For example, the Germans in Tanganyika
force southern people to work in their cotton plantations.
❖ The indirect rule system of administration had less costs of administration unlike the direct rule that
required many Europeans to perform all tasks of administration hence high costs of administration.
❖ Direct rule was characterized by the use of force and racial superiority. For instance, the Germans
considered themselves superior to other races. Brutality was also another characteristic of direct rule,
whereby colonial administrators handled Africans brutally. On the other hand, the indirect rule system
of administration used African local chiefs in handling their people and at the same time performing
colonial duties.
ASSIMILATION POLICY.
The term assimilation means ‘similar to.’ The French used this term to refer to a system of administration
that aimed at creating French Black Africans amongst the West Africans who would be French citizens.
Assimilation policy was a system of administration used by French in which the Africans were taught how
to think and act as the French people
The French wanted the French Black Africans to enjoy the same status and privileges or suffer penalties
like any French citizen in France.
The assimilation policy was first used in Indo-China and Algeria and later introduced in the four communes
of Senegal-St. Louis, Rufisque and Dakar-in 1854 and spread to other French colonies in Africa. The
assimilation policy proved to be successful when it was applied in Morocco. In Senegal, Lewis, a French
governor, between 1854 and 1865, introduced the assimilation policy.
THE REASONS OR MOTIVES FOR THE APPLICATION OF ASSIMILATION

POLICY/REASONS AS TO WHY THE FRENCH USED ASSIMILATION POLICY IN
ADMINISTERING HER COLONIES IN AFRICA.
1. The assimilation policy made European countries that employed the policy in their colonies to consider
their culture and civilization as superior to those of the colonized people (Africans). The French
believed that their culture was the best in the world, and that they had enlightened their colonies with
their rich heritage of civilization.
2. The French considered their colonies as overseas provinces; on this ground they aimed at
transforming black men into French men.
3. The French revolution of 1789, French revolution encouraged ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity
to all men all over the world which gave the French the thought that their culture was the best and it
was supposed to be applied in different parts of the world.
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4. The French wanted identical administrative policies to be implemented in all of its colonies in the
world.
5. The French aimed at making a class of Africans that would help them in international conflicts. This
was so especially after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871 in which the French colonies Alsace and
Lorraine were annexed by Germany. So the French wanted to create its allies in African colonies for
their future interests, thus, they applied the assimilation policy in all its colonies.
6. The French intended to create or establish a group of African French men who would assist France to
facilitate colonial progress in the colonies economically, socially and politically.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ASSIMILATION POLICY

The system of assimilation that was used by the French in administering the colonies had various features:
1. The French regarded their colonies as their overseas provinces, thus the colonies were closely
attached to France.
2. African citizens within the French colonies enjoyed the privileges and rights that were given to any
French citizen in the metropolis.
3. The African colonies under the French rule were represented in the French Lower House of
Parliament. This showed that there was political integration of the Africans with France.
4. There was a close economic relationship between France and her colonies in Africa. The French
currency was used in the colonies, an indication that the colonies were integrated to the metropolis
country.
5. They intended to make the Africans in the colonies to be good French citizens through dictatorship
that forced Africans to learn French language, follow the French laws, apply French civil and political
systems, be Christians and adopt French manners.
6. They encountered many difficulties in West Africa, since their attitude towards African culture and
the African chiefs was negative.
THE QUALIFICATION FOR THE AFRICAN TO BE ASSIMILATED OR TO BE ASSIMILES

CITIZENS.
For the African to be regarded as fully assimilated the French colonial masters set a certain condition in
which whoever who could qualify has to be given full French citizenship, such conditions are as explained
here below:
Must be an adult person over 18 years and a Christian in faith.
Must practice monogamous (marry one wife).
Must have passed and qualified military services
Must abandon their culture and adopt the French culture
Must be fluent in French language both written and spoken.
NOTE: An African who complied with all above condition he / she was given French citizen ship.
THE MAIN DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ASSIMILATION POLICY.
(b) It argued that any African who wanted to become black French or Portuguese to abandon their African
culture. The assimilated Africans were required to have looked and speak like the France / Portuguese.
(c) The African assimilees or assimilador were subjected to harsh colonial laws like others non-assimilated
African e.g. forced labor.
(d) The assimilated African was considered civilized and hence allowed to hold high post in the colonial
government.
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(e) The assimilated African could be given scholarship to study in France. However, the French and not
Portuguese only practiced this.
(f) Some of the assimilated African could be allowed to go and settle in France. This was not so in the
Portuguese colonies.
`However, from 1920 to 1940 the French started to abandon the policy of assimilation while the Portuguese
started to abandon it from early 1960, with the abandonment of this policy, they decided to introduced new
policy called Association / mature assistance by incorporating the Africans in running the colonies in
collaboration.
THE FRENCH POLICY OF ASSOCIATION: This was the system of administration applied by France
after having seen that assimilation policy had proved failure in 20th C. the policy of association aimed to
put the colonial subjects to be involved in the administration especially at the lower levels.
It was also a French colonial policy in which French had to respect the cultures of her colonial peoples and
by allowing them to develop independently rather than adopting French civilization and culture. The policy
came into practical in 1945 following the abandonment of French assimilation policy.
Generally, Association policy aimed at making participatory administration where by Africans associated
(co – operated) with the French in the colonial administration and consolidation. E.g., Africans were
supposed to supply military services, labor, pay taxes, while the French had to provide technical knowledge.
Again, under association policy Africans were involved in the colonial administrative functions in the
following dimensions.
Politically. The French respected political institutions of Africans and African rulers were involved in the
lower level of administration Africans were also supposed to be recruited in the colonial army and defend
the colonial interest.
Economically: Africans were supposed to pay taxes for development like, construction of schools,
hospitals etc. they were also supposed to supply labor, which was essentially voluntary labor to the manual
works such as construction of roads, railways and ports.
Socially: Africans were allowed to practice their culture freely, Europeans were supposed to respect
Africans culture.
THE MAIN FACTORS / REASONS FOR THE CHANGING THE NATURE OF ASSIMILATION
INTO ASSOCIATED POLICY.
The reasons for the failure of the French assimilation policy

It is historically recorded that the French assimilation policy came to fail due to several reasons like;
(a) The policy was resisted at its grass root in France. The French scholars and politicians expressed their
views that it was unwise and unrealistic for Africans to be transformed into Frenchmen.
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b) The policy was expensive and difficult to implement because the colonial government had to use many
funds to finance the project for instance building schools, buying textbooks written in French and so forth.
c) The policy-encountered opposition from the West African people especially the Muslims such as the
Mandinka people under Toure.This is because their religion allows marrying more than one wife
d) The French legal system was based on French civil law whereas the Africans had diverse customary laws
and traditions things, which made the policy implementable.
e) The spread of Islamic religion in West African communes became an obstacle to the spread of the
assimilation policy since the system encouraged people to be converted to Christianity.
f) The African traditional chiefs discredited the assimilation policy because it threatened their authority
over the assimiladors. The assimiladoes did not want accept being under the African chiefs, as they regarded
themselves to be superior to them.
g) Due to strong resistance from France who opposed a policy of assimilation, since many assimilated
Africans were allowed to get all rights like other French citizens such rights would not enable the colonizers
to exploit the colonial subjects to the maximum. Thus, they had to abandon it to preserve their interests.
h) It was very expensive to assimilate the Africans, as many French elites/philosophers they criticized this
system as they said that the system brought a burden to French tax payers, who paid taxes and benefited
others so a need to incorporate Africans in administration.
i) Due to cultural barriers among the Senegalese who were practicing Islam, which allowed polygamy thus,
they failed to adopt western culture of marrying only one husband.
j) Due to the need to reduce/avoid African resistance against colonialism, as the French spent a lot of their
effort suppressing the resistance e.g. Samour Toure of the Mandika empire. Therefore, a need to co-operate
with their local institution by becoming friends to Africans to easy exploitation.
k) Due to hard conditional ties to quality. Many African could not comply with the conditions given for the
one to be regarded as real assimilated in relation to African culture like polygamy and any other conditions
accompanied. (Traditions) thus the system of assimilation proved failure.
l) Due to inadequate resources to implement the policy. The policy needed many teachers to work in various
primary and secondary schools in order to teach the French language and provide the colonial subjects with
the basic education. The colonial masters failed to implement this, thus decided to adopt new policy.
Inadequate
m) Due to poor infrastructures in the colonies. This made poor effective implementation of the policy since
it was difficult to penetrate in the interior to reach the targeted colonial subjects because of thick forester
valleys, and mountains, which made communication more than impossible in the interior.
n) Due to Language barrier. Many Africans got difficulties in learning the French language at the
sometimes; many French administrators could not speak African local language, this created gap between
colonizers and the colonized subject. Grasp.
o) The assimilation policy was rejected by Africans for their expectations were not met. This is to say
Africans had no promotion to the key departments in administration, as all governors’ general was whites.
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Equally important there were few Africans membership which eventually forced Africans to be unwillingly
to attend the French parliament by 1905.
p) The French people feared that African representatives in the National assembly were likely to highly
influence the whites in policy and decision-making.
COLONIALISM NEVER INTENDED TO DEVELOP AFRICA

There is no doubt even among the bourgeoisie writers, that colonialism was a system that functioned well
in the interest of the colonialist who was the European powers. But unfortunately some ill-fated historian
do argue and say that colonialism had a lot of good that it brought in Africa for the benefit of Africans, that
is completely false and misleading, colonialism had only one hand – it was a one – armed bandit. It had no
any intention to develop African whatever was done in Africa were done to serve their interests, African
just picked the remains that would not have been avoided.
Since its inception, colonialism had never intended to bring any development in Africa. In fact, even the
capitalism, as mode of production that was introduced was not like that existed in Europe. In the list place,
they feared to create capitalism that would be rivals. From the very beginning the tendencies of European
nations was one of competition elimination and create monopoly.
For the first three decades of colonialism hardly anything was done that could remotely be termed as
services to Africans. It was after 1945 that some social amenities were built as a matter of policy. The so-
called developments of social services were distributed in a manner that reflected the pattern of domination
and exploitation. The scanty social services were meant only to facilitate European exploitation to the
African. They were not given to Africans whose labor was not directly producing surplus for export to the
metro pole.
There for ironically speaking there some social services that were established by the colonialists that are
termed as ‘development’ brought by the colonialists, which included introduction of western education and
construction of school, hospitals, residential houses rail net works, roads, harbors ports, electricity and water
services recreation centers processing industries, financial institutions, trade and money economy etc. this
is not true all those social infrastructures that were introduced aimed at bringing development to the African
But rather they were for specific purpose that served the interest of the colonialists. if in any case African
benefited from such services, it was just coincidental. As we can expound below;
1) Some social amenities like residential houses, recreation grounds, water and electricity were established
for the white settlers and expatriates who wanted to maintain the standard of living like that of the
bourgeoisie or professionals in the metro pole, they were more determined to have luxurious life in
Africa because so many of them were surplus population that had been created by the industrial
revolution, come from poverty in Europe and could not expect good services in their own land. Thus,
facilities like residential houses, recreation centers, water and electricity were put in place as to keep
them in the colony, but not to develop Africa.
2) In colonial plantations and companies facilities like hospitals, schools staff quarters, running water
and electricity were established because they viewed it as an economic investment, because some
minimum maintenance of the workers healthy was necessary for their exploitation. Usually such
facilities were inclusively for the workers of that particular capitalist concern, and the African who
lived outside money economy were simply ignored and not allowed to use the services.
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3) Means of communication like roads railway, ports and harbors were not constructed in the colonial
period so that African could visit their relatives and friends, or they were laid down to facilitate internal
trade within African commodities. They were constructed to make business possible for the colonial
companies and agriculture concession firms and for white settlers to transport their exploits from Africa
to the coast and eventually to the metro pole, any catering for the African activities was purely
coincidental.
4) Financial institutions like banks and insurance companies were put in place, but the fact is that these
institutions were more scandalously and neglectful to the indigenous people the banks like Barclays in
case of East Africa did little to lend the local people. In British East Africa, an ordinance was passed in
1931 restricting financial institution from lending the native people only lending white settlers and
colonial companies.
5) Schools hospitals and hospitals were use as tools to exploit African labor to divide and to spread their
culture, on top of that even the money used came from the Africans themselves not from Britain or
France or Belgium tax payers but from African workers and peasants produced for European capitalism
goods and services of a certain values a small proportion of their effort were retained by them in the
forms wage, cash payment and extremely limited social services such as were essential for their
maintenance of colonialism the rest went to the various beneficiaries of the colonial system.
6) Further still the high proportion of the so-called development in the colonies went in form of roads
or ports electricity railway roads etc were just necessary for maintaining efficient colonial exploitation
of the African in the long run. In the short run, such construction provided out let for European steels,
concrete electrical machinery and railroad rolling stock. Bu not to bring development as they do assert.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Colonialism and imperialism never intended to develop Africa but practically there some
development on the ground how would you reconcile such conflicting statement.
2. Explain why colonialism in Africa did not transform Africa economies into capitalism like
that of Europe.
THE COLONIAL STATE AND STATE APPARATUS.
Background.
Colonial state refers to the colonial extension of the metropolitan state; the colonial state was the first to be
established after the scramble and partition before the establishment of colonial economy. The colonial
state was to protect the bourgeoisie interests in the colonies. Thus, the colonial state was an instrument
responsible for exploitation and oppression of the colonies. The colonial state was imposed from outside
not from internal class struggle. Thus, it was the most violent.
The primary objective of the colonial state was to create colonial economy that would respond to the
demands of the metropolitan economies. It applied all the means to ensure the establish of
Colonial economy is realized, through suffocating the self-sufficient African economy and establishes the
money economy. Having no roots in Africa the colonial state used extreme violence to create such ---
economy. Methods like conquest and suppression of African up rising were adopted, scorched - earth policy
of warfare were applied in the areas of stiff resistance, which however were violently suppressed.
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HOW THE COLONIAL STATE WAS VIOLENT?
1. Colonial conquest, the violence of the colonial state was initially demonstrated in the process of
colonial conquest itself. Most African societies put up stiff resistance against the colonial establishment,
however they were violently suppressed. The colonialist used all kinds of violent means that may bring
success to them, many African dies, not only those who were in the battle fields, but also hunger, famine
and diseases claimed a number of lives.
2. Destruction of African handcraft. Another violence of the colonial state in her bid to establish the
money economy was manifested when it embarked on destruction of Africa’s handcraft. Throughout
the colonial state the tradition crafts of Africans were declare illegal. In the Belgian colony of Congo,
artisans had their limbs cut off when caught engaging in hand crafts.
3. Collection of taxation, Violence of colonial state can also be traced at establishment of taxations to all
adult African men. So as to force the African who operated self-sufficient economy to integrate into
the money economy. Violence and force was very rampant during the collection and the enforcing of
the taxation. The defaulters were tied up their hands together humiliated in the in the face of the public
those who failed to pay totally were jailed to provide hard labor.
4. The liquidation of African trading interest was another violent method applied by the colonial state
to break the backbone of African self sufficient and sustaining economy. Africans violently were denied
to participant in trade for example Jaja of Opobo and Nana Olum of Itsekir were crushed ruthlessly and
deported to West Indies as to stop them from engaging into trade. It was only the European monopoly
companies that were allowed to engage in trade.
5. Land alienation and cattle confiscation as method to establish the money economy also show how
colonial state was violent in her struggle to realize her objectives. African arable land was simply
grabbed by the colonists, as to reduce African as mere suppliers of cheap labor to the colonial
plantations and white settler’s farms to earn the meager wage that were given to them.
6. In searching and mobilizing for cheap labor to work in the colonial productions, the colonial state
demonstrated maximum violence; Africans were forced to work in mines plantations and on colonial
infrastructures corporal punishment were applied as to ensure maximum exploitation of African labor
force.
COLONIAL STATE APPARATUS: These were major instruments in establishment and

consolidating colonial rule and colonial economy. These were the super structure of colonialism you
may call them the arms of colonial state, they applied all mechanism to ensure the continuality of
colonialism in the colony including coercion violence intimidation deportation, corporal punishment,
legislations, and jailing, as to establish and achieve the colonial objectives and goals. Colonial state
apparatus comprised three organs;
i) Military organ
ii) Judicially/Prison
iii) Police
COLONIAL MILITARY. This was the backbone of colonial rule in spreading colonialism; the colonial
army was to serve colonial interests, not to serve the majority indigenous people. It applied brutality and
cruelty of the highest order ever seen in the world, it tortured the people and it happened that it created a
big gap between them with the civilians.
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Both the colonial army and the police were of mercenary character, trained only to use muscles as opposed
to the brain. Education for soldiers was discouraged so much that a myth was created that the less educated
a soldiers was the better he would be. They could not be recruited from cash crop regions because these
people had property to protect, and if armed they would want to over through the system that prevent them
from advancement.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COLONIAL MILITARY FORCE
1. Most of the recruits were illiterates, it was believed that the more illiterate a soldier was the better he
was thus basing on that notion many colonial military men were completely illiterate so as they can be
able to serve the interest of their masters without questioning.
2. They depended on orders and commands from the top colonial military without questioning anything
thus they lacked professionalism
3. They always lived in foreign land, i.e. they were not supposed to work on their home land so as to be
coercive and merciless while executing their orders from colonial top officers since most of their
operations were dominated by violence e.g. the Sudanese soldiers were brought in East Africa
4. They were selected from unproductive regions where cash crops/mining did not exist especially in
labor reserves like in northern Uganda so as they devote all their energies in serving colonial army and
should not affect colonial production
5. They survived on meager/low wages and sometimes without salaries so as they become more royal and
obedient to the colonial bosses
6. They were separated from the public, they lived in barracks and military quarters as to keep them away
from civilian problems so that they can create a gap between the civilians and the military force
7. The applied force and coercive means to the population like land alienation collection of taxes
mobilization of labor and suppression of resistance.
ROLE OF MILITARY FORCE IN CONSOLIDATING COLONIALISM
i. To defend the colonial state from foreign threats/ enemies like uprising of African against the
colonialists from internal and external threats that would have threatened colonial interests
ii. To punish the African leaders who would appear to be stubborn and non cooperative to the colonial
state by deportation, jailing, killing etc
iii. To alienate land from the indigenous people Africans, for the colonial plantations and white settlers.
iv. To provide protection to the colonialist against the Africans who would have harmed the settlers and
colonial missionaries.
v. To provide security and protection to the colonial agents like missionaries’ traders and explorers
vi. To suppress African uprising against colonial domination and to ensure the spread of colonial
domination in region
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THE POLICE. The military organ the police also aimed to serve colonial interests of maintaining peace
and – in the colonial state;
i. To maintain law and order in the colonial state by ensuring that laws are not broken
ii. To collect taxes on behalf of the colonial government and arrest the defaulters on the behalf of the
colonialists
iii. To ensure mobilization and constant supply of cheap labor to the colonial economy
iv. They were the watch dogs of colonial administration i.e. they were supposed to report and to take orders
from the colonial administration
v. To provide security for colonial agents like escorting traders and missionaries in areas of insecurity.
THE PRISON/JUDICIARY
i. The colonial judicially system its major objective was to justify colonial acts by using the judicial
system, it was dominated by the white magistrates and judges.
ii. To punish law breakers by jailing people who were against colonialism though the judicial system
iii. To make laws and interpret them that under judicial supervision that helped colonialism in her
objectives.
iv. It was the source of cheap labor; prisoners were taken to supply cheap labor in various colonial
economic activities.
COLONIAL STATE ADMINISTRATION (BUREAUCRACY.)

Colonial state administration refers to the administrative machinery established by the colonialists in the
colonial state or it is the hierarchy of colonial ranks in the colonial states, i.e. commanding orders and
regulations from the top to the bottom, e.g. territorial level district level and grassroots level.
The structure of colonial bureaucracy reflected the general division of labor within the world capitalist
system. Thus the top position, in both administration and military, were reserved for Europeans. The middle
cadres were reserved for the Asians and Arabs in eastern Africa and Lebanese and Syrian in western Africa.
The African occupied the lowest position. The use of Arabs and other Asian facilitated the colonialism
because these people had no political base internally, they could only struggle to accumulate wealthy but
not to throughout the colonizers. This is why they occupied the commercial sector.
CHARACTERISTIC OF COLONIAL STATE ADMINISTRATION

1. It based on segregation and racism. The Europeans occupied to responsibilities with high ranks,
followed by Asians, Africans were in the last class in administration, e.g. a governor was a European,
clerks were Asians and Africans were at the lower level ranks doing odd jobs like cleaners and gate
jeepers. A similar reflection appeared in the social services and residential areas occupied by each
category. Thus, the best social serves such as schools and hospitals were for the Europeans.
2. It was oppressive in nature, i.e. it was dominated by strict orders and commands especially from the
top officers of the Europeans e.g. all able men have to pay taxes to give community labor
3. It was dominated by regional imbalance. This is to say that ruling class came from productive areas
and dominant society some societies were made to act as labor reserves hardly penetrated into the ruling
class, e.g. in Tanganyika the Haya and the Chagga were in the bureaucracy/administration system of
the colonialists while the Waha were labor suppliers. The labor reserves were under developed in
absolute terms. Denied of cash crop production a sound communication system and schools, the only
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through which they would earn money was to sell their labor – power. While cash crop producing areas
were provided with better communication so that both manufactured and raw materials can easily
transport system.
4. In addition, it was characterized in the manner that within a given colony there were areas reserved
for supplying military personnel. Both in the army and the police were of mercenary character, trained
to use only muscles as opposed to the brain for example in Uganda the northern part of Uganda was
preserved for army and police.
5. Another feature of colonial state was sycophancy. Towns did not develop as productive centers, as
has been the case of Europe but as administrative centers. The African bureaucracy that merged
reflected this One’s position did not depend on One’s wealthy but on one’s administrative post. Thus,
a petty bourgeoisie’s class was created with no economic base.
6. Sex biased. Women were segregated from the administration and were not allowed to participate in the
colonial bureaucracy, their work was to supply family labor and support food production
7. Routenisation, the colonial bureaucracy operated along daily routine and strict regulations so as to
maintain quality and impartiality.
8. It was too hierarchical with the long chain of command from the top to the bottom whereby any issue
to be implemented at all levels were supposed to sign on it.
9. It was subordinate in nature discipline oriented i.e. Africans were supposed to obey the Asians and
Asian obey the whites.
PHASES OF COLONIAL STATE ADMINISTRATION

The colonial state administration had three major phases characterized with different approach.
Reflecting the demands of capitalist at any given time
THE FIRST PHASE 1820 – 1920

• This first phase covers the period from the scramble and partition to the 1920s i.e. 1820 – 1920 this
period was characterized with search for colonies in the continent and attempt to impose effective
occupation.
• It was also characterized by the colonialists trying to consolidate their rule after the end of the period
of scramble and partition and acquiring areas of influence.
• It was during this period that rise and fall of company rule like IBEACO in British East Africa GEACO
for Germany East Africa. That resulted into direct colonialism where by the colonial government sent
their own governors to take over their areas of influence colonies
• It was characterized with militarism; coercion and suppression of anti-colonial elements.
• It was this period that African begun resisting the imposition of colonial domination.
• It was characterized with the creation of mercenary army as the principle arm of the colonial
bureaucracy to defend the interest of the colonial state.
THE SECOND PHASE 1920 – 1945

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• It was characterized by establishment of colonial economy after the establishment of colonial state
and all the effort of colonial bureaucracy targeted colonial production
• This is when the colonialist had to establish their culture, to the Africans about their religion,
dressing, eating manners, the way of dancing etc.
THE THIRD PHASE 1945 – 1960s.

• This phase was characterized by intensive exploitation of African resources as European nations were
trying to revamp their economies from the capitalist crisis of World War two. The peasants were forced
to increase production of cash crops on one hand and the penetration of Multinational corporations on
the other hand.
• It was characterized with the establishment of import substation industries especially in the settlers’
colonies
• African became much involved in the colonial administration as they were being prepared for self-
determination. Class of petty bourgeois was created, after many colonial powers intended to give
independence to many Africa colonies.
• During this phase, Africans were promoted to high ranks and it witnessed the rise of vibrant elite class
of the Africans who were in the colonial bureaucracy that intensified struggle for independence.
COLONIAL STATE AND CLASS FORMATION

The term class refers to large group of people distinguished by the position they occupy in the system of
social production by their relation to the means of production, by the role in the organization of labor and
by the share of the social wealth, which they dispose of, and mode of acquiring it.
In the colonial bureaucracy created various classes in the colonial state as one of the best way of maximizing
exploitation in the colony the classes that were created by the colonial state which included
o Wage earners these comprised unskilled labor force that worked on colonial plantations, mines and
infrastructures were paid low wages and worked in poor working conditions.
o Peasant class these were the backbone of colonial agriculture most of the based in rural areas and
engaged in agriculture as the major economic activity, they live in vicious poverty since most of their
output were bought on low prices.
o Salaried workers/petty bourgeoisie these were colonial civil servants that included administrators’
doctors, teachers most of the were professional European Asians and few Africans.
HOW CLASSES WERE FORMED BY THE COLONIAL BUREAUCRACY

1. introduction of cash crop production in the colonial state in these areas where cash crop was grown
stratification within the cash crop growers were formed, with those areas were cash crops were not
cultivated were by such people became labor reserves for productive areas.
2. Through colonial subsides to some peasants while abandoning others, the colonial government gave
material support to the peasants who were able to cultivate more than 20 acres of land and those who
would cultivate more than 10 acres of land by doing so it created stratifications among the peasant Rich
peasant middle class peasants and poor peasants.
3. Trough land alienation African fertile soils were taken away by the colonialist and distributed to the
white settlers making African to become in the class of cheap laborer who would supply their labor
force to colonial plantations and to settlers’ farms.
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4. The government and financial institution selective way of giving loans, loans and credit were given
only to the Asians and Europeans which led to create stratification to specific people especially African
to remain cheap laborer provide or wage earners.
5. Colonial education, this was instrumental in breeding social and economic classes in the colonial
state the colonial education was only provided to few African while leaving the majority with totally
no education to make them chief suppliers of labor in the colonial state.
6. Racist policy, this was a deliberate colonial state policy to segregate the African basing on the color of
their skins it was the Europeans that were given top priority in economic political and social aspect
during colonial period followed by the Asians and making African the third class.
GENERAL ASSESSMENT OF COLONIAL STATE

1. It was not organized to meet the interest of Africans but to meet the colonial interests’. It
affected Africans in the following ways;
2. It instilled inferiority complex among the Africans
3. It led the subordination of Africans to the foreigners
4. It led to the intensive exploitation of human resources since many Africans were paid law
wages.
5. It integrated Africans in capitalist economy under colonial bureaucracy
6. It promoted racism among the Africans where by only the European and Asians were
considered more than the Africans were.
7. It created stratification among the Africans alienating some Africans from their societies
SAMPLE QUESTION
1. Discuss the role of colonial state apparatus in establishing and consolidating colonialism
2. The colonial state was the most violent Discuss.
3. How did the colonial police and army maintain law and order during colonialism?
4. What were the features of the colonial bureaucracy?
5. Discuss the nature and characteristics of colonial bureaucracy.
TOPIC THREE
COLONIAL ECONOMY
INTRODUCTION. The colonial economy simply refers to the extension of metropolitan economy that
was established in Africa (in the colonies) by the colonial masters with the aim of serving for the colonial
interests by gaining super profit through exploiting African labor raw – materials, market and other related.
Colonial economy that was established in Africa during colonial period involved various sectors such as
Agriculture, colonial labor, colonial industries as well as mining sectors.
OBJECTIVES / AIMS OF COLONIAL ECONOMY.
So long, Colonial interest was to minimize super profit in Africa, they therefore introduced colonial
economy in order to meet the following objectives;
It aimed at ensuring constant supply of raw materials from Africa to the European industries.
It aimed at exploiting cheap African labor through forcing them to work long hours but receive low
(meager) wages.
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It aimed to get areas for the investment and settlement of European surplus population.
It further aimed to ensure that there is surplus production of European goods.
From the above few objectives / aims of colonial economy we come to note / judge that, colonial economy
as it was established in Africa never aimed to benefit Africans rather Europeans this can be evidenced by
looking into its features / characteristics which in a sense typically relied on Europeans.
THE CHARACTERISTICS / FEATURES OF COLONIAL ECONOMY.
The following explained below were main characteristics of colonial economy in Africa.
a. It was characterized by coercive apparatus in a sense that instruments like colonial army, police, prison
as well as courts were accompanied with colonial economy to ensure that colonial production run
smoothly, as well as maintaining discipline and obedient to African.(to stop African resistance).
b. It was characterized by instructional construction of infrastructures such as railways, roads and ports
so as to facilitate production as well as exportation of products (goods) from the interior of the coast
ready to be shipped to the European countries.
c. It was characterized by land alienation more especially in those areas where plantations and settlers
economies were dominant. In this case, many Africans were forced to be out of their fertile land and
taken to the marginalized (unfertile) land.
d. It was characterized by labor-intensive economy as it depended heavily on both migrant labor as well
as cheap paid labor whose duty was only to provide their labor power in plantations and mines.
e. It was characterized / based on money-oriented economy. This was simply because, money was
introduced to be used only as a medium of exchange in the colonies, and also the use of money
facilitated capitalist exchange and colonial exploitations due to the fact that, for the one to make any
transaction he / she was forced to have cash mean while it was difficult to get cash unless you are being
provided a very heavy and tiresome job by colonialists.
f. It was characterized by limited / few numbers of industries in Africa, this was because during colonial
economy to make Africans keep on being dependant to Europeans manufactured goods, as well as to
reduce competition over European goods (produce) they killed African industries and technology by
introducing subsistence industries that involved oil refineries, and cotton gunneries aiming to increase
the quality and quantity of raw – materials which had to be exported in Europe.
g. It was export-oriented economy in a sense that whatever was produced in Africa in a form of cash crops
like agricultural crops (cotton, coffee and sisal) and mineral raw – materials were to be transported to
Europe in order to feed European hungry industries.
h. It was characterized on Monoculture. As single crop was specialized in one region in order to increase
productivity. Sisal in Tanganyika, Coffee in Kenya, Cocoa in Ivory Coast, Palm oil in Nigeria.
i. It was characterized by taxation where Africans were forced to pay taxes in terms of poll, hut and cattle
taxes which serves/ aimed to benefit them (Africans) in turn Africans became in secured in the whole
process of tax collection because, European powers used force to collect taxes from Africans.
Sample questions:
1. Explain the objectives of establishing colonial economies in Africa.

2. “Colonial Economy in Africa had both positive and negative outlook in Africa” How far is the above
statements true?
3. What were the characteristics features of colonial economy in Africa?
4. What were the tectonic/tactics employed by colonialists to establish colonial economies in Africa
5. Why colonial economy was introduced in Africa?
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METHODS AND TACTICS USED TO INTRODUCE AND ESTABLISH COLONIAL ECONOMY
IN AFRICA
The Africans themselves did not accept introduction and establishment of colonial economy in Africa; this
forced the colonialists to use some methods and tactics to make their economies to be accepted.
1. DESTRUCTION: The colonialists destructed all former means of Africans indigenous economy
which did not gave the chance to the growth and development of colonial economy in Africa among
those which were destructed include:
i. African Local trades: The colonialists made sure that all Africans local trade such as Trans Saharan
Trade and other are completely destructed so as to make Africans not to accumulate wealth so that they
could concentrate in colonial economy.
ii. African Local Industries: The colonialists aimed to make African continent backward technologically
so that it could be easy to exploit Africa’s natural resources. Under this those handcraft men were
prohibited to make anything and if they did so they were chopped off their hands. But also, the
competition of European industrial manufactured goods made the collapse of African local industries.
iii. Destruction of African Culture: This was another element, which could not give space for the
introduction and establishment of colonial economy. The colonial government made sure that the
African culture is totally and completely destructed since it could stand as one of biggest obstacles
towards the growth of colonial economy.
2. CREATION: The colonial government also created some of the things, which were more
important for the introduction and establishment of colonial economy. Among the things which
were created include: -
i. Introduction of money economy: The imperialists introduced money economy in Africa so as to
facilitate the exploitation of Africa and Africans. Under money economy taxes were introduced e.g. hut
tax, head tax, matiti tax etc. all those taxes were introduced to keep them providing their labour power
in the colonial plantations.
ii. Colonial infrastructure: The colonialists also introduced infrastructure so as to intensify exploitation
e.g., Roads, railways, harbors, etc all these were built to facilitate exploitation.
iii. Colonial education: Colonial education was introduced to few Africans so as to get few of them who
could assist in administration. It also aimed at creating puppets.
iv. Introduction of cash crops. This was the main aim of colonial economy whereby crops like coffee,
tea, cotton etc. were introduced in Africa so as to solve the problem of raw materials.
v. Land alienation. People were alienated from their fertile land to less fertile land so as to provide the
chance to open up plantations etc.
3. PRESERVATION: The colonialists also preserved all things that could support their economies
among the things which were preserved include: -
i. Family: Family remained as the basic unit of production especially where peasantry economy was
practiced.
ii. Productive Forces: The means of production like hand hoes, axes, and pangas were left to be used
since the colonialists aimed at making Africans backward technologically.
iii. Production relations like Feudal system were also preserved since they could offer a great support
in colonial production e.g. In Uganda.
Qn Why and how did the colonialists make Africans backward technologically?
Reasons
▪ They needed Africans to remain as the source of raw materials
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▪ They needed Africa to remain as the main source of market for the European manufactured
goods.
▪ They needed to create dependent economy amongst the African countries
▪ They needed Africans to import technology from outside.
▪ They needed Africans to depend on experts from their colonial master
▪ They needed to avoid stiff/heavy competition in development between Africa and Europe.
How?
▪ Destruction of local industries
▪ Introduction of notorious slave trade
▪ Preservation of productive forces
▪ Introduction of colonial education
▪ Introduction of small industries in the colonies for processing and manufacturing industry.
▪ Introduction of migrant labor.
TYPES OF COLONIAL ECONOMY
There are five types of colonial economy, which were introduced in Africa, and these include -
i. Agriculture
ii. Trade and commerce
iii. Mining
iv. Infrastructure and
v. Industries
i. AGRICULTURE.
Since the colonies were meant to produce raw materials the main sector emphasized were mining and
agriculture. The colonial agriculture was designed to save the colonial objectives of colonial needs to the
imperialist countries. The production was largely for raw materials in form of cash crops e.g. cotton, coffee,
cocoa, rubber, palm oil, etc
Colonial agriculture was one amongst the types of colonial economy, which were introduced so as to solve
the problem of raw material for European industries abroad.
The colonial agriculture was in three main branches and those include -
a) Settlers’ agriculture
b) Plantation agriculture
c) Peasantry agriculture
FORMS OF COLONIAL AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS
Colonial economies refer to as the extension of the metropolitan economies activities in Africa. The colonial
economies were initiated by the colonial state in Africa in order to meet the demands of raw materials for
their industries in Europe. Since the colonies were meant to produce raw materials, the main sectors, which
were highly emphasized, were agriculture and mining. The colonial agriculture was designed to serve the
colonial objectives of colonial needs to the imperialist countries. The production was largely for raw
materials in form of cash crops such as cotton, sisal, pyrethrum, cocoa, coffee, tea, rubber and palm oil.
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Thus, colonial agriculture involved cultivation of cash crops and livestock keeping (animal husbandry)
during the colonial era (period). However, livestock production was not that much emphasized.
The colonial agriculture was categorically categorized in three (3) main forms or systems namely settlers’
agriculture, peasantry agriculture and plantation agriculture. These included,
SETTLERS’ AGRICULTURE: This was large-scale form of colonial agriculture whereby the European
farmers (settlers) settled in different colonies in Africa and established, managed different agricultural
undertakings.
The settlers’ farms were owned by individual whites and this form of agriculture was very dominant in the
colonies of Kenya, Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Namibia and Mozambique as well as Angola.
It was featured by individual ownership of large-scale farms, monoculture (production of one cash crop),
mechanization and the use of both migrant and forced labor systems.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SETTLERS’ AGRICULTURE

1. The production was for export; whatever they produced was exported as raw material to metro pole.
What eve was produced by the settlers was to be exported to the metro pole, the African economies
did not benefit from these large scale plantations
2. Establishment of large-scale farming with the plantation occupying more than 100 acres’ o land.
E.g. in Zimbabwe the European settlers owned 44,952,000 acres of the best land out of the total
4,900,000 land the 230,000 settlers were able to establish large plantations.
3. Growth of single crop/monoculture, intercropping was discouraging thus, there was high
specialization. Usually each company specialized in the production of a specific commodity e.g. in
Liberia rubber plantations were established, in Kenya huge coffee, and tea plantations were
established.
4. Huge capital input was injected in agriculture to develop infrastructure, to pay laborers, to construct
squatters. The settlers go their capital through government assistance and bank loans at a very low
interest rate. As for acquisition of land the state carried out the extensive land expropriation, this land
was given to settlers and plantation owners at take away price. (Almost free price)
5. The settlers had strong links with the metro pole and always exerted critical influence on the
colonial state. Any policy taken with respect to colonial production had to take into account the interest
of the settlers.
6. Use of massive unskilled labor in the production through the provision of African cheap labor. The
colonial stat ensure supply of massive unskilled African labor through passing laws that requires the
African to provide labor to the settlers like introduction of adult tax to every man or provision of labor
in the white farm that is equivalent to the tax
7. Private ownership of plantation by the European who came as settlers, and legitimizing African land
through alienations, in Kenya, for example, the crown land Ordinance of 1915 gave the settlers 99
years lease for rural or agricultural land; the lease was later extended to 999 years, that the settlers
would claim the land in perpetuity.
8. Practice of racism, where by the European settlers made Africans inferior, their work was to supply
cheap labor on the plantations i.e. Africans was not allowed to establish commercial agriculture.
9. It was characterized with establishment of transport and communication network in the areas where
settlers dominated e.g. roads, rail, banking sectors etc.
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10. Settlers were allowed to form political organization, which they would use to defend their interest
in colonial states.
11. It was characterized by the organization of labor on contract and dominance of migrate laborers
who worked on the plantations seasonally.
HOW DID THE COLONIAL STATE FAVOUR SETTLER AGRICULTURE?
1. The colonial state appropriated land ordinances, which ensured the availability of enough
fertile land for the settlers. These land Acts of land ordinances legalized land alienation for
example the colonial state in Kenya passed land Acts in Kenya which strictly prohibited Kenyans
from procuring land, which was potentially, preserved for the white settlers i.e. the crown land Act.
2. They were ensured of constant supply of cheap labor from Africans. This was made by passing
legislation laws for example the master and servant’s native Act of 1906 in Kenya which made Kenyans
to provide their labor power in the colonial settler farms, the crown land Act of 1915 in Kenya and the
Kipande system which increased the number of days from 90 to 180 days for Kenyans to work in settler
farms per annum.
3. The colonial state offered loans with dear interests to the settlers, furthermore they were given
subsides as a means of encouraging them to expand their agricultural activities in large scale.
4. The colonial state ensured security to the settlers against African resistances.
5. The colonial state allowed the settlers to form political organizations and trade unions, which
defended and protected their interests.
6. They were provided with compensation (remedies) in case of loss or poor agricultural production
due to either poor climatic conditions or inflation something, which encouraged them to keep on
expanding and exploiting Africans resources.
7. The settlers were given the monopoly power of growing certain types of cash crops that Africans
were not allowed to grow; this was meant to avoid competition between Africans against the
Europeans in terms of production.
8. The colonial state left the settlers to determine the prices of their crops. At times when the colonial
state set prices, they set high prices for their crops than those given to the ordinary African peasants.
9. The colonial state extended reliable physical infrastructures to the settlers’ farms, for example the
Mombasa-Kisumu railway was constructed in 1895, the Nairobi –Thika line in 1918.
10. The white settlers were also encouraged through better social amenities and extension services
such as water and electricity supply. The settlers were given their best social services such as
transport, hotels, health care, recreational centers, clubs etc. while Africans were deprived of such
services.
11. The colonial state exempted the settlers from paying taxes as a result, the burden fell on Africans
who were heavily taxed, and for example, Africans were obliged to pay some notorious tax structures
such as matiti tax in Kenya.
12. They were also allowed to defend their rights in a sense that, they had separate courts prisons and law
governing them. They could also conduct their cases through experts such as advocates.
To conclude the above discussion we can generalize that the flourishing of settler farms and economy
in general especially in Kenya was basically attributed with the help of the colonial masters themselves
because Africans right were denied while those of settlers were positively responded (maintained).
THE FACTORS, WHICH FAVOURED SETTLERS’ AGRICULTURE IN KENYA
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BACKGROUND
In Kenya, the establishment of colonial economy started outright after the construction and completion of
the Kenya-Uganda railway in 1902. Before that time, Kenya was regarded as a stopping place where British
had to pass to the rich and strategic areas of Uganda from where they got tea, cotton and minerals.
During the construction of the railway line, they discovered the potential richness of the Kenyan highlands
and the rift valley.
Therefore, the imperialists started to argue that in order to pay back the expenses incurred in building the
railway line and for the line to be self-supporting, the Kenya’s interior should be opened for settler
agriculture.
From the early period the British viewed their east African protectorate which was re named Kenya later
alone in 1920 as potential colony for white settlers, the high lands of east of Lake Victoria offered favorable
climate. From the mid of 1900 white settlers were brought from Britain and South Africa with determined
effort of turn the high lands into a white man’s home. The administrative capital was shifted inland to
Nairobi to serve the European settlers. Some of the factors that favored Kenya to become the hub of white
settlers included. Thus, the factors were as follows;
1. Conducive climatic condition of Kenya especially in the central high lands which had cool humidity
climate which favored the European to settle in Kenya without any problem
2. Fertility of the soils in Kenyan high lands which favored large commercial agriculture whereby
Europeans settlers were able to maximize the production of raw materials due to such factors the influx
of settlers in Kenya was high
3. The traditional political system of Kenya also favored the establishment of settlers’ agriculture.
Kenya did not have strong political system that would resist land alienation from the Europeans unlike
other parts of east Africa like Buganda which had dense population with highly centralized leadership
of Kabaka
4. Availability of labor force i.e. cheap labor to work in the plantations. In Kenya, labor reserves were
created that produced migrant labor, also through legislations like the master and servant act of 1906,
which asked African to sell their labor force for 90 days per year for 3 rupees as a wage per month.
5. Kenya had less tropical diseases like malaria due o the cool climate in the high lands of Kenya as
compared to other areas like southern Tanganyika, Uganda and Burundi; this was a pushing factor for
the settlers to come to Kenya for settlement.
6. The political set up of Kenya during colonialism. Kenya was a crown colony and not a protectorate
like in Uganda and Tanganyika so the white settlers were ensured permanent stay in Kenya.
7. Availability of enough land to establish large plantation of the settlers. This was because some areas
in Kenya were sparsely populated that enabled the colonialist to acquire big chunk of land for large
plantation un like in Uganda and some parts of Tanganyika.
8. Absent of active resistance during the establishment of colonial rule, this ensured absence of violence
and riots, which could destroy the plantations and tools.
9. Topography of Kenya favored the establishment of infrastructure to transportation of bulk raw
materials e.g. the Mombasa to Kisumu railway, which had just completed in 1895.
Generally, the White settlers in Kenya earned much wealth through their economic sectors (farms) they
established due to the fact that they had access of utilizing African labor, land and other raw – materials
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that they could later precipitated to the rise and establishment of class consciousness to the Kenyan in what
we call Mau Mau war.
THE IMPACTS /EFFECTS OF SETTLER ECONOMY IN KENYA:
(g) It led to severe land alienation simply because; Africans were forced out of their fertile land so as to
give room for the settler economy to be developed (established).
(h) It caused to exploitations of African labor in a sense that Africans were forced to work under settler
farms for long hours but received very low pay that could not match with the task (work) they
performed.
(i) It led to the establishment of different laws in Kenya; good example is that of 1915, which forced
Africans to surrender (leave) their fertile land to settlers, other law was that of 1906 and 1921, which
forced Africans to work to settler farms for about of and 180 days respectively.
(j) It stimulated African strong resistance which aimed at regaining other lost freedom Good example is
Mau Mau war that erupted in 1950’s in Kenya, shona and Ndebele in Zimbabwe from 1896 – 1897.
(k) It encouraged un-even development in the colonies in a sense that, areas that were occupied by white
settlers were more favored by the colonial. State in terms of provision of social services compared to
those area s where settlers were not do ruin ant.
(l) It resulted to the loss of Africans freedom as they came to be under the control of the white settlers in
which they had no freedom at all in social political as well as economic as all matters (affairs) had to
be decided by the whites.
REVISION QUESTIONS.
1. Why the British white settlers preferred to use settler agriculture in Kenya?
2. Explain how the British colonial state up hold the interest of white settlers in Kenya.
3. Make a clear comparison between peasant and settler agriculture (economic) as applied in East Africa.
PEASANTRY AGRICULTURE
This was the small scale farming practice under the control of African families whereby the Africans were
allowed to grow both cash and food crops in their own plots of land basically small farms. This agricultural
practice was very dominant in the colonies of Uganda, Nigeria, Algeria and Senegal.
It was characterized by small-scale farming, production of both cash and food crops, local farming tools
were used. Family labor was used and it was basically dominant in areas with high population and where
the indigenous people had the culture of providing cash crops even before the colonial rule. Under this type,
the colonial state instructed only what and how to grow cash crops. It was the cheapest way of getting raw
materials and labor because it did not require any form of investment. Under this system of agriculture,
social services were not essential because peasants had to live and perform their duties on their own plots
of land.
In East Africa, peasantry form of agriculture was dominant in Uganda and the crops, which were grown,
were coffee and cotton.
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CHARACTERISTICS OR FEATURES OF PEASANTRY AGRICULTURE
1. It was small scale form of agriculture

2. It was cheaper than other forms of agriculture because no much investment was incurred.
3. It was based on the production of both cash and food crops.
4. Peasants themselves unlike the plantation and settler farms, which were owned by the white
farmers, owned this type of agricultural practice.
5. A family was regarded as the main source of labor that is the basic unit of production
6. No land alienation was practiced.
7. The social amenities (services) around the areas where peasantry agriculture was practiced were
very few and poor ones since the whites did not settle there.
8. Simple tools such as hand hoes were used in the production process.
9. Low quality production due to lack of good facilities and farm implements to engage in production
as effectively as possible.
REASONS FOR PEASANTRY AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM IN UGANDA
NECTA 2015
Why British colonialists preferred peasant to other systems of agriculture in Nigeria? (Give six reasons)
Uganda was a British colony which peasant type of agriculture as a method for intensive exploitation;
to a big extent, the British were successful in establishing this type of Agriculture in Uganda. The
reasons were as follows;
1. Geographically, Uganda is a landlocked country i.e., it has no easy access to seaways something
which discouraged the whites from settling in Uganda.
2. Hostile/harsh climate in Uganda, which discouraged the whites from settling in Uganda. For
instance, by that time Uganda had been hit by malaria, which was a threat to the white’s settlement
in Uganda as the result, the task of production was left to the Ugandans.
3. The presence of strong centralized feudal states like Buganda and Bunyoro acted as threats to
the colonialists thus in order for the whites to do away with resistances that could be raised by such
states they decided to opt for peasantry.
4. Dense population. Uganda had many people at the time when the colonial economies were being
established. This is due to the fact that Uganda is geographically small (area 241038km2) compared
to Kenya and Tanganyika. Therefore, it could be difficult to practice land alienation in Uganda and
establish large agricultural settler farms or plantations in Uganda as the result they opted for
peasantry.
5. Readiness and willingness of the Ugandans in Uganda; many Ugandan peasants were willing to
accept colonial economy as opposed to Kenya and Tanganyika.
6. The topography of Uganda especially the Western and Northern Uganda did not favor the settler’s
settlement for the areas were/are very mountainous.
7. The division of land into Milo land which belong to the king and crown land which comprised
rivers, swamps forest belongs to the colonial government such division of land could not allowed
any other type of Agriculture apart from peasant.
8. The Buganda agreement of 1900. This granted land to the Kabaka and his local chiefs who
distributed it to the loyal subjects as tenants. In this agreement, they agreed not to take any land for
white settlement and introduced a system of private land tenure. This meant that much of the
agricultural land of Buganda became the privately-owned estate of the Buganda chiefs and
peasantry as their tenants
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9. Fear for active resistance because of the existence of powerful centralized kingdom under the
leadership of Kabaka Mutesa and his local chiefs.
10. The traditional political structure of Buganda before colonialism. Ugandans people were very royal
and subordinate to Kabaka who was their king they were not ready to accept any foreigner to rule
beyond their king.
11. Existence of infertile soils especially in northern Uganda discouraged the establishment of
plantation or settlers because of low productively
12. It was easy for administration and monitoring since supervision was done by peasant and local
chiefs
13. Profitability, it maximized exploitation since the price of raw materials were fixed by the
colonialists and were very low they did not pay wages since there was the application of workers
but based on family labor
14. The relief of the land. Some areas especially in western Uganda it was mountainous and having
swamps, it was very difficult and expensive to establish infrastructure in case of other type of
Agriculture.
15. The cost factor. It was very cheap to use peasant agriculture, peasant provided their own packing,
transport, and tools, labor and colonial government did pricing. The only cost incurred by the
colonial government was to provide seeds and market.
16. The nature of the colony. Uganda was just a protectorate of Britain as per the 1894 agreement the
British government and the Buganda representatives unlike Kenya which was a crown colony
17. Crops that were established in Uganda required intense care and cannot easily be mixed with other
type of crops like cotton, coffee, needed family care thus the establishment of peasant agriculture
18. Another condition that favored many natives had some experience and knowledge on relating to
the cultivation of the new cash crops e.g. in Tanganyika the native of Kagera had the knowledge of
growing coffee even before.
THE ROLE OF COLONIAL STATE IN MAINTAINING PEASANT AGRICULTURE

1. Avoidance of land alienation as to enable Africans to possess land and practice agriculture
2. Introduction of taxation, various types of taxation were introduced to force the Africans in produce
cash crops to pay taxes
3. The colonial government provide seeds and seedlings of cash crops like cotton coffee cocoa etc to
the peasant to grow them
4. It used force to the peasant to grow cash crops e.g. destruction of food crops for any peasant who did
not grow cash crops alongside his subsistence
5. Importation of European industrial goods as a motivation and a force to make peasants grow more
cash crops, e.g. footwear clothes, bicycles etc.
6. Through crating marketing boards and peasant cooperative union so as to market and advice the
peasant concerning the production of crops
7. Through indirect rule whereby the Europeans used local chiefs to instruct the Africans to produce
cash crops
8. Through creation of social infrastructure in the areas where the peasants were located e.g. schools
roads rail etc
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9. Through providing technical skills, especially to the progressive peasant who established large
plantations.
IMPACTS OF PEASANT AGRICULTURE

1. Regular occurrence of famine, because of over concentration on cash crops and ignoring food
production the colonial government carried out forceful campaign to ensure that every peasant grows
some cash crops on his small plot anybody who violated the campaign was punished by destroying his
substance food.
2. Accessibility of colonial education especially the peasant who were progressive sent their children to
colonial schools as a motivation factor to continue production
3. It led to the development of nationalistic ideas i.e. struggle for independence through peasant
cooperative union which discovered the exploitation of Europeans
4. It led to classification among the peasants according to the capacity of their production i.e.
progressive peasant these one produced more than 10 acres followed by middle class peasants and then
poor peasants.
5. It improved the workers’ welfare, after the establishment of some social infrastructures like medical
care, schools, roads etc some peasant were able to send their sons and daughters to school which led to
the rise of elites that led to the rise of African nationalism
6. It led to the intensive exploitation of African resources through provision of low prices for their
production that led to general underdevelopment. The small number of large European companies did
marketing at the coast. They ensure that prices given to the African peasant are kept at the lowest level
as possible.
7. Importation of finished European industrial goods like cloth and metal goods were undermining
Africa self-sustaining industries, thus promoting de-industrialization
8. Because of intensive exploitation of agriculture, land became exhausted and at times drought famine
struck because of poor environment and soils, which claimed a lot of death of Africans.
9. It led to regional imbalance where by some regions which were producing cash crops god
development like roads schools medical centre while in regions were cash crop production did not take
place such development did not take place.
SAMPLE QUESTION
1. Discuss the factors that favored Britain to established peasant agriculture in Uganda and
Nigeria
Discuss how the colonial agriculture in colonies contributed to the rise of African nationalism
taking either Uganda or Nigeria as a case study
2. Compare and contrast between peasant colonial agriculture with settlers’ agriculture in the
British colonies
3. Why Britain was very reluctant to establish settlers’ agriculture in her West African colonies
THE PLANTATION AGRICULTURE
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The colonial plantations were the largest agricultural farms with a single production unit i.e. monoculture
which was either owned by the colonial governments or states or by the capitalists abroad who sent
representatives or hired/employed management to manage the production unlike settler’s agriculture, the
colonialists did not establish their settlement where the agricultural production was undertaken.
This form of the colonial agriculture had been practiced in the colonies of Zaire, the Central African
Republic, Tanganyika, Ivory Coast etc.
FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTATIONS AGRICULTURE
1. It was based on large-scale plantation, which covered large areas for instance 100 acres, and beyond.
2. In the plantation agricultural system, the management and owners were two (2) separate entities
i.e. the sole owners were in Europe who only facilitated by providing capital while the managers who
were vested with the power supervising the plantations were in the respective colonies, for example
Germany used the Jumbes and Akidas to supervise the production process in the sisal plantations in
Tanga and Morogoro regions in Tanganyika.
3. There was the employment of unskilled laborers who were recruited from different areas to work
and supervise the production process and they were poorly paid (low wages)
4. The plantation agricultural practice was monoculture in nature the specialized single crops e.g.
Cotton and sisal were grown in the given plantations.
5. Investment of huge capital in the establishment of the colonial plantations was incurred for example
the strong physical infrastructures were put in place in order to facilitate the transportation of the crops
from the interior where they were shipped after being produced to the coast, for example in Tanganyika,
the railways lines ran from the interior to the coast.
6. The European capitalists who did not come to stay in the colonies owned the plantations.
7. This system of practice went in hand coercive (brutal and forceful means) especially when it came
on searching for labor, forced was applied and migrate labor were humiliated with poor payment
and long working hours, taxation etc for instance the Germans employed the Jumbes and Akidas and
German askaris to supervise the corporal punishment, furthermore, the labor recruiting agency was
established e.g. SILABU (the Sisal Labor Bureau)
8. Plantations were scientifically managed and involved the application of heavy machines as to produce
high production
9. Plantations highly linked with the establishment of infrastructure especially roads to ensure smooth
transportation of produce to the required places especially to the coast were they were to be exported
in Europe, that’s why in the colonial Tanganyika all roads and tracks were running down to the coast.
10. Migrant labor and conscript laborers that included forced labor and indentured laborers attended most
of the plantations.
FACTORS, WHICH FAVORED PLANTATION AGRICULTURE DURING THE COLONIAL

ECONOMY IN AFRICA
1. Harsh climatic conditions, which were not favoring the settler’s settlement in the colonies
something, which made them to, practice the plantations without settling in the colonies.
2. The availability and vastness of the land. This is due to the fact that plantations required large areas
for instance plantation agricultural system was highly preferred IN Tanganyika to other East African
colonies because of the vastness of its area, for example; Tanganyika covers the area of 945,090km2
while the other East African countries cover 580,36km2 (Kenya) 241,038 km2 (Uganda)
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3. Plantation agriculture was established in Africa to act as the main source of market for the
European manufactured goods especially in the plantations whereby the migrant laborers bought
such goods for example clothes, radios, alcohol, chocolate cigars etc.
4. The threat for the tropical diseases such as malaria, small pox, jiggers which was not favoring the
settlement for Europeans discouraged the settlers’ and thus they opted for plantation agriculture.
5. The presence of scattered fertile land in the colonies whereby some other forms of agricultural
practices such as settlers’ agricultural practice could not be practiced, for example in some parts of
Tanganyika some areas had fertile soils while others did not have.
6. Presence of scattered fertile land in the colonies whereby settler’s agriculture could not be effective e.g.
in parts of Tanganyika some areas possessed good soils while others not
7. The existence of labor reserves which provided manual laborers especially the migrant labor, which
was highly preferred to work on the plantations because it was economically cheap and easily exploited
because it was unskilled.
8. The desire of colonial government to collect taxes from the laborers. The migrate laborers also served
as source of revenues for the colonial government, they would easily collect or deduct taxes from their
meager wages, thus establishment of plantation to attract the migrate laborers
9. It was very profitable and served the interest of the colonial government of maximizing profit and
minimizing the coast by providing low wages to the laborers and the taxing them
10. The existence of strong political organization that would adopt active reaction to the establishment of
colonialism in case of European settlers, then they encouraged plantation agriculture whereby there was
no need of European to come and stay
11. The colonial policy of divide and rule supported plantation agriculture whereby some Africans who
were made inferior to provide cheap labor while others were administrators for plantation.
12. Plantation agriculture was also established to act as a source of market for European goods especially
in plantation trading centers where European finished goods were brought to be bought by laborers,
e.g. bicycles blanket chocolate textile and alcohol
13. Also it depended on colonial master’s policy e.g. Britain preferred settlers and peasant agriculture
while Portugal and France preferred plantations and settler’s agriculture
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Why the colonial government established plantation agriculture in some areas and settlers
in the areas
2. How the colonial apparatus did maintain and consolidate colonial plantation agriculture?
3. Discuss the motives and impacts that surrounded the establishment of colonial agriculture
in the colonies
IMPACTS OF PLANTATION AGRICULTURE

1. Africans were exploited intensively through the provision cheap labor and paid low wages and on top
of that, they worked for long working hours, this brought vicious poverty in Africa.
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2. It led to the development of trading centers, which were located near the plantations that acted as source
of European finished goods.
3. It led to unbalanced development in Africa whereby all social infrastructure concentrated where
production took place leaving other places with nothing e.g. in colonial Tanganyika all rail line road
run perpendicular to the coast
4. It led to the occurrence of frequent famine in Africa because the African agriculture were abandoned
which led to shortage in the supply of food.
5. It led the introduction of colonial cash crops in Africa in capitalist economy e.g. coffee, sisal, cotton,
etc.
6. It promoted divide and rule in the colonial economy where by some tribes were preserved to supply
cheap labor in the plantation while others were left for administration.
7. It led to land alienation was conducted as to acquire the land for establishing plantations this made
many African to become landless and settle on squatters.
8. It created market for Europeans finished goods where by plantation laborers became source of market
for manufactured goods in Europe thus introduction on money economy.
COLONIAL LABOUR
The colonial labor simply means the group of Africans who were recruited through various methods to
provide their labor in the colonial economy sectors e.g. in Mines etc.
TYPES OF COLONIAL LABOUR
i. Obligatory forced labor: The colonial government passed different laws and regulations in the
colonies to force Africans to provide their labor power in the colonies. Obligatory forced labor was
so common in settlers’ economy in other areas the natives were needed to provide their labor power
for the maximum number of time e.g. 3 months. This was used in Kenya.
ii. Migratory Labor: These laborers were taken from their original places to colonial production
centers to work. Migrant labor was taken from reserve areas e.g. Kigoma, Rukwa and Tabora.
iii. Peasant labor: This was another type of colonial labor that provided their labor power in the
colonial economy. Peasants produced for themselves and sold their crops to the colonial
government at lower prices
iv. Civil Servants: The group included clerks, messengers, teachers, etc. this group of labor was
because of the colonial education. The group facilitated the motives and goals of imperialism in
Africa.
FEATURES OF COLONIAL LABOUR
i. It was subjected to low wages and salaries which were not proportional to what they produced
ii. Poor working and living conditions. They lived in overcrowded camps with no important services
e.g. water, electricity, telephone and so on
iii. Colonial harbors remained technologically unskilled so as to avoid competition with the whites.
iv. Worse enough this group of labor had no insurance, the colonial government considered the
laborers as fools of producing profit for them. Low wages were given to them so that they could
survive.
v. They worked for long hours and they were not paid overtime or any relief.
vi. They were also oppressed; exploited, humiliated and discriminated in their own motherland this
made them to remain poor.
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METHODS AND TACTICS, WHICH WERE USED TO OBTAIN LABOURERS
1. They introduced land alienation; the colonial government alienated the Africans from their fertile
land purposely so as to force them to provide their labor power in the colonial plantations since
they had no any means of surviving.
2. They introduced/ established different taxes the colonial governments in different parts of Africa
introduced taxes so as to force the Africans to provide their labor in colonial economy’s sectors.
Examples of such taxes included, hut tax, head tax, and matiti tax etc.
3. They Introduced Foreign Goods This is because Africans was made a Market of Manufacturing
or manufactured goods from Europe these goods had to be obtained for cash and cash could be
obtained only by selling their labor power.
4. They created their labor reserves centers (regionalism). This was because some area were made
to act as a source of their labor for instance Kigoma, Ruvuma, Rukwa and Dodoma were made to
produce labor were as Morogoro, Tanga and parts of Kilimanjaro were for plantations these case
in Uganda especially northern region was made to provide their labor.
5. Introduction of colonial education: The colonial education was provided purposely so as to get
few Africans who could help in colonial administration in facilitating exploitation.
6. Formation of labor recruitment organizations: The colonial governments formed some special
organizations for recruitment of labor from different parts of plantations for example the SILABU
(Sisal Labor Bureau) was a typical example of such organizations, which dealt with recruitment of
sisal laborers in Tanganyika.
7. Paying low wages and salaries: The colonial government gave the Africans low wages and salaries
so as they could not accumulate wealth and leave the job.
8. Introduction of Kipande system: This was used in Kenya where Africans were forced to directly
provide their labor in settlers’ plantations
9. Introduction of reserves areas: The colonialists set regions like Kigoma, Tabora and Rukwa as
labor reserve areas. These regions were unproductive.
10. They destroyed the Africans Economies .This was because colonialists destroyed African such
as industries and replaced European imported goods. Because at this self-sufficient economy was
destroyed and introduced system of buying goods in cash.
MIGRANT LABOUR: This was a form of African Labor Employed by the colonialist in their production;
they were from distant places especially those with maws men, the colonialist employed this system through
transporting them in order to provide their labor in plantation and mines.
To accomplish this colonialist deliberately cart labor measures in the unproductive places in which these
migrant laborers were drown
WHY COLONIALIST PREFERED THE USE OF MIGRANT LABOUR
The following were the main reason that made the European colonialist to prefer the use of migrant labor
in their production.
(a) Migrant Laborers were very cheap this was because they were paid very low wages as they left their
families and concentrated on production eventually it helped the colonialists to make super profit.
(b) Migrant Labor Encouraged dis-unity among the Laborers this was because laborers come from different
places with different geographical background and ways of life therefore it was not easy for them to unite
and wage (start different strikes against the colonialist).
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(c) Migrant laborers acted as a source of Market for European manufactured goods. In this case they were
to work in the colonial plantations and mines for money so as to get money which they expected to spent it
in buying needs like shoes, Blankets, and clothes which were made from Europe.
(d) Most or Migrant laborers were UN skilled; therefore they were given temporality nature of work because
of not having access to education. It was easy for the colonialist to exploit them heavily.
(e) Migrant laborers had no insurance as well as a compassassions as a result the plantation owners,
exploited them, without considering their physical being and humanity.
(f) Migrant Laborers had high productivity to the colonialist. This was because their time table was fixed
by the colonialists were they had to work from morning up to evening, additionally, they did not come with
their families therefore most of their time was engaging in agriculture thus contributing to much
productivity.
(g) Migrant Laborers were Easily un skilled with inferiority complex as well raised segregation in which
the colonialist did this to make them believe that they are inferior to the whites and that their job is to supply
their labor power to them.
(h) Migrant laborers ensured colonial government for the payment of taxes, rent for the House and water
bills thus a source of government revenue to the colonial government could be possible.
(i) It was difficult for the Migrant laborers to escape because they were as strangers form very far away to
the area hence colonialists were ensured with constant of their laborers.
(j) Migrant laborers were easy to be controlled because they lived in the camps furthermore the laborers
were lodged according to Ethnic groupings, each under tribal over seers.
COLONIAL INFRASTRUCTURES
Colonial infrastructures simply mean colonial transport and communication network systems and these
included roads, railways harbors etc. which were introduced and established by the colonialists in Africa
during the second half of 19thc; the colonial infrastructures aimed at facilitating the exploitation of Africa’s
natural resources. They also aimed at fulfilling the policy of effective occupation as agreed during the Berlin
conference of 1884 to 1885.
AIMS OF COLONIAL INFRASTRUCTURES
1. The setting up of railways and road networks started from the coast to the interior, mainly to
transport raw materials from production areas to the hour.
2. Transportation of laborers from labor reserve areas to different productive areas for example
migrant labor.
3. To transport colonial administrators from Europe to different areas of administration.
4. Transportation of European manufactured goods from the hour to the interior for marketing.
5. It aimed at transporting troops to different areas so as to suppress African resistances.
6. It helped to transport missionaries who were going for evangelical and Christianization to the
interior of Africa.
7. The colonial infrastructures aimed at facilitating the exploitation of Africa’s resources and fulfilling
the policy of effective occupation
IMPACTS OF COLONIAL INFRASTRUCTURES
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1. It facilitated maximum exploitation of Africa’s wealth e.g. Minerals and so forth.
2. It led to the effective occupation of the colonies hence total colonialism.
3. Colonial infrastructures created uneven development, which can be seen up to this moment since
it concentrated on productive regions than in unproductive areas.
4. Colonial infrastructures motivated or attracted more settlers in the colonies due to the fact it ensured
them with easy transport and communication network systems.
5. It helped those landlocked countries. For example, Uganda, Malawi, Zambia etc. for easy
transportation and communication with the outside world.
6. Colonial infrastructures established colonial administration network systems hence more impacts
on Africans.
COLONIAL INDUSTRIES IN AFRICA
Beside agriculture and mines, colonialists established Industries in Africa because the colonies were meant
to be the producers of raw materials for European Industries industrialization process in African was very
little. For-instance the colonialist Established industries like.
(i) Processing industries purposely to reduce the bulkiness for Export reasons.
(ii) They established few import substation industries, which aimed to produce consumer goods like, soap
cigarette and canned beef.
(iii) They established Luxuries goods manufacturing industries mainly in settler based areas.
(iv) The industries established in African during the colonial period had the following features
characteristics.
(v) They were light industries and substitution industries purposely to purposely to produce raw materials
that were needed to feed various industries in Europe.
(vi) They had weak labor force who had little education and who were paid low wages as well as who
worked under poor working. Condition
(vii) There industries concentrated mainly on settler where as in areas dominated by peasant there were
only processing industries.
METHOD USED BY THE COLONIALISTTO DE- INDUSTRIALIZES AFRICAN INDUSTRIES.
Because the European powers aimed at making African become a source of Raw materials for their Industries,
these colonialists decided to initiate a special policy, which aimed to de – industrialized African industries by
destroying African Industries purposely to avoid competition.
The method used to kill African industries was as listed here below.
(a) The colonialist applied direct brutal destruction of Local industries money especially in non- shelter
colonies like Uganda and Nigeria.
(b) The colonialist also prohibitive the African form engaging in various industries activities. This was
more especially in Zaire, and Senegal where as anyone who went contrary heavy punishment was given
to him. E.g. cutting their hands.
(c) The colonialist Imported Europe manufactured goad in order to discourage African goods produced
from African (Local African Industries).
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(d) The colonialist imposed the policy of making migrant labor and forced labor this policy had negative
effects to Africans simply because local African industries lacked labor as most of the laborers were.
Concentrated on colonial production.
(e) The colonialist established the colonial education, which was provided to very few Africans who were
not linked to develop Africans local industries as they were prepared to serve to the colonial production
as clerk and messengers.
THE EFFECTS OF DE- INDUSTRIALIZATION PROCESS IN AFRICAN
The Policy of de – industrialization brought many effects to the Africans among them were.
(i) Local Africans economy declined.
(ii) African technology and skilled were underside.
(iii) African labor force were heavily explained through how wages with long Working hours.
iv) It prepared for the under development of African continent where as African still depend on foreign
import.
v) They caused to destroy the mind of Africans through brain washing process in which African still
undermine any goods produced in African and praise those produced in Europe.
Sample question.
- Explain why industrial sector was not improved in African during colonial period 2010 moc
END OF COLONIAL ECONOMY
WELCOME COLONIAL SOCIAL SERVICES
TOPIC FOUR
COLONIAL SOCIAL SERVICES
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Colonial social services refer to the services that were provided in Africa by colonialists purposely to
accelerate colonial exploitation and improve the welfare of colonial civil servants during colonial period.
Such services include public health, education, transport and communication, water and housing and many
others. For the purpose of this course our major concern will be on the following outlined aspects
These were the services e.g. Health services, education, water supply etc. which were introduced and
provided by the colonial governments in Africa so as to facilitate the ambition and motives of imperialism
in Africa.
AIMS OF COLONIAL SOCIAL SERVICES
1. The major aim of colonial social services was to facilitate the ambitions and motives of the
imperialists in Africa.
2. To enable extensive exploitation of Africa’s wealth.
3. It also aimed at supporting those few Europeans who happened to be in Africa.
4. It also aimed at preparing few Africans to assist colonial administration.
FACTORS THAT DETERMINED THE DISTRIBUTION/ PATTERN OF COLONIAL

SOCIAL SERVICES.
i) Establishment of settlers in the colony led to the establishment of some social services so as to meet
for the white settler’s interest. Example, school and medical facilities were introduced in such area.
ii) Due to the existence of production. This means that some developments of social services were
established near, plantations, so as to attract the laborer and facilitate the production. For instance,
workers quarters for accommodation and transport net – work like roads and railways were
established.
iii) Areas with raw – materials encouraged the establishment of transport network such as railways
roads, in order to facilitate the transportation of raw – materials to the coast. Example in colonial
Tanganyika all railways roads were running down to the coast.
iv) Areas where missionaries had dominated things like schools, medical centers were established to
help them 9missionaries) and to convert the indigenous people having been attracted them.
v) Due to the status of the colony itself. This mean that, the colony that was under trust ship of UN
like Tanganyika, they were given few social services this was a case due to the fact that the
colonialists never see a need to develop such colonies but in those mandatory colonies they were
given many social services.
vi) Areas with migrant laborers, which preserved as labor zone, in these areas, infrastructures like
railways, were established in order to transport laborers to the areas of plantations example rail line
from Kigoma to Tanga was built so as to carry workers in sisal plantations.
vii) Existence of peasant agriculture like in Buganda and Kagera, This made possibility of establishing
social services like schools so as to encourage the peasants to carry out with agricultural activities
because with agricultural sectors they were able to get money that would be used to pay school fees
for their children.
COLONIAL EDUCATION
Education refers to as an endless civilization whereby knowledge, values, skills, experiences of the society
are transmitted from one person to another or from one generation to another either formally or informally.
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On the other end of spectrum culture can be defined as the totality of people’s ways of living as they struggle
to live, continue living and develop as nation. It is the total ways of living of a particular group of people
in a given environment and time. It generally includes items like language, traditions, customs, arts and
crafts, social institutions e.tc. In other words, culture refers to as all that has been created by man except
those created by God.
Education is of paramount importance in any society since it ensures the preservation of the lives of its
members and the maintenance of its social structure. So far, there are two main types/forms of education,
namely formal education and informal education.
i) FORMAL EDUCATION: Is the type of education, which follows specific programs and
maintains a clear division between professional teachers and the students. It is offered in special
designated institutions like schools, colleges and Universities. It follows specific programs,
syllabus and curriculum. It is further guided by the rules and regulations of the state/government.
ii) INFORMAL EDUCATION: An Informal education can be defined as a set of values that youths
as members of the society acquire (get) from the elders through direct observations. It is mostly
based on one’s observation. Informal education does not follow specific programs; it has no
syllabus, curriculum as opposed to the formal education. Informal education was predominantly
practiced by every society in pre-colonial African societies. This was the most predominant type
of education that existed almost in every society, it greatly based on the nature of the environment
and the needs of the society.
AIMS/OBJECTIVES OF COLONIAL EDUCATION
The following are/were the aims of colonial education
1. Colonial education aimed at paving the way for the colonization of Africa.
2. It also aimed at destructing African culture and introducing the western culture.
3. It further aimed at preparing few Africans for white-collar jobs.
4. It also aimed at preparing puppet leaders who could be used in neo-colonialism.
5. Colonial education aimed at creating classes amongst Africans so as to bring about disunity this
delayed Africa’s independence.
6. It aimed at fulfilling the aims and ambitions of the imperialistic nations.
FEATURES OF COLONIAL EDUCATION
1. It was pyramidal in structure. There were many students at the lower levels but the number diminished
as they went to higher classes.
2. It was more theoretical than practical this contributed to the decline of African technology.
3. It was taught in foreign languages and not in African vernaculars. (Local language).
4. It was discriminative in sex. In this way, girls and children of the lower class were denied to acquire
education it was only boys and children of the chiefs that were given education this was because girls
were regarded as less productive other than working in kitchen.
5. It was discipline oriented. Because it aimed at producing royal and obedient students to the colonial
government. Those who received the education were supposed to obey without questioning, this aimed
at avoiding many questions to the existing colonialism.
6. The syllabus was foreign oriented and examination based. This is because whatever was taught was
based in Europe, nothing much concerned about Africa, students were taught mountains in Europe
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without ever studying about the Africa ones. These were also a series of examinations set in Abroad;
nobody could go to another stage without passing the examination.
7. It was too theoretical with little science practice. This was because; it aimed to produce job seekers
instead of job makers. Minimum skills were provided, as the colonizers did not mean to develop
technologically but to produce raw – materials for export and a market for European manufactured
goods.
8. It was racial oriented. i.e. based on color. This was because, Europeans got higher level, followed by
Asians who got middle level, and Africans were the last who were in poor schools. There were separate
school for each race and the syllabus differed accordingly, Europeans received better education where
as African got poor education.
9. It was religions biased. This was because, in the missionary schools non – Christians could not attend
the missionary school, for instance Muslims and those who had not been converted to Christianity
missed education.
10. It only favored the sons and few daughters of chiefs for future administration in this way many of
the people from ordinary families had no chances to secure education.
11. It was un-even distributed This mean that, areas where production was high education was improved,
where as in labor receives these were no schools, thus regions that produced cash crops for instance in
Tanganyika regions like, Tanga, Moshi got many schools.
12. It was taught in foreign language and prohibited. The African pupils from not using local languages,
for instance English, French and German became dominant, in the colonial schools. This in turn brought
inferiority complex in African pupils and brainwash.
13. It had specific syllabus unlike the informal education in Africa,

14. Exams were set so as to reduce the number of students.
15. It was provided to few Africans especially the sons and daughters of the African chiefs only.
16. It involved professional teachers.
THE STRUCTURE OF COLONIAL EDUCATION.
The structure of the colonial education consisted of levels, which were in form of a pyramid. Its structure
on the pyramid as follows.
i) Primary education acted as elementary education, which mainly prepared children to remain
peasant cash crops producers or farm laborers. It started from standard 1 to 4 in Tanganyika.
ii) In secondary or middle level (school) this was a post primary education; it had only few children
who could offer services in colonial offices and industries a low wages. In Tanganyika they built,
Tanga School, Tabora boy’s school, secondary schools started at standard 5 up to 8, in Uganda,
Mengo day school and Kings College, Bodo and Kisubi area etc.
iii) Colleges like teachers and technical colleges n East Africa, makerere technical college in 1921,
which offered vocational training in medicine, agriculture, mechanics, carpentry and teaching
professionals, others were, Ukiruguru in Morogoro in 1939, Achimota in Ghana in 1924, Yaba
higher college in Lagos in 1934.
iv) Higher education (University level) this was provided by universities, in this way few people who
managed to get university education had to be taken abroad.
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THE CONTENT AND METHODOLOGY OF COLONIAL EDUCATION.
i) The syllabus based largely on Europe and nothing about Africa.
ii) It promoted inferiority complex among the Africans that even Africans were punished when
spoken their local language and everything evil has a black face and white is an angel.
iii) It produced job seekers and not job creators.
iv) On primary level, concentration was put on agricultural education and school gardens so as to
teach Africans how to cultivate cash crops.
v) It was not free; school fees were to be paid that is why very few acquired education white the
majority did not.
vi) Learning was too bookish emphasizing on cram work, which was impossible for application in
African situation.
Question
1. Compare and contrast between pre-colonial African education and colonial education
HINTS: ON QUESTION 1 ABOVE
DIFFERENCES
Pre-colonial African education Colonial education

A. Existed in Africa before the intrusion of A. Brought in Africa during colonialism 19th
colonialism C
B. Offered to all members of the society B. It was offered to the sons of chiefs only, i.e.
it was discriminatory on one’s status
C. African oriented C. Western oriented
D. It was more practical as it emphasized D. It was more theoretical it emphasized on
“learning by doing” three R’s i.e. 3R’s only (Reading, Writing
and Arithmetic)
E. It prepared youths to be productive E. It emphasized on brain-washing and
members of the society prepared a few class of Africans who could
become loyal to the colonial governments
officials
F. It was relevant to African culture since it F. It was irrelevant to African culture since it
emphasized on development and was western oriented.
promotion of African cultural aspects
G. Offered in African vernaculars G. Offered in Western languages like English,
French, etc.
H. It had no specific programs, syllabus, H. It had specific programs, structure,
curriculum syllabus and curriculum
I. It wasn’t I. It was pyramidal in shape-many Africans
were at the lowest level while Asians at the
middle and only a few Europeans who
ascended to the apex of the pyramid.
J. No exams J. Examinations were used the means of

reducing the number of students who
would ascend to the top of the pyramid
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K. It was based on the society’s culture K. It was based on religious (Lutheran,
Catholic and Muslim schools. E.g. Pugu
sec. school – R.C
Tabora boys – R.C
Kigurunyembe – R.C
Seminary schools etc
L. Produced Africans to be able to undertake L. It produced people for white collar jobs or
all forms of tasks especially physical and office clerkships
practical tasks
M. It aimed at utilizing African resources for M. Aimed at exploiting African resources both
community development natural and human resources
N. It did not N. Aimed at creating puppet leaders and elites
who were to be loyal to the imperialists
SIMILARITIES:
A. Both aimed at imparting skills, knowledge and valves to the members of the society
B. Both were practice in Africa.
C. Both forms of education were accompanied by ceremonies upon completion of the specified
programs/teachings/level. In Africa-Traditional ceremonies /Graduation.
IMPACTS OF THE COLONIAL EDUCATION
i) It divided people into groups of educated (elites) and un – educated. This resulted to disunity
among Africans because educated Africans had a tendency of despising non – educated Africans.
ii) It transmitted European, values rather than African values from one generation to the next. For
instance in French colonial Africa like Senegal and morocco, the educated African became like
the French except their color.
iii) It trained very few Africans in which after independence African lacked enough labor to run the
government office.
iv) It contributed to the development of African nationalism in a sense that, colonial education
produced African elites who became political aware and started to challenge colonialism example,
J.K. Nyerere, Kwame Nkrumah and many other.
v) It promoted Africans under development. This was because colonial education abandoned (killed
denied) African education that was practical and based on African environment as a result Africans
were given education which no application in their life, thus economic well being in Africa
declined.
vi) The colonial education introduced foreign culture like education and religion, which began to
distort the African values, and traditions and African local beliefs were despised, Africans were
seen as pagans and un civilized people.
vii) The colonial education trained colonial collaborators who later helped the colonialist to
consolidate exploitation, as many educated Africans worked as clerks, office attendants,
messengers, as well as primary teachers, also little emphasis on technology and creativity was
accompanied with this.
viii) It segregated Muslims from political and economic activities as Muslims regarded missionary
education as Christianity and feared their pupils to be converted into Christianity and hence they
decided to take their sons to madras and ignored the education, this made the Muslims to be
segregated in political activities.
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ix) It also prepared the fertile grounds for neo-colonialism in Africa since the whole system of this
education discouraged the development of science and technology in Africa.
WEAKNESSES OF COLONIAL EDUCATION
1. The education, which was given to Africans, was too inferior from that which was given to the whites.
2. Few Africans received this kind of education especially the sons of chiefs while majority remained
illiterate.
3. It was based on race and religion. This was because there were schools for the Africans and other
races. Muslims could not join the missionary schools.
4. There was regional imbalance in the provision of this education.

5. Boys were much preferred to girls this led/contributed to poor development/ gender imbalanced kind
of education.
6. Education always aimed towards serving the colonial state rather than indigenous people their
environment and development.
7. The curriculum was on European countries, therefore the learners were taught geography of Britain
instead of geography of Tanzania, Kenya, Ghana or Senegal.
COLONIAL INFRASTRUCTURE. The colonial infrastructures were also important social services
established in colonial Africa. These colonial infrastructures were roads, railways, ports, harbors and
airports. Examples are central railway line from Dar es Salaam to Kigoma via Tabora to Mpanda and Dar
es Salaam to Tanga.
The Germans firstly built Tanga line in 1893, and reached Mombo in 1905, it was later extended to Moshi
in 1912, where it served the settlers in Usambara and plantations owners and African peasants in
Kilimanjaro. They also constructed the central line from Dar es Salaam to Morogoro in 1907, and reached
Tabora in 1912 and Kigoma in 1914. It was 1928 after WWI when it was extended from Tabora to Mwanza.
Other railways was in Kenya – Uganda made by British, it started at Mombasa in 1896 and reached Nairobi
in 1898. It was in 1928 when it was extended to Jinja and Kampala.
FEATURES / CHARACTERISTICS OF COLONIAL INFRASTRUCTURE.
a) They ran perpendicular to the coast. This was done so as to ease importation of manufactured goods
from Europe and exportation of raw – materials from the interior to Africa.
b) Roads and railways were very few only covered short distance concentrated in the areas of production
and not much developed
c) Construction of these roads/ railways was done through forced labor but under the supervision of white
man.
d) There was no international linkage in transport. Colonial infrastructure did not run from one territory
to another except where only the colonies belonged to the same colonial master e.g. Uganda and Kenya
shared railway because they were under British.
e) They were seasonal. This means that, most of the roads were mostly used during production and harvest
season only hence in effectiveness roads and railway.
f) They experienced frequent reconstruction. This was because, in some areas Africans used to destroy
them more especially during night e.g. Nandi and Masai, thus frequent repair became very important
to make it function able.
REASONS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF TRASPORTATION SYSTEM OR

INFRASTRUCTURE.
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a) To facilitate transport of raw materials from the interior to the coast for easy shipment to Europe. E.g.
cotton, minerals and coffee.
b) To facilitate the transportation and distributed imported European manufactured goods from the
coastal areas to the interior.
c) To easy the transportation of African laborers from one colonial economic sector to another.
d) To interlink various important colonial centers or zones such as colonial districts, provinces, projects,
e.g. plantation and mines.
e) To easy transportation of colonial officials and solders from one place to another in running and
administering the colonies.
f) To easy the colonial states to collect revenue from communication system in form of taxes from goods
and raw – materials.
g) To open up the interior of Africa for exploitation of cheap labor, markets and raw – materials.
KENYA – UGANDA RAILWAY LINE. This was the railway, which was constructed by the British
colonial government. It ran from Mombasa in Kenya to Kampala in Uganda in 1896 to 1907.
AIMS OF ITS CONSTRUCTION.
i) In order to transport raw materials. Especially copper from Kilembe, cotton from Uganda. In
addition, it transported coffee and tea both from Kenya highland through Mombasa.
ii) To transport manufactured goods. The manufactured goods from Europe were to be transported from
Mombasa harbor to the interior of Kenya and Uganda.
iii) To travel military troops. This was the case because these troops needed to supervise African
resistance. For example, British travelled military troops for suppressing Nandi resistance in Kenya.
iv) Transportation of laborers. The African laborers especially migrant labors were taken from their home
in various parts in Kenya and Uganda to the producing centers like in mining and agricultural centers.
v) To transport administrators. The colonial administrators or official were transported in various areas
so as to supervise colonial economic projects.
WHY MOST OF THE COLONIAL ROADS AND RAILWAYS RAN PERPENDICULAR TO THE
COAST.
Most of the roads and Railways in colonial Africa were directed towards the coast. This was due to the
following reasons.
i) Roads and railways were directed to the coast so as to transport various raw – materials such as cotton,
sisal, tobacco from the interior to the coast for easy shipment to Europe.
ii) They were constructed perpendicular to the coast so as to take manufactured goods from Europe like,
clothes and distributed them in the interior of Africa.
iii) They were directed the coast so as to transport African migrant laborers to the various economic projects
which were established along the coast e.g. Sisal in Tanga
iv) They were constructed towards the coast so to transport colonial officials who could supervise colonial
economic projects, which were established along the coast.
v) They were constructed towards the coast so as to facilitate transportation of European soldiers to
the economic projects, which were constructed along the coast. These soldiers were sent mainly to
ensure that all economic activities went on smoothly.
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DISTRIBUTION PATTERN OF WATER AND HOUSING SERVICES
Political administrative and economic functions determined the nature of housing and water
service provided to the residents. Many Africans were attracted to move to urban centers after the
World War.
In Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia, some 4000 African male workers and unknown number of
women and children were reported to have been housed in squatter settlement by late 1930.
Africans lived in slums and were scattered in different parts of the capital city. Such slums were
made using cheap materials poles, grass and tins. Dar-es Salaam encountered unemployment
problem. The population increased but the number of houses did not increase. Many slums
emerged at the begging of colonialism. Example in Nairobi Kenya slums were scattered while the
Europeans settled in better- drained neighborhoods.
Conditions of living in the rural areas were becoming difficult especially in the white settler
colonies. Where a lot of African land was alienated. There also was great pressure for Africans to
pay taxes. Africans who lived in urban centers were overcrowded, the wages paid were much better
than in the rural areas.
Improvement in transportation also encouraged mobility to the urban centers. The introduction of
passenger buses and train coaches facilitated the movement towards the urban centers especially
in colonial Tanganyika.
Impact of the provision of colonial water and housing services.

(i) Africans viewed urban centers as a place for temporary settlement after which one would go
back to the rural areas as most of the service was provided for the Europeans.
(ii) Due to fewer houses in urban centers, Enterprising Africans construct logging houses.
(iii) Slums emerged due to lack of adequate shelter. In these houses, illicit activities such as the
sale of illegal liquor, theft and drug trafficking take place All these contributed to the emergence
of nationalism against colonial injustice. Example, Mau mau liberation war.
(iv) African civil servants in the colonies got better housing and water services after the Second
World War
(v) Racial discrimination in the provision of water and housing services contributed to the
emergence of African Welfare Associations in Urban centres like Dar- es -Salaam.
(vi) Diseases such as pneumonia, diarrhea and malaria affected Africans due to poor water services
and housing available for African communities. Many Africans died because of poor condition of
living in colonial urban centers. In addition, prostitution became widespread in colonial urban
centers result to move social problems such as spread of sexually transmitted diseases.
COLONIAL HEALTH SERVICE
This involved the provision of medical needs to the white men and colonial subjects it was affected
by the construction of government and missionary hospitals, dispensaries in the colonies mostly
were found in key forces stations like; armed forces stations, in production areas and Urban
centers.
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Objectives of the colonial health services
1. Health services aimed at giving medicine to Africa peasants and labors in order to maintain the
labor power.
2. Were designed in order to improve the living standards of the whites since they received the
best services than the other races.
3. Aimed at destroying the African medication services.
4. Aimed at preventing and cure the white imposed diseases such as tuberculosis, sexually
transmitted diseases etc.
5. Aimed at maximizing the interests of capitalism in Africa.
Features of colonial health services
Many hospitals or dispensaries were built in urban areas, plantations areas and in areas, which had
settler’s farms i.e. Tanga, Kilimanjaro, Arusha and Bukoba
Had racial discrimination i.e. the whites received the best health services followed by Asians and
Africans.
The hospitals/ dispensaries only provided western medication.
Highly medical personnel were the whites e.g. the British, French, Portuguese, Belgians etc
Africans served as dressing sweepers and other lower rank jobs.
They were religious biased i.e. there were catholic hospitals, Lutheran hospitals etc.
The impact of colonial health services.
Expanded the market of the western capitalism industry in Africans consumed various medicine
from Europe.
They maintained the labor power for peasantry settler and mining sector of colonial economy.
Provided employment to their people in Africa.
African herbs were almost replaced by the consumption of western medications.
Strengthened classes during the colonial period i.e. the white civil servants, settlers and managers
got high quality health services while the African received poor health services.
Other social services were such as; electricity, water, infrastructure, housing.
THE ROLE OF HEALTH SERVICES, HOUSING, ELECRICITY AND WATER SUPPLY IN THE
PROMOTION AND CONSOLIDATION OF COLONIALISM IN AFRICA.
i) The colonial health services such as hospitals and dispensaries ensured good health condition to the
African laborers who were working in various colonial economic sectors such as Agriculture, mining etc
hence consolidated and promoted for colonialism.
ii) The health services ensured good health condition to the colonial administrators who effectively
supervised various economic sectors thus promoted and consolidated colonialism.
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iii) The colonial housing services helped the African laborers to attend the work at right time hence
promotion and consolidated in Africa.
vi) The colonial housing helped to reduce resistance from African since the laborers stayed in the camp
under close supervision of the European soldiers’ police etc. thus promoted colonialism.
vii) The colonial housing also to some extent reduced expenses to the colonialists who regularly
recruited the laborers from the distant areas which is very expensive, thus under this situation the
colonialists minimized expenses and maximize colonial production.
iii) The colonial electrical services provided in Africa facilitated exploitation in the colonies since
some of the colonial works were due up to right time.
iv) The water supply attracted the European to feel comfortable to live in Africa and they
supervised
QN.1. The factors that determined the distribution of social services during colonial period were:
• The status of the colony, this is to say, Trust ship or Mandatory colony. In this case, it was seen that
those colonies that were under ship were given very low priority in the provision of social services.
Subsequently, those colonies that were under Mandatory were much favored.
• Existence of Migrant laborers, this is to say those areas that were regarded as a source of labor like
Kigoma European powers did not see any important of constructing other means of transport beyond
rail way line this was because it could enable them to transport laborers to plantations.
• Areas where peasant type of agriculture dominated such as Uganda much emphases was put on the
improvement of services like, schools as to encourage peasants to carry out with agriculture.
• Whether whites like Missionaries services like schools, hospitals, dominated a certain area were
improved as it would enable them to convert the indigenous people.
• Presence of white settlers encouraged the colonialists to improve social services like schools, health
centers and better infrastructures as to meet their interests.
QN.2. The role of colonial social services in the consolidation of colonialism in Africa is as follows:
1. Education trained few Africans especially sons of chiefs who eventually could serve in the colonial
state especially in administrative matters like tax collection, clerks, police or messengers.
2. Education introduced western values and civilizations to the Africans as opposed to the African ways
of Africa in this case it later created a sense of individualism to Africans, royalty, and obedient to the
colonial masters.
3. Colonial health services were essential in treating migrant laborers who worked in different plantations
and mines peasants who involved in cash crop plantations thus more production.
In rural areas, missionary medical services and education were used in this case they acted as corner
stone in consolidation of colonialism.
4. Education taught different agricultural production techniques to Africans. For example in Buganda Sir
Apollo Kagira who was a British collaborator helped the British to introduce a new agricultural
techniques especially in cotton production for Buganda.
5. Religious services were used as a tool to purify people by making them become obedient and royal to
the colonial government, hence no much resistance would be waged by Africans against the
colonialists.
6. Housing and water supply were provided to highly class people whose duty was to supervise
production as well as to camp the laborers (the lowest ones) to facilitate efficiency in production
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7. Where the colonial transport systems were treated as a social services they facilitated the transportation
of raw materials from the interior to the ports and import goods from Europe to the interior parts, they
also transported migrant laborers to plantations and mines, troops, and administrators also were
transported to their respective areas.
Conclusively: It can be concluded that the despite the fact that the colonialists established different social
services such as roads, rail ways as well as education, still these did not aim to benefit their subordinates
(Africans) rather they were regarded as the catalyst to implement their goal of gaining super profit. This is
because all these social amenities were put in place only in those areas where colonialists discovered that
it was rich in accumulating of raw materials in terms of mineral and agriculture
WELCOME IN FORM FOUR TOPICS
TOPIC ONE
CRISES IN THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM
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CRISIS: These are the conflicts and problems, which upset the capitalist production mainly in Europe and
in the colonies especially in Africa and Asia.
Term crisis refers to a time of great danger, difficulty or confusion when problems must be solved or
important decisions must be made or a time when a problem, a bad situation is at its worst point.
These capitalist crises were
1. The First World War or the Great War (WW I)
2. The Great Economic Depression
3. The Second World War (WW II)
1. THE FIRST WORLD WAR

This was the imperialistic war, which was fought between the two complex military camps namely triple
entente, which consisted of France, Britain and Russia (FBR) on one hand against triple alliance, which
consisted of Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary (GIA) on the other hand from Tuesday 28 July 1914 to
Monday 11th November in 1918.
The German philosopher Ernst Haeckel first used the term First World War in September 1914. It was
generally a global war mostly centered in Europe that began as dated above. It was one of the deadliest
conflicts in history paving the way to major political changes including revolutions in many nations
involved. The trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand the heir to the throne
of Austria- Hungary and his lovely wife Sophie at Sarajevo, the capital city of Bosnia on Sunday 28th June
1914 by a Serbian member of the terrorist group called the Black Hand Gavrilo Princip
THE TREND OF THE WAR

The assassination of Ferdinand setoff diplomatic crisis between Austria-Hungary and Serbia because
few days later Austria-Hungary government gave Ultimatum to Serbia to submit the assassin but Serbia
refused.
It is historically recorded that on Sunday 28th June 1914 the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited the
Bosnian Capital City-Sarajevo, a group of six assassins from the nationalist group supplied by the black
hand, had gathered on the street where the Archduke’s motorcade would pass. One of the assassins called
Cabrinovic threw a grenade at the car but missed. Some nearby were badly injured by the blast, but Franz
Ferdinand’s convoy carried on. About an hour later to be exact, when Franz Ferdinand was returning from
a visit at the Sarajevo hospital with those wounded in the assassination attempt, the convoy took a wrong
turn into the street whereby coincidently Princip stood with a pistol, he shot and killed Franz Ferdinand and
his lovely wife Sophie. Following the assassination, the Austria-Hungary suspected the Kingdom of Serbia
to have been fully engaged in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. As the result,
the Austria-Hungary sent three main ultimatums to Serbia on 23rd July 1914 and the Serbian Government
was required to respond to the ultimatum within 48 hours. Serbia was required to
1. Offer apologies to Austria-Hungary for the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife
2. Provide detailed information on the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife to the
Austrian authorities
3. Allow Austrian officials and judicial institutions to be involved in the investigation of the assassination
in Serbia
4. Discourage and dismantle all the organizations and publications that were against Austria-Hungary
5. Discharge all Serbian officials who committed the assassination
All the conditions were accepted by Serbia, except the demand of allowing Austria-Hungary officials
to enter into Serbia’s territory to investigate the crime stating that this would be a violation of the
Constitution and of the law of criminal procedure. Three days later, on July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary
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declared war on Serbia, beginning the First World War. On 28th July 1914, Austria-Hungary invaded
Bosnia.
On 2nd August Germany invaded Belgium and Luxemburg and on 3rd August 1914 Germany declared
war against France in the fear that France would help Russia.
On 4th August Britain declared war against Germany.
The USA joined the war on 6th April 1917 to assist the members of the Triple Entente
The war ended on 11th November 1918 in which Germany was defeated by victorious powers.
THE CAUSES OF THE WW1

The causes of the WW I can be categorized into two groups, namely short term and long term causes.
THE LONG TERM CAUSES
These were the causes, which prepared the grounds for the outbreak of the war. They are in other words
called the underlying causes. These factors are as follow.
1. The development of capitalism into the highest stage in 1860’s: This created a stiff competition
amongst capitalist powers such as Germany, France, Britain, Italy and Austria Hungary. For example,
Germany fought a war with France over the issue of Alsace and Loraine rich region in coal in Franco-
Prussian war of 1870-1871. This contributed to the formation of Alliances hence the war.
2. Dissatisfaction in territorial division: The partition of colonies in the Berlin conference of 1884 to1885
was not fair because some European countries such as Italy was given few colonies compared to other
European countries. This created hatred amongst the super powers thus creating grounds for the war.
3. The rise of military alliances: Germany sought alliance with Austria and signed the Dual Alliance in
1879 with the condition that they have to help each other during the war. Italy joined in 1882 to form Triple
Alliance. On the other hand, France-Russia treaty was signed 1890 to form Entente Cordially and Britain
joined later to form Triple Entente (agreement). The rival alliances created weapons such as bombs, guns,
tanks, and created armies, which were ready for the war at any time. Furthermore, the alliances created the
fertile ground for the outbreak of the First World War in 1914
4. The France desire to regain Alsace and Loraine (the French Revenge movement): Germany annexed
the two provinces of Alsace and Lorraine during the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871. This created
grounds for the revenge amongst the French men hence preparing the ground for WW I
5. The Balkan crisis (Balkan nationalism): The Balkan nationalism created conflicts between Austria-
Hungary against Serbia and between Austria-Hungary against Russia. The competition amongst the three
powers led to the assassination of Franz Ferdinand hence the WW1.
6. Moroccan Crisis 1905 and 1911: The conflict was between France against Germany in which Germany
declared independence to Morocco, which was the French colony. This created the hostility between France
against Germany something, which prepared the ground for the outbreak of the WWI.
7. Arms race and militarism contributed greatly to the outbreak of the First World War simply because,
European powers especially Great Britain and Germany competed in the production of arms and
enlargement of soldiers. Good example is Germany who increased her armies from 400,000 to 800,000 the
same Britain increased it drastically, such competition made other powers to increase their military budget
for defense, also it caused to the antagonistic relations among European powers.
THE SHORT TERM CAUSE (THE IMMEDIATE CAUSE)
The immediate cause for the outbreak of the WW I was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and
his wife Sophie on 28thJune 1914 in Sarajevo the capital city of Bosnia. Archduke was the Austrian Prince
and the heir to throne. As he pay a visit in Serbia with his wife, they were shoot dead by a Serbia young
boy called Gavillo Princip, this made Austria Hungary government to give ultimatum (a statement of terms
that must be accepted) the ultimatum had three conditions, these were: -
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Serbian to explain for the assassination and bring / surrender the assassins, second Serbia to dismiss all
officials suspected and lastly Serbia to allow Austria – Hungary’s soldiers to make investigation. As Serbia
responded negative, this caused for the outbreak of the war. (For more information please read this article).
Generally the outbreak of the First World War was the contributing factors to the underdevelopment of
African continent in a sense that European powers being economically affected they embarked on massive
exploitation by increasing more taxes, alienating African fertile land and many other related chaos.
THE IMPACTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR ON AFRICA
1. All German colonies such as Tanganyika, Burundi, Rwanda, Namibia, Togo and Cameroon were put
under League of Nations as mandatory territories. This led to the changing of colonial administrative
systems, which affected Africans. This was done following the Versailles Peace Treaty in Paris France in
1919
2. Deaths amongst Africans especially in Germany colonies such as Tanganyika and Togo because Germany
recruited African soldiers to fight on its side.
3. The spread of disease such as flu, which hit the lives of thousands of Africans for Example in Tanganyika
it is approximated about 7000 people, died because of flue.
4. Destruction of properties such as farms, mines and physical infrastructures like railways were badly
destroyed in German colonies.
5. The fall of the external trade between Europe and Tanganyika due to the destruction of European
economies such as banks and industries.
6. There was increasing exploitation in the colonies such as land alienation, low wages and introduction of
agricultural schemes in order to compensate the losses, which had occurred following the war
7. Fall in the prices of raw materials from African colonies because of the severe financial crisis that had hit the
countries, which participated in the First World War
8. It led to the introduction and development of forced colonial agricultural schemes in order to generate big
qualities and quantities of raw materials geared towards restructuring the economies of the western
capitalist countries, which took part in the war
9. The First World War led to the reduction in the colonial expenditures in the African colonies due to the
effects of the war
THE GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION 1929- 1933

The Great Depression was the deepest and longest-lasting economic downturn (slump) in the history of the
Western industrialized world. In the United States, the Great Depression began soon after the stock market
crash on Tuesday 29thOctober in 1929, the day came to be known as the Black Tuesday, which sent Wall
Street into a panic and wiped out millions of investors. Over the next several years, consumer spending
and investment dropped, causing steep declines in industrial output and rising levels of unemployment as
failing companies laid off workers. By 1933, when the Great Depression reached its nadir (the worst
moment of a particular situation), some 13 to 15 million Americans were unemployed and nearly half of
the country’s banks had failed.
It is historically recorded that the depression started in the US and spread to other parts of the world. Before
the depression, the US economy was very stable and it was the leading manufacturing country in the world.
For instance, when the US manufactured 4.5 million cars, Germany, Britain and France together produced
a total of 500,000 cars. This is because while other powers were fighting in the WWI, the US was improving
its technology, which had great impact on its industrial economy.
However, in the same year, the stock exchange market of the US collapsed because all its shares (stock) lost
value and people who tried to sell their shares suffered losses as the price of shares went down due to the
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depression of the economy. This situation marked the beginning of the world economic crisis and it was
termed THE GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION

1. Fall in agricultural and industrial production.
2. Low prices of crops and goods such as in the US the price of wheat declined.
3. Closure of banks in capitalist world for example in the US 5,000 banks were closed by 1932.
4. Unemployment in the world for example over 30 million people had no jobs in US by 1932.
5. Collapse (decrease in) the national income.
6. Low wages and salaries, food shortage and poor social services.
7. Starvation and loss of many lives
CAPITALIST PRODUCTION CYCLE

The capitalist production has four major stages.
BOOM STAGE (PEAK)

This is the period when the economy is at the highest level. During this period, the economy has the following
characteristics/features:
1. High level of investment
2. Lowest level of unemployment
3. High standard of living
4. Social and political stability
5. Expansion of trade.
CRISIS
This is the temporary decline in the economic activities and it has the following challenges
1. Decrease in investment
2. Decrease in employment
3. Decrease in income
4. Decrease in trade
5. Decrease in commodity price
DEPRESSION STAGE
This is the period of total decline in the economy or stagnation of the economy. It has the following
characteristics;
1. Lowest level of investment.
2. Highest level of unemployment.
3. Lowest standards of living
4. Total closure of enterprises and investment
5. Lowest level of income.
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RECOVERY STAGE
This is the period when the economy starts to improve and expand, it follows after a depression or a recession;
it has the following characteristics;
1. Income starts increasing
2. Prices start to rise.
3. Standard of living starts to rise.
4. Opening of Banks.
5. Investments start to expand.
THE CAUSES OF THE GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION

1. The effects of the WW1: The war ruined the economies of almost all European countries. Due to the
collapse of economies, efforts were made to recover economies by producing as much as possible. This
created over production of merchandise (goods) against under consumption hence, Great Economic
Depression.
Furthermore, the WW I destroyed the important economic infrastructures such as roads, railways and
so on
2. High Protective tariffs by the US on the imported goods from Europe. This appealed European
country to put tariffs on the US goods as a result market was narrowed to both continents hence over-
production and great economic depression.
3. Un-equal distribution of income: The difference in incomes between capitalist and workers in which
workers were paid inversely proportional to what they produced created a gap between production and
consumption hence depression.
4. The collapse of the US stock exchange market: This was the immediate cause of the Great Economic
Depression, the New York Stock collapsed on 29th October in 1929, the stock was located along the WALL
STREET, due to the public rumors that the boom was about the late and many people were rushing to
withdraw their money from banks and sell their shares at lower prices than before. The values of the shares
fell drastically between September and December in 1929. The collapse of the New York Stock exchange
market led to the collapse of business and agriculture due to lack of capital
5. The failure of speculators to pay back loans borrowed from banks: Speculators are people who trade
commodities, bonds, equities and currencies, the failure to repay the loan affected economy hence great
depression.
6. Nature of the capitalist economy: Economists believe that depression was inevitable because any
capitalist economy has to pass four phases, which are cyclic. Boom, Crisis, Depression and Recovery.
Therefore, its nature is what driven it to depression.
Failure of the banking system and bad debts especially the housing banks
EFFECTS OF THE GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION AFRICA

1. Drastic fall of the prices of raw materials in the African countries; for example, the price of sisal
exported to Europe dropped from 32 pounds per ton to 12 pounds per ton between 1931 to 1932.
2. Fall in worker’s wages; Colonial government reduced the salaries and wages of workers for example in
Kenya the worker’s wages fell from 36/=Kshs to 10/= Kshs in 1930.
3. Unemployment; the depression caused unemployment in many African countries because the colonial
government retrenched (reduced) some workers and reduced the size of army.
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4. The introduction of agricultural schemes; such as groundnuts schemes in Gambia and Tanganyika.
5. Intensification of exploitation; post-depression period witnessed the increase of tax, reduction of
worker’s wages, forced labor, low price of cash crops and long working hours which were introduced by
the colonialists so as to compensate their economies.
6. Intensive exploitation. Colonial governments in Africa increased exploitation of African resources. Example
land alienation was doubled, new taxes were introduced, forced labor and low wages, and this aimed at
compensating the financial crisis that had affected their economy.
7. Africans were discouraged by the colonial government to grow their subsistence crops such as millet,
sorghum, cassava, yams and maize, instead; they were forced to grow cash crops on their farms so as to
increase the production of raw materials, which were highly demanded in Europe at that time.
8. Decline in provision of social services. Great depression led to the decline of provision of social services in
Africa whereby the colonial government was no longer interested in the investment of social services
because of severe financial crisis in Europe.
9. Establishment of processing industries. The establishment of processing industries likes cotton ginneries, oil
refinery as to increase the qualitative and quantitative output in the metropolitan countries.
10. Regional imbalance. Great depression contributed to the regional imbalance of transport network whereby
railway lines and roads were constructed in areas where production was high and in places that there was
no transport network.
MEASURES TAKEN BY THE COLONIAL POWERS TO ALLEVIATE THE IMPACT OF THE

GREAT DEPRESSION IN THE COLONIES
Several measures were taken by the colonial powers to revamp the impact of the great depression on the
metropolitan economies. This includes the following;
a) Introduction and expansion in consolidating the peasant cooperative societies e.g. in 1932 the KNCU
was formed, the Kagera coffee growers and many others with the aim to improve the production of
cash crops.
b) They initiated more campaign in most African colonies by establishing more plantations and forced
cropping e.g. in Tanganyika all able bodied men were supposed to work on plantations for 12 hours a
day and all shops of wine (pombe) were supposed to be closed during the day and open in the evening.
Some of these development schemes introduced were like Ulugulu land usage scheme Mialo
rehabilitation scheme Usukuma and Mbulu destocking.
c) They allowing peasants in settlers economy like Kenya and Zimbabwe to cultivate the prohibited cash
crops that had been preserved for the settlers like tea, coffee, cotton, etc this was aimed at increasing
the quantity of cash crop production as to fill the gap in the metro pole economies.
d) They changed African education syllabus and curriculum as to respond with the need of
the metropolitan, emphasis was put on handcraft agriculture, and vocational schools as to increase
production and exploit African cheap labor as a solution to solve the great slump
e) The colonial government begun to intervene in agriculture sector by providing subsidies, the settlers
classify peasant, farmers, and provide them farming implements like hybrid seeds, fertilizers and
packaging, to increase the quality and the quantity of the production.
f) The colonial government also begun to develop transport network like railway, harbors ,ports, so as to
ease the transportation of the highly needed raw materials in the metro pole.
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g) In addition, the colonial government increased the activities in mining of gold diamond, copper, and
exploitation of African cheap labor e.g. in Kenya the Kipande system was increased from 80 days to
160 per person annually.
h) They intensified labor recruiting bureaus was set to encourage and recruit migrate labor for stance
SILABU in Tanganyika, railways were asset to transport labor force from labor reserves to plantations.
i) New taxation were introduced in the colonial state to increase colonial revenues as well as to encourage
cheap labor of the Africans new taxes introduced included Hut tax poll tax, livestock tax among others.
THE SECOND WORLD WAR
The Second World War was nothing but the continuation of the First World War. It is considered to be the
deadliest war that the world had never experienced because sophiscated and deadly weapons such as nuclear
weapons, airplanes, tanks and so forth were used. It is historically recorded that the war began on Friday
1st of September in 1939 and ended in 1945.
It was fought between the Axis powers, which consisted of Germany, Italy and Japan against the Allied
powers or the democratic powers namely Britain, the USSR, the USA and France.
The war in Europe ended with an invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union
culminating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet and Polish troops and the subsequent Germany
unconditionally surrendered on 8th May 1945. Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July
1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender under its terms, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the
Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 August and 9 August respectively. With an invasion of the
Japanese archipelago imminent, the possibility of additional atomic bombings, and the Soviet Union's
declaration of war on Japan and invasion of Manchuria, Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945. Thus ended
the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies
1. Failure of the League of Nations to keep the world peace. Primarily, the League of Nations was
established to assess the impact of the First World War in 1919. Its Main function was to keep the
world peace and security. Yet it failed to prevent armament and militarism of the aggressive powers
such as Germany and Italy. Some of the reasons, which made it failed in the maintenance of the
world peace, are summarized as follows.
i) It had no army of its own, which could interfere aggressive powers such as Germany and Italy.
ii) It had no clear charter towards maintenance of the world peace.
iii) It did not exercise or implement the terms or resolutions which were reached at the Versailles peace
Treaty Summit which was held in February in Paris France.
iv) Many scholars argue that the League of Nations had no teeth (power) to intervene any aggressive
power.
v) Many Nations withdrew from the League and started forming their own Military wings such as
Axis powers as a result; these nations violated the terms and instructions from the League.
Ultimately, the failure of the League of Nations to disarm and maintain the world peace led to the
outbreak of the Second World War
2. The rise of dictatorship governments in Europe. Fascism in Italy under Dictator Benito Mussolini
in 1922 and Nazism in Germany Under dictator Adolf Von Hitler in 1933. These dictatorial regimes
went in hand with production of massive and destructive weapons which created aggression, tension
and hatred amongst the world powers for instance after the rise of Nazism in Germany, Adolf Hitter
started the Anti-Jews campaigns which aimed at Killing of all Jews who were living in Germany. This
move was historically referred to as HOLOCAUST
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NB: Fascism originates from an Italian word “Fasces” Which means bundles of rods and forces symbolizing
unity and force Nazism implied extreme totalitarianism policy, which was based on expansionism,
militarism dictatorial, and nationalism policy by Adolf Hitler.
3. Italo-Ethiopian war of 1935 (Abyssinia Crisis of 1935) This crisis came following the Italians’ attack
against Ethiopian in Africa. The war is referred to as Italo-Ethiopian crisis whereby Italo means Italy
in other words; it is referred to as Abyssinia crisis for by then, Ethiopia was known as Abyssinia. Italy
under Benito Mussolini had expansionism policy of acquiring areas of influence that is why she
attacked Abyssinia. The Conflict raised much attention in the world as a result; the Allied powers such
as Britain, USSR and US developed hostility condemning Benito’s decision of attacking Ethiopia. This
move prepared the ground for the outbreak of the Second World War (WWII) in 1939.
4. The effects of the Great economic depression of 1929 – 1933 contributed to the outbreak of the
Second World War. This is due to the fact that, during that period, many European civilians had
experienced much sufferings coupled with unemployment, low investment, poor living standards
(poverty in general) Thus some leaders like Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini took the advantage of
the situation to get into power during their campaigns, they promised their citizens bread and honey but
once they won the elections they did not fulfill the promises rather they embarked on militarism and
armament which led to the rise of dictatorship regimes hence the outbreak of the war. Thus, they took
the advantage of the crisis as the stepping-stone into power.
5. Spanish civil war in 1936 – 1939 it was the war, which was sparked of by rebels against the democratic
government. During this, Adolf Hitler tried out his new weapons on the side of the right-wing military
rebels in the war. He joined Benito Mussolini who was also supporting the revolts something, which
brought the two. Hitler and Benito together this moves Created hostility against Allied (B.U.U F)
powers, something, which prepared the ground for the outbreak of the Second World War.
6. Attack of Poland by Germany (Invasion of Poland). This was the immediate cause for the outbreak
of the Second World War. On1st September in 1939, 11:00am. Germany troops entered Poland.
Following this aggressive action by Germany, Britain and France asked Adolf Hitler to withdraw his
troops from Poland immediately but Adolf Hitler gave them a deaf ear that is he did not respond to,
following Germany’s refusal, Britain declared war against Germany on the very same day France
declared war against Germany something which led to the outbreak of the Second World War.
7. Failure of the appeasement policy this was the policy which was firstly introduced by the British
Prime Minister Chamberlain, in order to avoid the outbreak of the second world war. Chamberlain
initiated this policy on Adolf Hitler as one of the ways of keeping him happy by giving him loans,
pardoning Germany debts. At the end of the day, the policy did not materialize simply because Germany
under Adolf Hitler went on with militarism and/ or armament, which prepared the fertile grounds for
the outbreak of the Second World War.
8. Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, while Germany invaded the Soviet Union, Japan made a surprise
attack on 7th December 1941 on the US navy base at Pearl Harbor. This forced the US to support Britain
and the USSR in fighting against the Germans with their leader Hitler and his allies namely Italy and
Japan.
EFFECTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

GENERAL EFFECTS
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1. Depopulation was one of the effects of the Second World War in Europe and elsewhere. This was due
to the deaths amongst soldiers and civilians following the use of the most deadly weapons such as
atomic bombs, for example on Monday 6thAugust in 1945 the city of Hiroshima and atomic bomb was
dropped by the allied powers. Also on Thursday 9th August 1945 in the city of Nagasaki another atomic
bomb was dropped which was basically more destructive than that of Hiroshima. The bombings
claimed lives of many civilians.
2. It led to the establishment of the United Nations Organization on 24th October in 1945, which
marked the end of the League of Nations of 1919. This Organization was established in order to keep
the world peace so much that the third world war does not occur.
3. WW II led to the beginning of the cold war following the emergence of the two super power nations
in the world namely the USA (United States of America) and the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics) in 1945
In this, the USA became the leading capitalist super power nation in the world whereas the USSR
became the leading socialistic power in the world something, which led to the emergence of the cold
war between the two, blocks.
NB: Cold war refers to as the ideological war, which emerged between the USSR against the USA soon
after WW II in 1945. In cold war, the parties do not enter into active warfare but they do not cooperate,
there exists mistrust between them.
4. WW II led to the rise of massive nationalism in the world especially in Africa. Following the roles
played by ex-soldiers who fought during the war and Pan- Africanism movement in the world, African,
Asian and Latin America countries started fighting for their independence, the ex-soldiers or returned
soldiers formed different political parties and associations, which aimed at liberating their countries.
5. The Second World War led to division of Germany into two antagonistic parties namely Eastern
Germany, which was following the socialistic, ideology, and Western Germany, which was following
the capitalist ideology. This situation led to the construction of the Berlin wall, which separated the two
parties.
6. The war led to fall of production activities for countries were not settled to engage in production
activities. Additionally, some key economic sectors such industrial sectors were badly destructed by
the war.
7. The war led to lack of peace and security in the world in general
8. It led to social sufferings and outbreak of communicable diseases such as cholera due to lack of
sanitary condition. Other social miseries included famine among people, which coupled with lack of
food security.
EFFECTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR (WW II) ON AFRICA
Despite the fact that the Second World War was not fought in Africa. Africa was both negatively and
positively either directly or indirectly affected by the Second World War (WW II)
1. Depopulation in Africa. This is because many soldiers who fought in the Second World War on the
side of Britain and allied powers in general were recruited from African colonies; strong energetic men
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are taken away. Besides a good number of them died during the war something which led to
depopulation in Africa.
2. The Second World War led to the rise of mass nationalism in Africa, following the role played by
the ex-soldiers or returned soldiers who survived the war. They had fought for their colonial masters
and that when they returned back home (Africa) they formed different nationalistic political parties
which raised people’s awareness about the evils of colonialism, for example Dedan Kimath and General
China were ex-soldiers from the WW II who led the struggle for independence in Kenya.
3. The second world war led to intensive colonial exploitation in Africa, which went along with forced
labor, land alienation, low wages and heavy taxation on Africans. The exploitation meant to generate
raw -materials so much that they could restructure their economies which were badly destroyed during
the second world war.
4. It led to lack of peace and security in Africa: for Africans could no longer settle and indulge (engage)
in production activities due to fear and unrest in the continent.
5. The war led to separation of families, which was coupled with extreme social sufferings amongst
Africans. Separation of families occurred following recruitment of soldiers from Africa who were taken
to fight in the war leaving their families behind.
6. The Second World War led to establishment of import substitution industries (ISI) in Africa in
order to reduce cost of importing goods from their mother countries, which could easily be
manufactured in Africa. Consumables such as cigarettes, beverages, butter, chocolate, meat and so forth
were by then produced in Africa; the aim behind was to reduce expenditure on importation of goods
from abroad.
7. The formation of the United Nations Organization (UNO) on 24th October 1945 two months after the
second world war was a blessing to African states because UNO supported many African states to fight
for their freedom that is why many independent African states joined the UNO.
8. Socialism Ideology started to spread in African states following the USSR influence on Africa for
example the United Republic of Tanzania adopted socialism and self-reliance ideology in 1967.
9. The Second World War led to grow more cash crops campaigns in African colonies for example
the colonialists introduced different agricultural schemes such as Sukuma cotton agricultural scheme,
Nachingwea groundnuts scheme and so on. These campaigns went hand in hand with the establishment
of master farms in rural areas. The schemes meant to get money from the colonies in order to restructure
their economies which were badly destroyed by the second world war (1939-1945).
TOPIC TWO
NATIONALISM AND DECOLONIZATION PROCESS IN AFRICA
A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE TOPIC
The period 1945 to 1970 witnessed the rise of nationalism in Africa in general and East Africa in particular.
In 1957, Ghana led the way by becoming the first African country to regain her independence. In East
Africa, Uganda and Kenya were colonized by Britain while Tanganyika was colonized by Germany after
the First World War (WW I), Tanganyika became a Mandate territory under the trust of Britain in 1919.
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Exposed to colonial evils like taxation, forced labor, low wages, land alienation, with increased western
education, urbanization and experience of the World war two, African national consciousness was aroused.
This was the spirit of the nationalism that finally led the three (3) states of East Africa to independence
Tanganyika (1961), Uganda (1962) and Kenya (1963) under Nye ere, Milton Obote and Jomo Kenyatta
respectively.
WHAT IS NATIONALISM?
Definitions of Nationalism: Nationalism is the feeling of national consciousness or awareness by the
people that they are members of a nation and desire freedom from colonial rule. It is the feeling of national
hood to belong to a certain country.
AFRICAN NATIONALISM. African nationalism is the desire of African people to terminate or end all
forms of foreign rule. It is/was the political will of Africans in opposition to foreign domination, it entails
African struggle against western colonialism and imperialism.
Generally, African nationalism was or is the desire of the sons and daughters of Africa to
end/eliminate/terminate all forms of colonial exploitation, oppression, subjugation and discrimination so
much that they could be free economically, politically and socially. It simply means/meant the struggle for
freedom for self-governing. ALTERNATIVELY, African nationalism was/is the patriotic movement
amongst Africans who were subject to colonial rule to liberate themselves for self-governance.
THE PROCESS OF DECOLONISATION
The process of decolonization or liberation was paramount (fundamental) in Africa because it allowed
African states to regain their independence, which they had lost for many years. The rise of African
nationalism goes as far back as the period of colonial conquest and the imposition of colonial rule, but later
from 1945, the colonial exploitation stimulated the rise of the nationalistic struggles, which were patriotic
in nature.
The factors for the rise of mass African nationalism are categorized into two (2) main categories namely,
INTERNAL OR DOMESTIC AND EXTERNAL OR INTERNATIONAL FACTORS.
INTERNAL FACTORS are those reasons, which emanated within Africa and raised Africans’ awareness
of the evils of colonialism. These factors made them wage the struggle for freedom; such factors included
colonial exploitation through land alienation, low wages, and forced labor, heavy taxation, as a result they
formed different associations and independent churches movements within Africa, which catalyzed the
spirit of nationalism within Africa.
EXTERNAL FACTORS are in other words referred to as INTERNATIONAL FACTORS, which

emanated outside Africa and led to the rise of African nationalism.
The rise of African nationalism in Africa had two (2) main phases namely (Early African Nationalism) or
Proto nationalism and mass nationalism or (Proper African nationalism)
A: EXTERNAL FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM
1. The Impact Of The Second World War (WW II) Of 1939-1945

The war weakened the economic and military strengths of the capitalist powers such as Germany; Britain,
France in general, thus they found that it was not worth benefiting to keep on colonizing African countries
thus some of them decided to prepare their colonies in Africa for self-governance for example Britain,
moreover; they depended on US loans.
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2. The Role Played By Ex-Soldiers Or Returned Soldiers From The Second World War (WW II) In
1945
The war widened the political understanding of African soldiers who fought on the side of their colonial
masters. The soldiers came to realize the true meaning of freedom and self-governance, self-determination
and democracy. Besides, they had new fighting techniques and how to organize themselves. Thus when
they returned to Africa, they opposed colonial exploitation. Some of them became active and front liners in
forming nationalistic and patriotic political parties to fight for independence for example Dedans Kimath
in Kenya who was the outspoken and outstanding leader of MAUMAU uprising in Kenya in the early
1950’s. Jonathan Okwiriri who became the President of the Young Kavirondo Association other returned
soldiers were General China, Joseph Kagethe just to mention a few.
3. The role played by Pan-Africanism movement.

Pan – Africanism was a massive (large) movement of all black people in the world of African origin to
come together as one people against all forms of colonial exploitation.
NB: Pan means “ALL” thus PAN-AFRICANISM – ALL AFRICANS MOVEMENTS
Pan-Africanism implanted the spirit oneness, unity, solidarity, dignity and fraternity amongst Africans
towards independence. It encouraged and created consciousness and awareness amongst Africans about the
evils of colonialism. Pan –Africanists such as William Du Bois and Marcus Garvey as well as Kwame
Nkrumah held different Pan-African congresses. The most successful congress was the fifth (5th)
conference, which took place on 15th October 1945 in Manchester famously known as the Manchester Pan-
African Congress. The congress was attended by young African students who were pursuing their studies
abroad, for example Dr. Nandi Azikiwe (Nigeria), Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana), Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya),
Peter Abrahams (South Africa), Kamuzu Banda (Malawi) attended the congress; the main agenda of the
conference was decolonization of Africa, they initiated various political movements while others formed
political parties which led their countries to independence for example Dr. Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana
formed CPP (Convection Peoples’ Party) which led Ghana to independence on Sunday 6th March in 1957,
Jomo Kenyatta joined KAU later KANU which led Kenya to independence in 1963.
4. The role played By the Former USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. This goes as far as soon
after the Russian Revolution, which took place in 1917. It was a socialist nation and that it opposed all
forms of colonialism and exploitation. Thus it declared that it would practically support both morally
and practically all that nationalistic movements in Africa and the world at large. Furthermore, soon
after the end of the Second World War (WW II) in 1945 the USSR as the leading socialist nation in the
world by then, supported African liberation movements. It is historically believed that the war of
liberation in Angola and Mozambique were fundamentally supported by the former USSR
5. The Role Played By the United States (Us)

The US emerged as the leading capitalist nation in the world. It became both politically and economically
strong. It applied/used its “open door policy” to support decolonization, thus it championed the
decolonization process in Africa in order to spread capitalist ideology in Africa, after the war the US
emerged as the strongest power economically. It used that opportunity through the Marshall Plan of 1947
to extend loans to all European nations whose economies had been badly destroyed by the WW II. One of
the conditions for such countries to acquire (get) the loans was that they should grant their colonies
independence first.
6. The Role Played By the British Labor Party.
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This took over power in 1945. Its socialist policies were against colonialism; its activities, opinions,
campaigns and anti-colonial attitudes greatly encouraged nationalism in Africa for example the labor party
favored Ugandan struggle in Uganda.
7. The contribution from the Non-Aligned Movement (Nam) and the Bandung Conference of 1955.
The Bandung conference was attended by Egypt, Libya and Ethiopia from Africa. The conference
emphasized on solidarity and black consciousness amongst the colonized countries.
NB: NAM was/is the organization, which was formed in the early 1961whose members were under
colonialism mostly from Asia, Latin America and Africa. It is known as non-aligned movement since it did
not align to either socialist block, which was led by USSR, or the capitalist block, which was led by the
US. NAM championed decolonization in all countries from Asia, Africa and Latin America in the struggle
for independence.
8. The role played by the United Nations by then UNO.

The UNO was established on 24th October in 1945 with its headquarters in New York. It replaced the
League of Nations. The charter of the UNO was against colonialism and all forms of colonial exploitation
thus the UNO through its charter, condemned colonialism. To effect this, the UNO through its trusteeship
council was established which acted as the guardian vested with power to coordinate the decolonization of
African, Asia and Latin American countries.
9. The Contribution of the independence of India and Pakistan.

The independence of the two Asian countries in the late 1940 has awakened African nations
towards the spirit of nationalism and the struggle for independence. The independence of these
countries further raised African consciousness, awareness and patriotism towards struggle for
independence under the argument that “if it was possible in Indian and Pakistan why it shouldn’t
be impossible in Africa?”
INTERNAL FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF MASS NATIONALISM
1. Intensive colonial exploitation in Africa

Was the first and foremost factor for the rise of African nationalism. After establishing colonial
economies in Africa, the colonialists introduced different mechanisms of exploitation in Africa; for
example, they used the hated colonial institutions or apparatus such as the colonial police, SILABU
and the court to force African laborers to work in the colonial mines and plantations i.e. forced labor.
Furthermore, the colonial states introduced forced land alienation, corporal punishment, heavy
taxation and low wages amongst Africans something which created grievances amongst the majority
marginalized Africans against the colonialists, hence the African waged the struggle against the evils
of colonialism.
2. The role played by the African elites.

The role of the educated Africans who firstly received colonial education was of paramount importance.
The colonial education that they received during colonialism became the tool and a good 7weapon to
end colonialism such elites include (d) the first President of Kenya (Jomo Kenyatta), President of
Tanganyika (Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere), the first President of Ghana (Dr. Kwame Nkrumah), the first
President of Zimbabwe (Robert Gabriel Mugabe), the first President of South Africa under majority
rule (Nelson Mandela) and many others just to mention a few. These educated elites played a
fundamental role of educating Africans of the evils of colonialism and that they mobilized their fellows
towards forming political parties which at the end of the day led their respective countries to
independence.
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3. The role played by social welfare associations.
Africans established these associations in order to end poor working conditions, discrimination and
colonial exploitation general. These welfare and social associations mobilized colonial workers in
industries, mines and plantations to go on strikes/boycotts against the colonial exploitation, thus these
social and welfare associations created awareness and consciousness amongst colonial workers,
examples of these included.
• In East Africa, there was the Kikuyu Central Association in Kenya, the Young Kavirondo in Kenya
under Harry Thuku, the Railway African Association in Tanganyika, the Tanganyika Territory
Civil Service Association (TTCSA) under Martin Kayamba as its founder.
• In Central Africa, there were the Mombera Native Association in Nyasa Land, industrial and
commerce union in Southern Rhodesia.
• In West Africa there were, the People’s Union which was formed in 1908 in Lagos Nigeria, the Anti-
Slavery and Aborigines Protection Society with its main branches in Nigeria and Ghana (Gold coast)
4. The role played by the independent church movements in Africa.

These were the autonomous free and independent churches formed by Africans to challenge the European
church leadership and their teachings. However, the independent churches did not only preach religious
issues but also they addressed social, political and economic exploitation by the colonialists to Africans.
These churches were also against the European missionaries, white masters and colonial government
officials who were basically the agents of imperialism.
Examples of these independent church movements include (d)

a. The Watch Tower Church Movement which operated mainly in Malawi from 1906
b. The African National Church and church of God in Tanganyika
c. The Kikuyu Orthodox Church in Kenya
By and large, these independent church movements created and implanted the spirit of oneness,
unity and solidarity, awareness and encouragement amongst Africans
5. The role played by peasant cooperatives. Peasant cooperatives and organizations, which were
established by farmers in order to fight for good and fair prices for their farms, produce. These included
a. Kilimanjaro Native cooperative union (KNCU)
b. Usambara Native growers, The Bukoba cooperative union
6. The independence of Ghana on 6th March 1957.

Ghana became the first African British colony to dismantle the colonial chains under the charismatic
leadership of the late Kwame Nkrumah. The independence of Ghana became the point of reference to many
African states, which were still under colonialism. It created awareness, consciousness and courage to the
rest of African states, which were still under colonialism. To affect this, Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah led
the liberation of other African states something, which steered very African nationalism.
7. Italo – Ethiopian crisis or conflict

Up to the mind 1930’s, Ethiopia was one of the African states which did not fall under the chains of
colonialism, the attempt to establish colonial domination by the Italians was militarily crushed in 1896 at
the battle of Adowa. The conflict raised strong emotion throughout Africa, Asia and other black people in
Diaspora. Many African states drew lessons from Ethiopia hence marked the highest time for Africans to
wage mass nationalism.
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8. The played by political parties There were different political parties formed in Africa these includes
TANU in Tanganyika, ANC in Kenya, KANU in Kenya and CCP in Ghana. These political parties
contributed to the rise of nationalism in Africa simply because they specified evils of colonialism to its
members they also resisted colonial exploitation openly
9. The played by colonial social infrastructures also played a big role in facilitating the spread and the
rise of African nationalism that’s why some historian do say that colonialism sown a seed of its own
destruction, infrastructures like railways roads facilitated the nationalistic activities in rural and urban
centers by spreading the massage of liberations in all parts of Africa.
10. The played by mass media especially newspaper played a big role in spreading awareness among the
population in both rural and urban areas such newspaper included Sauti ya TAA in Tanganyika The
pilot and the comet in Nigeria.
11. Formation of segregated African schools, after realizing that the missionary and colonial schools
taught nothing but European based syllabus some African societies began their own schools, like among
the kikuyu in Kenya Africans were taught African syllabus .this helped in educating Africans and
developing the spirit of nationalism.
FORMS OF DECOLONISATION PROCESS IN AFRICA
African states employed or waged different means in the struggle for independence. The methods
employed/used/waged depended of course on the nature of the colonial economy which was practiced in
the colony, for example almost all African colonies which were settler colonies regained their freedom
through the barrel of gun because the settlers had had invested much in the respective colonies thus they
were not willing to grant them independence. The common forms of struggles were:
1. Constitutional/peaceful means
In this method, the colonies used peaceful means such as negotiation, dialogues diplomacy while
demanding for their freedom. Most of the colonies, which attained their freedom through this means, were
under the UNO Trusteeship council. The respective nationalistic leaders went almost annually to the UNO
Trusteeship council to plead for the freedom of their countries examples of the African countries which
regained their freedom through constitutional means are/were Ghana (1957), Tanganyika (1961) etc.
2. Armed struggle/guerilla warfare barrel of gun/bloodshed
This was the means employed by some African states to liberate themselves. Most of these were the ones
in which settlers had invested much and that they were not willing to leave for it was like committing an
economic suicide examples of African states which regained their freedom through this means were Kenya
(1963), Zimbabwe (1980), Congo (1960), Angola (1975) etc.
3. Combinational means
It was a blend of both constitutional and armed struggle. Some countries embarked on this method following
the failure of the peaceful means. A par excellence example is South Africa which embarked on armed
struggle soon after the March 21st 1960 Sharpeville massacre. The ANC leaders being led by Oliver Thambo
and Nelson Mandela formed the fighting wing (Ukhomto we sizwe). (The spear of the Nation) which led
liberation movement.
4. Revolutionary means
A revolution is a complete overthrow of the existing system of governance by a group, which is subjected
to it and is being mistreated, exploited, and discriminated; oppressed etc. a par excellence example of a
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colony, which waged this means for its liberation, is Zanzibar undertook holistic revolution on Sunday 12th
January in 1964. The revolution, which completely overthrew, the Jamshid Abdullah Sultanate regime
THE CONTRIBUTION OF SOCIAL AND WELFARE ASSOCIATIONS IN THE

DECOLONISATION PROCESS IN AFRICA
The social and welfare associations were very instrumental in the process of decolonization for they
occupied the notable position in raising people’s (Africans) awareness and consciousness such social and
welfare associations included. The young Kavirondo welfare association, The Kikuyu social and workers’
associations just to mentioned a few.
ROLES
1. The social welfare associations performed their tasks as trade unions whereby demanded good working
and living conditions for workers as well as better salaries or wages
2. The social and welfare associations played a great role of providing political education to African
communities in form of political meetings (rallies) by educating them of the evils of colonialism such
as taxation, forced labor, land alienation and so forth.
3. Some social welfare associations organized protests and demonstrations against the colonial authorities.
They also mobilized their members to raise funds to meet various financial needs; for example, the
Kikuyu central association raised fund and sent Jomo Kenyatta to London to present their grievances
to the colonial government
4. Some welfare associations in Africa published journals which acted as a communication channel for
reaching out their supporters
5. Some social welfare associations awakened their members on the injustices of colonialism, for
example, Ukambani in Kenya, demonstrations were called because of the increased awareness.
6. Some welfares’ infrastructure such as offices, came to be used by the nationalist leaders for example in
Tanganyika most of the TAA (Tanganyika African Association (1929) come to be used by TANU
(Tanganyika African National Union (1954)
7. They also raised Africans awareness and that implanting the spirit of consciousness and courage in
them (Africans)
QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the strengths weakness and contribution of protest and religious movements during the
struggle for independence.
2. Explain the roles and problems experienced by social welfare associations during the struggle for
independence
THE PROBLEMS, WHICH FACED WELFARE ASSOCIATIONS
1. Lack of enough funds

2. Colonial suppression. For example, most of their members were arrested e.g., Jomo Kenyatta was
arrested.
3. Imprisonment and assassination of their members.
4. Banning of associations e.g. the Kikuyu central association were banning
5. Inadequate infrastructure for example office
6. Disunity among members (lack of unity among members) e.g. Harry Thuku
7. Illiteracy amongst members. Some of the members were not educated they did not know about their
right so it was difficult to mobilize them to struggle for independence.
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THE ROLES OF INDEPENDENT CHURCH MOVEMENTS IN THE DECOLONISATION
PROCESS
The African religious movement was one of the major movements that prevailed in the early 20th c amongst
Africans. This either took the form of indigenous protest movements or inform of meetings and teachings.
The Independent churches which had broken away from white missionary churches. The breaking away of
Africans from various western missionary churches to independent churches was an expression of a protest
against colonial domination in Africa. The independent African church movements were against all evils
of colonialism. They broke away from the missionary churches having realized that the white men’s
churches did not intend to civilize Africans nor to spread Christianity in Africa but to smoothen Africans
to accept colonialism. They broke away from the missionary churches having realized that the white men’s
churches did not intend to civilize Africans or to spread Christianity in Africa but to soften Africans to
accept colonialism.
The independent African churches had the following features in common
1. They were led by Africans

2. They were against some aspects of the Western culture
3. They emphasized on in calculating the African culture
4. They worked hand in hand with the African political associations
5. They broke away from Western churches
ROLES
1. They established their own independent schools in which the African children were taught their culture
as well as the evils of colonialism, later on, those students who received the education in those schools
became political activists.
2. They taught Africans that the missionaries were the mere agents of colonialism and not fully
evangelical as they preached.
3. The religious movements and churches instructed Africans not to pay tax. The protests and religious
movements increased the level of consciousness amongst Africans.
4. They counter-attacked the colonial exploitation and domination.
5. They became a center through which various African nationalistic meetings were held to reach various
plans.
6. They stimulated moral and courage toward fighting for national independence. For instance, the
national church of Nigeria and Cameroon said prayers for Africans to free themselves from
imperialism.
7. Through these movements, the message of freedom was easily conveyed to the people. This is because
during church services Africans were emphasized to hate colonial affairs in their areas.
8. They emphasized unity for all Africans to fight for their rights. In this case, Africans became so strong
in fighting against European exploitation, discrimination and oppression.
9. They provided a good forum through which the Africans expressed their strong ideas and feelings,
which were against the evils of colonialism and European Christianity.
Generally, It can be concluded that, independence church movement played great role in the struggle
against colonialism in Africa. As through these movements, Africans became active and prepared up
to fight against colonialism and all its manifestation.
PROBLEMS, WHICH FACED INDEPENDENT CHURCHES MOVEMENTS
a. Conflicts amongst the church leaders, every one demanded leadership position so brought conflict
amongst themselves.
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b. Lack of enough trained professionals; most of them were not well trained.
c. Poor managerial skills; they were disorganized
d. Financial problem, they depended on the little amount of money from their churches
e. Betrayal/renegade
STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN GHANA

Ghana, a British colony, was originally called the Gold Coast. It was the first African colony South of
Sahara to regain her independence. It regained her independence on 6th March 1957 from the British under
the abled leadership of its first President the late Kwame Nkrumah (1909-1972) with his nationalistic
political party CPP (Convention People’s Party)
Kwame Nkrumah was the first elite to get colonial education and he was the strongest believer of Pan-
Africanism. He employed different methods to demand for the independence of Ghana through
constitutional means, for instance the use of boycotts and peaceful demonstrations following the CPP action
against the colonial government in Ghana, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah was imprisoned in 1950. In 1951, elections
were held in absence of Kwame Nkrumah but the CPP won 33 seats against the GGCC, which won 3 seats.
Dr. Nkrumah was later released from prison to form a government after his Party’s landslide victory.
Therefore, in 1952 then he became the Gold Coast Prime Minister. As time went on the CPP’s popularity
grew-in the 1956 elections the CPP won 71 seats against thirty-three (33) seats of the opposition parties.
On March 6, Wednesday 1957, the Gold Coast became independent taking the name of the ancient empire
“Ghana”.
In July 1960 Ghana became a republic, which Dr. Kwame Nkrumah became the full executive President
and chief of all armed forces.
WHY WAS GHANA THE FIRST COUNTRY TO REGAIN HER INDEPENDENCE FROM THE
BRITISH IN 1957/MARCH 6?
1. Good strong and charismatic leadership of the late Dr. Kwame Nkrumah. He was educated and
very influential politician of the 20th c in Africa. He was able to form the nationalist political party CPP
in 1949 which led Ghana to independence.
2. Good and clear policies and slogans of the CPP party which were well understood by all Ghanaians for
example the most popular CPP slogan were “seek first the political kingdom and all things will be
added into to it, self governance now and independence now”
3. Ghana did not suffer much from the problem of tribalism and ethnicity as opposed to other African
colonies. The presence of few settlers in Ghana made it possible for it to regain its independence earlier
than any African colony.
4. The presence of few settlers in Ghana made it possible for it to regain its independence earlier than
any African colony.
5. The role played by the ex-soldiers in Ghana
The Gold coast was amongst many African colonies that recruited and supplied soldiers who fought for the
colonial administration during the first and the Second World Wars. The ex-soldiers were promised good
jobs and other amenities once they returned from the wars. Unfortunately, due to high inflation, which was
caused by the WW II, and I the colonial authorities failed to offer the ex-soldiers sufficient pensions and
other benefits that they had promised them earlier. These unfulfilled promises led to riots
As a result, the ex-soldiers used the experience and exposure they had acquired during the war to organize
and mobilize people to join the CPP towards the struggle for independence.
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6. The CPP got great support from cocoa growers (farmers and peasants) who subscribed material
support such as funds to engineer the struggle in Ghana.
7. Ghana was considerably a small country geographically, besides it had good transport and
communication system, which linked people together.
8. The role played by English language, which united Ghanaians together. Through this language, it
was easy for the people to use this language to understand policy documents and slogans easily.
9. The role-played by newspapers for example the presence of the Accra Evening news. Nationalist
leaders and writers wrote different articles in it to government through this, newspaper the CPP
messages, policies and slogans reached the majority poor.
THE INFLUENCE OF GHANA TO AFRICAN NATIONALISM
By its virtue of being the first colony south of Sahara to dismantle the chains of colonialism, the first
President of the independent Ghana, the late Dr. Kwame Nkrumah uttered. “The independence of Ghana
would be meaningless if the rest of Africa remained in the shackles of colonialism.”
To affect this, Ghana championed the decolonization of other African colonies
1. He (Nkrumah) embraced up the Pan-African movement and conferences. In April 1958, leaders and
political activists from Egypt, Ethiopia, Morocco, Tunisia and Ghana met in Accra-Ghana. This
conference had agenda on how best the decolonization process could take place. It laid down methods
and tactics to be employed in the liberation process.
2. Ghana campaigned for the invitation of the countries, which were still under colonialism as they were
given methods and plans as to how to paralyze (end) colonialism in their respective countries.
3. He (Nkrumah) championed the formation of the Organization of African Unity, which both materially
and morally supported the decolonization process in Africa. Ghana under Nkrumah pled other African
countries, which were independent by 1960’s to form the OAU decolonization committee, which could
work hand in hand with the UNO –Trusteeship council to end colonialism. The Nkrumah’s dream came
into a good fruition on 25th May 1963 when the OAU was officially founded with its headquarters in
Addis Ababa-Ethiopia
4. Dr. Kwame Nkrumah and his independent Ghana provided financial and inspirited morally to continue
with the decolonization process in countries like Nyasa land (Malawi) and Zaire
5. Ghana under Nkrumah, established an ideological college in Accra named after his name, which was
responsible in teaching Ghanaians and other African teenagers the socialist Ideology and the struggle
for independence. Many African leaders attended the training for example Robert Gabriel Mugabe
attended the training where he harnessed a well of knowledge and skills on how best to struggle for the
independence of Zimbabwe.
6. Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah strengthened Pan – African movement which opposed colonialism. In
April 1958 all independent states like Libya, Ethiopia, Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia were invited to
meet in Accra. In 1960 there was another meeting in which the countries laid down plans which could
be used to help other countries get their independence.
7. Ghana became a model to other African countries to emulate (cope). This made many African countries
to go for vigorous campaign against colonialism and get sovereignty like that of Ghana.
8. It laid a foundation for other African conferences for stance in November 1959 the Cairo conference
was led and proposed by Ghana.
9. Ghana became the headquarters of ant colonial groups of Africa following her independence all issues
pertaining independence in Africa were discussed in Accra Ghana.
10. Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah strengthened Pan – African movement which opposed colonialism. In
April 1958 all independent states like Libya, Ethiopia, Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia were invited to
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meet in Accra. In 1960 there was another meeting in which the countries laid down plans which could
be used to help other countries get their independence.
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN TANGANYIKA
Tanganyika was once a German colony and a British colony at different times. It regained its independence
on Sunday at 12:00 am on 9th December in 1961 under the abled leadership of its first Prime Minister the
late Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere with his party the TANU (Tanganyika African National Union)
THE MAIN OBJECTIVES OF THE TANU

It was founded on seventh of July in 1954 replacing the T.A.A (Tanganyika African Association). It had
the following objectives;
1. To prepare the people of Tanganyika for self-governance and independence.

2. To dismantle tribalism and ethnicity which were great enemies to unity and the struggle for freedom
as a nation.
3. To struggle for a democratic government and to have representatives in local district and the central
government.
4. To encourage and sensitize workers to join trade and cooperative unions which could be the right
forum for them to air out their grievances such as land alienation, taxation, poor working conditions
together with low wages against colonialism.
5. To cooperate with other nationalistic political parties in other African countries towards the struggle
for independence. For example, The T.A.N.U under the leadership of the late Mwalimu Julius
Kambarage. Nyerere cooperated fully with the A.N.C (the African National congress) in South Africa
to end apartheid policy in 1994.
Question: Why did Tanganyika regain her independence earlier than Uganda and Kenya?
Question: Assess the social, economical and political developments in Tanganyika, which made it the
first East African colony to regain independence
REASONS, WHICH MADE TANGANYIKA TO ATTAIN HER INDEPENDENCE EARLIER

THAN KENYA AND UGANDA
1. Good and charismatic leadership of the Late Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere, he was able
to organize and structure the T.A.N.U from a mere welfare oriented to as a strong nationalistic party
which led Tanganyika to independence, he used to travel almost annually to the UNO trusteeship
council to plead for the independence of Tanganyika.
2. Good, clear and understandable policies of the T.A.N.U, which were easily, understood by both
literate and illiterate Tanganyikans both in rural and urban areas. Examples of the T.A.N.U
slogans and policies are/were: UHURU NA KAZI, TANU YAJENGA NCHI and UHURU NA
UMOJA.
3. The role-played by Kiswahili language as a lingua franca, it acted as a unifying factor; it was
spoken throughout the country. It became the corner stone which spread the T.A.N. U’s policies and
slogans.
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4. The absence of strong tribalism and ethnicity unlike Uganda and Kenya where ethnicity acted as a
great barrier towards the struggle.
5. Tanganyika had no many settlers as opposed say to Kenya which was dominated by many settlers,
thus in Tanganyika, there were like European antagonism against Africans.
6. Tanganyika was a mandate territory, which was administered by the British as a trusteeship on
behalf of the League of Nations, and later the U.N.O, Thus Tanganyika was the trusteeship territory
being prepared ready for independence. Such status hurried the nationalists’ campaigns for the
independence of Tanganyika through the U.N.O forum; as a result, the British did not intensify their
control because it was under protectorate. Thus, Mwalimu Nyerere used to travel almost annually to
the U.N.O trusteeship council to plead for the independence of Tanganyika simply because it was a
protectorate territory. For example, Nyerere stated in his independence address to the United Nations
General Assembly on 14th December in 1961, that “Because Tanganyika was a Trust Territory under
British administration, this was a great help in my work to achieve independence for the country,
namely peacefully and through nonviolent methods”.
7. The role played by newspapers such as SAUTI YA TANU

The educated people spread the TANU’s policies and slogans through these newspapers, they wrote
several articles on the newspapers emphasizing the need for the Tanganyikans to govern them; such
messages awakened Tanganyika’s towards the struggle for the freedom.
8. Support from the last British Governor to Tanganyika that is Sir Richard Turnbull.
Sir Richard Turnbull became the best friend to Mwalimu Nyerere; he from time to time supported
Mwalimu in his struggle for freedom that is why historians argue that the appointment of Sir Richard
Turnbull in 1958 to be the Governor in Tanganyika facilitated the movement towards the struggle. He
did not want Tanganyika to experience what happened in Kenya during the MAUMAU uprisings and
when the state of emergence was declared. He thus gave great support to the TANU leaders because
he did not want another MAUMAU in Tanganyika his support made Tanganyika achieve its
independence earlier than the rest East African countries.
9. The role-played by the T.A.N.U. youth league which was composed of young energetic people who
spread the TANU’s policies and slogans to its supporters throughout the country. E.g. Christopher
Mtikila and Willibrod Slaa and others.
10. The role played by women in the T.A.N. U’s politics made it popular thus; it gained much support
from the public. They played an important role in mobilizing the masses to support the TANU. They
gave vigor and color to the TANU’s public rallies and demonstrations. A notable example of these
women was Bibi Titi Mohamed, Vicky Nsilo Swai, and Lucy Lameck just to mention a few.
PROBLEMS FACED TANGANYIKA DURING THE NATIONALISTIC STRUGGLE

Sample question NECTA 2017. (Explain six problems faced nationalistic struggle in Tanzania).
INTROCUCTION: Independence is the state of a society to be free and be able to make its own decisions
in its affairs without being interfered by any external pressure. An independent nation is also said to be a
sovereign state. Tanganyika attained her full political independence in 1961, December 9th with the last
British governor sir Richard Tumbull and the late Mwl. Julius Nyerere who was the prime minister and
became the first president of Tanganyika.
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However, in 1964 it united with Zanzibar to form Tanzania. Independence in Tanganyika was successful
achieved under TANU (Tanganyika national unity) was a political party leadered by Mwl. Nyerere. There
is no easy walk to freedom; it faced various challenges such as discussed below.
Lack of adequate funds to organize and run the activities. During the 1960s still many people under the
colonial rule was extremely poor and depended on wages from colonial economy, so was the party even its
leader Nyerere was a mere teacher thus the lack of funds made them to lack their accessibility to run the
party activities and visit many places and hence slaved the walk to freedom. They also lacked transport fees
and wages to activists.
They faced strong opposition from colonial government as they were not allowed to speak in clouds or meet
to discuss issues concerning with independence. Some of the independence activists were assassinated,
jailed while some were exiled. This was purposely to safeguard the colonial interest particularly trade.
Lack of unity among the people, some people saw the freedom fighters as troublemakers thus; they
discouraged and weakened the freedom fighters by high criticism. Most of these people were those enjoyed
the fruits of colonial era particularly Arab Swahilis also some people joined other parties and thus many
political parties divided many people to different ideologies.
Vastness of the country this was one of challenges that hindered early achieving the independence of
Tanganyika. It has about hundreds kilometers squares of land. Travelling to all places to meet the people
and organize them to struggle for independence was a very tough challenge. Some places were very remote
and others surrounded by physical barriers such as lakes and mountains just to mention few.
Poor transport facilities was primarily caused by poor advancement of technology in the sectors of
infrastructure. There were impossible roads, seasonal roads and defective trains as major means for
transport. In some areas, there were very dense wild animated forest and high dangerous mounts that passed
as a barrier to transport vehicle like cars. This in turn slaved (limited) down the nationalists’ activists to
excel well.
Strong opposition from other opposition political parties such as AMNUT (All Muslim National Union of
Tanganyika) and ANC (African National Congress) posed a very strong opposition to freedom fighters
during their struggle to attain independence thus they supported the colonial government. Good example
is cited in 1958 where Zuberi Mtemvu formed ANC (African Nationalist Congress) which went against
TANU’s policies. In this scenario, the move to attain independence was indeed minimized.
Generally, it may be concluded that despite tireless attempts posed by the people in Tanganyika, in the
course of time they achieved for their independence in 1961 Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere
spearheading the nation and immediately after the attainment of their political independence it united with
Zanzibar to for the current Tanzania.
REVOLUTIONARY MEANS
A CASE OF ZANZIBAR
A revolution is a complete overthrow of an existing government or a way of life in any country or state by
those who were previously subjected to it. OR. Revolution is a discontented reaction through violence
exercised by the majority of the country’s population ignored to gain recognition or reform when local and
moderate means of political or social fail. Examples of political revolutions, which had occurred in Africa,
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is: The Egyptian revolution led by Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1952 and the Zanzibar revolution of 1964 led by
John Tito Okello from Uganda.
THE CAUSES OF DECOLONIZATION THROUGH REVOLUTION IN ZANZIBAR.

Since the establishment of Arab administration, clove and coconut plantations in Zanzibar in 1840 by Sultan
Seyyid Said, Africans were regarded as slaves. This situation created hatred (hostility) between Africans
against Arabs.
Zanzibar regained her independence from the British on 10th December in 1963. However, the
independence was for the minority Arabs in Zanzibar for Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah kept on holding the
reign of Zanzibar as the Sultan. Thus, it became politically independent after the victory of the ZNP and
ZPPP under Mohamed Shamte as the Prime Minister. However, economically and socially, Zanzibar was
under the control of the Arabs and most of the Zanzibaris were not happy with the victory of the ZNP and
ZPPP. They believed that this victory was for the minority Arabs alone who were not only exploiting them
but also subjecting them to severe humiliation.
Thus, Zanzibaris believed that peaceful methods could not bring complete independence to all citizens. As
a result, they prepared for a revolution from Saturday night at 8: 14p.m on 11th January 1964 and by 11:30
am Saturday on 11th January 1964 Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah and his officials had fled from Zanzibar
hence complete revolution which made Zanzibar free from Sultanate exploitation, humiliation and racialism
in Zanzibar. In addition, on 12th January in 1964, the Revolutionary Council of Zanzibar was established
and the Late Sheikh Abed Amani Karume became its first President with his political Party the Afro- Shirazi
Party (ASP). The ASP was founded on Tuesday 5th February in 1957 after the coalition of the African
Association (AA) and the Shirazi Association (SA)
THE MAIN CAUSES OF THE ZANZIBAR REVOLUTION

1. Zanzibaris were deprived of political rights i.e. Political exploitation by the rulers that denied the
Zanzibaris the right to vote were, a voter could vote if he was able to speak, read and write in Kiswahili
/Arabic or English; A voter had to be a Zanzibar resident and had lived in his/her constituency for at
least one year; A voter had to be a government employee for at least five years or possesses a certificate
for medal of good performance; A voter had to be above 25 years. Such qualifications limited the
majority of Zanzibaris the right to vote. Hence, they continued to be victims of severe exploitation and
oppression on their own land. However, Zanzibaris did not calm down; they sought the revolution as
a means of setting them free.
2. Land alienation in Zanzibar. The Zanzibaris had no right to own land. Arabs who grew coconuts
and cloves in the island occupied all fertile land. Zanzibaris were only recruited as labourers while
remained poor peasants. This led to the revolution in Zanzibar.
3. Monopolization of trade by foreigners. Asians of Indo-Pakistan origin controlled the commercial

life of Zanzibar. The Asians were mainly Arabs and Indians who controlled the commercial sector in
Zanzibar while the majority of Zanzibaris had nothing to own; furthermore, they from time to time set
high prices for goods and services, as a result, the poor Zanzibaris could not afford something, which
created grievances and hostility between the Zanzibaris against the Arabs in Zanzibar.
4. The question of taxation: The government of Zanzibar under Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah introduced
various forms of taxes that Africans (Zanzibaris) had to pay. Furthermore, the taxes were high such
that the majority poor who were mainly the Zanzibaris failed to pay, thus they developed economic
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grievances against the sultanate regime in Zanzibar something, which precipitated the Zanzibar
revolution of January 1964.
5. The role played by John Okello: He was a man from northern Uganda who settled in Zanzibar in
1952 and worked as a painter; additionally, he had attained revolutionary training in Cuba. He was an
official of the A.S.P. (Afro-Shirazi Party) in Pemba Island. He developed a belief as early as 1961’s
of involving himself in a revolutionary army to overthrow the sultanate regime in Zanzibar. Okello
was a man of determination, a skilled technician who was endowed with organizational capabilities.
He acted as an instrumental and logical organizer (mastermind) of the revolution.
6. The fall in of the clove price in the world market created many problems in Zanzibar. The
government under Sultan Jamshid Bin Abdullah reduced government expenditures on social services
like health care, education, a measure, which led to social sufferings, and unemployment in Zanzibar,
the people of Zanzibar came together as one people to overthrow the Sultan from power hence,
Zanzibar revolution.
EFFECTS OF THE ZANZIBAR REVOLUTION

1. The immediate effect of the revolution was that Sultan Jamshid Bin Abdullah left the island of
Zanzibar for Britain with his state officials something, which granted Zanzibar its full independence
following the holy revolution. Thus, Zanzibar became a revolutionary independent country on 12th
January 1964 and Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume became its first President.
2. Social stratification was dismantled soon after the revolution; stratification such as religious
differences, races and status were well checked by the new government under Karume.
3. Zanzibar revolution facilitated the establishment of the union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar on
26th April 1964, the idea which came into effect on Friday 22nd April 1964 when the two heads of the
states signed the articles of the Union.
4. Zanzibar revolution gave Zanzibar an international recognition as a sovereign state and that she
became a member of both the United Nations Organization and Commonwealth of Nations.
5. It led to nationalization of all major means of production such as land, roads, commercial
companies and banks which were previously owned by the few Arabs, Indians who were
basically rich. After the nationalization, they were taken and owned by the new independent
revolutionary government on behalf of the public. Furthermore, the land, which was owned by
minority rich Arabs and Indians, was as squarely and properly re-distributed amongst the majority of
Zanzibaris.
6. Zanzibar revolution guaranteed all Zanzibaris their political rights which they were denied before
as from time to time started holding periodic elections.
THE UNION BETWEEN ZANZIBAR AND TANGANYIKA.

Sample question. Necta 2009 (Private Candidates)
Explain the historical significance for the Union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964. OR
What were the reasons behind for the 1964 Union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar? OR
The amalgamation between Tanganyika and Zanzibar was a historical phenomenon. Discuss.
Introduction. The Union between Zanzibar and Tanganyika was an incidence in which the leaders of these
countries joined together to have one country (Tanzania). J.K Nyerere of Tanganyika and Abeid Aman
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Karume of Zanzibar did this. It was formed from 26th April 1964 where the members (leaders) agreed to
share among other things like defense, police, state of emergence and external affairs. However the reasons
behind the Union can be grouped into internal and external factors in a sense that there were some forces
within and that from outside Africans, these can be well explained as follows:-
a) Due to the rule played by Pan- Africanism in a since that panafricanism had for a long period been
motivating all Africans to unite in order that they can fight for colonial injustices, oppression and
exploitation in that case Nyerere and Karume being inspired with this idea of Pan – Africanism, they
decided to be the first African countries unite.
b) Due to the influence of western countries like USA, British and France. This is because the countries
regarded Zanzibar as Cuba because she bought the idea of communism which was a danger to the
western Brock to be free from communism spread they decided to pressurize the president of
Tanganyika to find the way out by conversing Abeid Aman Karume to Unite
c) Besides the spread of communism also Nyerere and Karume had a very long historical friend ship in a
sense that Nyerere influenced the formation of ASP and Zanzibar Revolution thus to cement their
friendship Union became to be very important.
d) On the other hand, there was internal opposition within Zanzibar after the revolution done by a group
of radicals who in a sense spread opposed and challenged Karume as Karume became unsecured it later
precipitated for the Union in order to contain over these radicals.
e) Likewise TANU and ASP as major political parties in this two countries had a very close relationship
due to the fact that they all had common interests to unite Africans since ZAA and TAA in Zanzibar
and Tanganyika respectively in this case the Union would further their close tie they had.
f) Proximity / closeness of the two countries played significant role to the Union simply because Zanzibar
and Tanganyika geographically are too closer and it is said that the distance from Dar-es-Salaam to
Unguja is shorter than the distance from Unguja to Pemba this significant that that people used to leave
regular contact in trading activities, therefore Union to them was not a now thing.
g) Zanzibar and Tanganyika experienced same colonialism because they were all under British rule being
under the same rule; they experienced the same burden and administration this eventually made them
to unite together so that they can keep on adopting same experience they had.
h) Other reasons that drove out for the Union between these countries were close relationship that the
people of Tanganyika and Zanzibar had this are because most of the people in Zanzibar came from
Tanganyika as Arabs took them during the slave trade. Thus the Union would help people of these
countries to enjoy much with former brothers and sisters whom they separated each other.
Generally, It should be put in mind that the Union between Zanzibar and Tanganyika brought much
benefits to the people concerned because people are free to move from one place to another they also share
many aspects such as social, political and even economic matters through to some extent there are many
changes resulting from such Union to the extent that other members decide even to pull out from the Union.
ARMED STRUGGLE /BARREL OF GUN /BLOOD SHED

Most of the African countries, which were massively dominated by settlers, regained their independence
by armed struggle. A good number of these countries adopted this means following the failure of peaceful
means. The presence of many settlers was one of the most crucial factors, which determined the nature of
the struggle. Examples of the African colonies, which waged armed struggle as a means of liberating
themselves, were Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and Kenya
A CASE OF ZIMBABWE
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Zimbabwe was a settler-dominated colony and many of its people were divided in leadership. Zimbabwe
was under the British colonialism. It became independent on Friday 18th April in 1980 under the leadership
of its first Prime Minister and President Mr. Robert Gabriel Mugabe who is still the incumbent President
with his nationalistic political party ZANU – PF (Zimbabwean African National Union-Patriotic Front.
Zimbabwe was formerly known as Southern Rhodesia. Being dominated by settler elements and racial
policies carried out by the colonial state, the settlers never agreed to; any attempt at self-governance was
encountered by strong opposition as a result political parties were banned and most of their leaders were
imprisoned like Joshua Nkomo.
To make matters worse, on Thursday 11th November in 1965, Ian Smith’s regime declared the Unilateral
Declaration for Independence (UDI) independence from Britain. The independence was consolidated in
1970 by the negotiation made between settlers and smith’s regime and the British. In these negotiations,
the minority regime promised that African minority rule would be reached in 2035
WHY ARMED STRUGGLE IN SOUTHERN RHODESIA (ZIMBABWE)?

1. Heavy investments in Zimbabwe by settlers. From the so very beginning, the British settlers who
engaged themselves in large-scale agriculture and in mining activities dominated Zimbabwe. Hence,
the settlers were not ready to sacrifice their investments so easily thus, they were not ready to leave
and that they did not want to grant independence to Southern Rhodesia for they were to stay. This
facilitated the armed struggle.
2. The constitution, which was adopted in 1922 October. This constitution gave special power to the
white minority (settlers) who from time to time and place to place suppressed Zimbabweans political
autonomy. In this constitution, the settlers granted a responsible government. This made Southern
Rhodesia a self-governing colony. Thus, it had its own parliament, army, and police force. This
measure gave the settlers a lot of power they thus used their newly won power to consolidate
themselves against the Africans.
3. Settlers’ exploitation to Zimbabweans: the settlers exploited Zimbabweans through forced labor,
land alienation, low wages and so on. This is due to the undoubted fact that the Zimbabweans have
had many social and economic grievances, which were practiced by the settlers. This precipitated
armed struggle in Zimbabwe.
4. Banning of political parties and imprisonment of radical political leaders intensified the choice
of armed struggle as a means towards liberation in Southern Rhodesia. The banning of the
ZANU-PF and imprisonment of leaders like Joshua Nkomo did not bring to an end the consciousness
and need of Zimbabweans towards independence. The ZANU-PF continued with its liberation at this
time operating from Mozambique, where its leaders received much support from the Soviet Union id
est. USSR.
5. Zimbabweans were not politically united towards the demand for freedom. The freedom fighters
were divided amongst themselves that is why they were many political parties such as the U.N.C, D.P,
ZANU, and ZAPU. All these political parties had no cooperation and that each party had its own
mission. Due to this division, the white settlers in Zimbabwe (Southern Rhodesia) were able to
introduce their puppets and policies to suppress the Zimbabweans without much resistance, this made
the prominent nationalistic leaders such as Joshua Nkomo and Robert Gabriel Mugabe to wage/employ
armed struggle to erode this puppet.
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6. Tribalism shown by Shona and Ndebele led the colonialists to foresee the occurrence of civil and
tribal wars if independence was granted without keen examination/assessment, hence, they delayed
the granting of the majority rule in Zimbabwe under the fake excuse/pretext that they could enter into
civil wars. A move that precipitated armed struggle in Zimbabwe.
7. At first ZANU as a nationalistic party had not attained much support from Zimbabweans for the
puppets from other political parties such as the ZAPU implanted propaganda amongst the
Zimbabweans that ZANU was an imperialistic and not a nationalistic political party. This propaganda
made ZANU leaders to wage armed struggle as a means of proving to the Zimbabweans that it was
not the imperialistic party as argued before.
8. Lack of representatives in the legislative council. Zimbabweans were not included in the legislative
council and hence Zimbabweans hated this and used guns to fight for their freedom.
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN KENYA

Kenya is/was one of the British East African colonies to regain its independence via armed struggle. The
Mau Mau movement was the movement relying on nationalist and violence as the last resort (attempt) for
attaining Kenya’s independence from the British. It began following the banning of the Kenyan African
Union (K.A.U) as a result, from 1945 – 1952, the movement engaged in guerilla warfare in the Mau Mau
mountains and Aberdare forest with its aim of attaining majority rule by pressuring the colonial
government; most of its members were the ex-servicemen, ex-soldiers, wage laborers, extremist groups etc.
the struggle for independence did not end until 12th December 1963 when the KANU led Kenya to
independence under the abled leadership of Jomo Kenyatta.
WHY ARMED STRUGGLE IN KENYA?

1. The first and foremost reason for the armed struggle in Kenya is that Kenya was a settler colony;
settlers flew to Kenya by 1900’s where they established settler farms. The white settlers in Kenya
regarded Kenya as a crown colony and that they were there to stay. They invested heavily in
manufacturing and processing industries, and in transport and communication networks; this made
them reluctant to grant Kenyans their freedom peacefully something which necessitated the
application (use) of the barrel of the gun in the struggle for independence.
2. The influence from the ex-soldiers who fought wholeheartedly in the second world war (WWII) (1939
- 1945) it is estimated that more than 75,000 Kenyans fought on the side of Britain in the Kings’
African rifles; the white soldiers who fought in the war were well enumerated, they were given loans
with dear interests, on contrary the lives of the Kenyan soldiers became worse than when they left for
the war, thus developed grievances against the colonial government in Kenya and that they joined the
nationalistic movements in Kenya in their attempt to wipe away colonialism. A par excellence example
was the logical and strategically organizer of the Mau Mau movements in Kenya who went by the
names Dedan Kimath.
3. Intensive colonial exploitation in Kenya precipitated the armed struggle for the colonial government
intensified land alienation especially in the Kikuyu high lands, which were fertile, furthermore, the
colonial government introduced notorious taxation in Kenya. For example, the MATITI TAX was
introduced and the Kipande system which increased exploitation in Kenya. Eventually Kenyans made
up their minds and started armed struggle against the colonial government.
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4. Banning of political parties and the imprisonment of radical political leaders intensified armed struggle
in Kenya in the protest against the colonial government move of banning political activities in Kenya.
For example, (KAU) i.e. Kenyan African Union was banned in 1952. The logical and strategically
organizer of MAUMAU movements in Kenya, General Dedan Kimath was arrested on 21 st October
1956; he was detained and secretly assassinated by the colonial government officials. All these
precipitated and intensified armed struggle in Kenya.
5. Denial of basic human rights such as freedom of speech and the right of Kenyans to join in assemblies
and associations.
6. Injustices; settlers were favored and were basically provided with better transport facilities,
communication services and other indispensable social amenities such as better health care, education
and of course security. On the other end of spectrum, Kenyans who were basically the majority in
Kenya had no access to such facilities. The inequalities in these prompted Kenyans to take up arms
and fight for their right whence armed struggle.
7. Kenyans were disturbed by the white’s strict and brutal supervision of the government schemes. It is
historically believed that the colonial government officials in different colonial government supervised
corporal punishment to those who did not constantly supply their labor power in the schemes. All these
intensified Kenyans’ grievances and hatred against the colonial government hence armed struggle.
8. A desire to maintain African dignity. The colonialists despised their culture (Africans) to make matters
worse; they abused and despised the educated Africans. Exempli gratia, Governor Philip Mitchell
described educated people like Jomo Kenyatta as resembling twelve years old children.
In a nutshell, Kenya eventually got her independence in l963 under the leadership of Jomo Kenyatta of
KANU, becoming the last country in East Africa to get her independence. KANU provided a country
with the ruling group of great ability. Within a year of independence, the opposition party KADU had
gone into voluntary dissolution, its members deciding either to retire from politics or to join the ruling
ranks.
However, it proved impossible to maintain the structure of one party-state. In O1966 Odinga Odinga
after Kenyatta, the most powerful politician broke with his old associate and formed a new political
party the Kenya peoples’ union. He opposed Kikuyu domination in the politics, him being Luo many
his followers were his tribesmen. He also opposed KANU ideological approach of handling the Kenyan
problems. He favored the radical approach.
In sharp contrast to situation in Tanzania the Kenyan government policy had encouraged the growth
of a class of local capitalists whose new acquired wealthy contrasted sharply with the poverty of the
high growing unemployed urban population. That was-the starting point of Kenyan income inequality.
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN MOZAMBIQUE.

Mozambique, like any other African countries began the struggle for justice in the late 1920’s. In 1962, a
group of exiled Mozambicans met in Dar-es-salaam and merged their parties to form one political party
called the FRELIMO (Frente de Libertacao de Mozambique) i.e. Front for the liberation of Mozambique
under their leader Eduardo Mondlane. After the unification of UDENAMO, MANU and UNAMI, the new
party FRELIMO settled for two (2) years to properly organize it. Most of the nationalistic movements such
as organization, mobilization and the training were done in Dar-es-salaam and the nearby region to
Mozambique i.e. Mtwara in Tanzania despite being banned by the colonial government, by 1964. The
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FRELIMO had succeeded in setting up training camps inside Mozambique. By 1968, the FRELIMO had
had controlled a reasonable area in Mozambique. In the same year, the party managed to hold the second
congress party inside Mozambique. As a result, on Monday 3rd February in 1969 the party leader Eduardo
Mondlane was assassinated by a parcel bomb while in Dar-es-salaam where the party’s headquarters were
temporarily located after following the banning of political parties in Mozambique.
GENERAL FACTORS FOR ARMED STRUGGLE IN PORTUGUESE COLONIES.
Portugal had three colonies in Africa which included; Angola, Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde, and
Mozambique. These countries attained their independence late as compared to other African countries; the
Portuguese government was therefore determined not to give independence to these nations because were
seen as vital props to the Portuguese economy. It should however be noted that, the Portuguese had stayed
in the colonies for about 50 years even before the Berlin Conference of 1884 – 1885 more especially along
the coastal area, later occupied and colonized the interior parts.
Also the Africans in the Portuguese colonies were equally determined to win their independence
thus prolonged guerrilla struggle began throughout the Portuguese colonies the lead was taken by a smallest
colony of Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde, led by Amilcar Cabral, he founded the (P.I.G.C) Portido
Africano, da independence da Guinea Cabo Verde in 1956 but He was assassinated in January 1976 only
two years after the independence of 1974.
In Angola Agustino Netto led guerrilla struggle against the Portuguese after founding M.P.L.A
(Movemento popular de libertagao de Angola) in December 1956 in Luanda among the working class, and
were able to get their independence in 1975. Eduardo Mondlane led the struggle for Mozambique and his
deputy Samora Machel after founding FRELIMO (Frente de Libertacao de Mozambique) found in 1962 in
the capital of Tanzania Dar- es- salaam they declared war officially in September 1964.
WHY LATE INDEPENDENCE FOR PORTUGUESE COLONIES?

Sample questions, Necta 2005
1. Why did the Portuguese colonies in Africa engage in armed struggle to liberate themselves?
Approach:
Armed struggle refers to the technique / method adopted by African countries as a means to literate
themselves especially in those colonies where colonial states were reluctant to grant independence (settler
colonies). The case to Portuguese colonies in Africa like Mozambique, Guinea Bissau and Angola used
armed struggle to liberate themselves because of the following:-
a) Poor/weak economic base of Portugal. She was the poorest country among the colonialists, she had not
Under gone industrial revolution, therefore she regarded the heavily depended on her colonies for
economic prosperity at home that is why she was very reluctant at granting independence to her
colonies, which she viewed like committing economic suicide.
b) The Portugal colonial policy Portugal regarded her colonies as overseas provinces since Portugal was
a small nation, she was very interested to acquiring more oversea land whereby they could stay forever
and obtains raw materials exploit market for their goods and settlement of surplus population.
c) Settlers opposed the granting of independence to the Africans because of heavy investment in the
colonies. The numbers of settlers were in big in numbers in many Portuguese colonies with high
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investment in agriculture and other economic ventures in the colonies. They therefore feared economic
losses once the black majority takes over power.
d) The Portuguese exploited the Africa maximally as to support their economy in the metro pole such as,
imposed harsh taxes like dog, tax poll tax, this was great economically to them that is why they hesitated
to grant independence to the African early like other European nation.
e) Land alienation .All African fertile land was taken and known as crown land, it was confiscated for the
construction of infrastructures, establishment of colonial economies establishment of white plantation,
and this was too precious to them to give independence to the African easily.
f) Mass illiteracy. Many Portuguese were illiterate and hence conservative and ignorant of what was
taking place outside world .Other European nations had changed their way of exploitation to neo-
colonialism. Since Portuguese were short sighted, they never dreamt of granting independence to their
colonies soon, such situation prompted the use of armed struggle for the African as a means to get their
independence.
g) Furthermore, burning of political parties in the colonies this event made African nationalistic decide to
have their centers in other independent African countries like Tanzania so as to mobilize their military
struggle.
h) Portugal was a fascist state by natures, with no democracy. This was because through their dictatorial
leadership of Salazar Africans were in turn oppressed, exploited as well as humiliated, this was
followed due to the fact that, Portuguese believed to have ever lasting civilizing mission to Africans.
i) Due to wrong concept the Portuguese had to Africans of under estimating the strength of the colonial
subjects (Africans) in their nationalist demands and struggles she expected that being a NATO member
her subjects would always be suppressed and ruled forever, this wrong concept made Africans to be
angry over it.
Generally with all attempts made by Africans through their political parties such as FRELIMO in
Mozambique, UNITA and MPLA in Angola and PAIGC in Guinea Bissau, Portuguese colonies
eventually managed to attain their independence, this is because Guinea Bissau got its independence
in 1974, whereas Angola and Mozambique in 1975 attained their independence.
NATIONALISM IN SOUTH AFRICA.

South Africa being a settler colony, which was colonized by both Boers from Holland/Netherlands and the
British at, different times, regained its majority rule via both peaceful and armed struggle means. This is
due to the very naked fact that South Africa had suffered much from the “Apartheid policy” which
separated the majority blacks from the minority whites in South Africa.
The first African nationalist political organization formed in South Africa was the South African
Native National Congress (SANNC) in 1912. However, 13years later, the S.A.N.N.C changed its name into
the African National Congress (A.N.C); i.e. in 1935. By the early 1940’s the party (A.N.C) received young
educated radicals like Walter Sithulu, Antony Lembele, Oliver Thambo and Nelson Madiba Mandela.
These new men formed the strongest A.N.C Youth League.
In 1955, the A.N.C organized a congress, which produced the freedom charter. The charter declared
that South Africa belonged to all races. Due to this declaration by the A.N.C, the government arrested the
A.N.C leaders charging them with treason (kesi ya uhaini). By 1961, all of them were released. In 1959,
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Robert Sobukwe walked out of the A.N.C and formed Pan African Congress (P.A.C) under the pretext that
the A.N.C leaders were too reluctant to employ armed struggle against the Apartheid policy in South Africa.
However, on 21st March 1960 both the P.AC and A.N.C supporters made peaceful demonstrations against
the Boers’ government as far as the pass laws were concerned. It is historically recorded that 69 black
African people were bitterly shot to death and wounding 180 by the police in Sharpeville where the
demonstrations were held, thus termed as SHARPEVILLE MASSACRE
By and large, Apartheid is Afrikaans word, which means “Separate according to race”, thus Apartheid
policy was a color separateness policy between the black majorities against the white minority in South
Africa. It was a color bar between blacks and whites. It started to mushroom in 1910 when the federal
government was formed in South Africa.
However, the policy was officially declared and institutionalized in South Africa by the Boer’s President
Dr. Malan in 1948. During the course of the Apartheid, the blacks were oppressed, degraded and
discriminated in all spheres of life. They were the third class citizens in South Africa; they received the
worst social amenities (services) such as health care, education and security.
THE COURSE OF THE POLICY

In 1913, the Native Land Act was passed reserving seventy-eight (78%) percent of the fertile land and best
of South Africa’s land to the whites, black people comprised of 70% of the population in South Africa and
were given (8%) of the unproductive land. The black people were forced to stay in reserve areas called
BANTUSTANTS.
- In 1923, the Native Urban Areas Act was passed whereby Africans’ movements to urban areas where
the whites settled were restricted. This armed at reducing black political activism in the towns.
- In 1927, the immorality Act was passed which prohibited interracial sexual intercourse; each race was
required to marry within its own race i.e. blacks and black; whites and whites
- In 1953, the Bantu Education Act was passed whereby Africans were not allowed to be given education
similar to that of the whites.
- Apartheid policy suppressed individual rights and liberty. Blacks in South Africa were deprived of
(Nyimwa) freedom to association, freedom to assembly, freedom to speech, and freedom to worship.
The Boers government heavily taxed the blacks and the revenue collected was used to improve social
services in the whites’ settlement.
Banning of political parties; blacks were not represented in the government and the parliament. Thus, the
parliament and government were for the whites only. For example, on 8th April 1960 after 21st March
Sharpeville massacres both the ANC and P.A.C were officially banned.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SHARPEVILLE MASSACRES

1. The Killings of more than 60 black people and many others wounded during the demonstrations
awakened the need for Africans to intensify armed struggle and that the Sharpeville massacres marked
the end of peaceful means towards the struggle for the majority rule in South Africa.
2. The demonstrations and strikes united the young black Africans and the adult black Africans to resist
the white domination in South Africa.
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3. The killings at Sharpeville precipitated an international awakening and opposition to injustices and
racial segregation in South Africa. The international community became aware of what was going on
in South Africa.
4. The O.A.U (Organization of African Unity) pled and persuaded the western powers not to sell firearms
to the South African white racist regime.
5. The Sharpeville massacres led to the formation of the Ukhomto we sizwe (spear of the nation) by
Nelson Mandela as a fighting wing by the A.N.C Youth.
6. In 1964, Nelson Mandela and his colleagues were detained; Mandela was sentenced to life
imprisonment. The leaders who were not imprisoned such as Oliver Thambo fled into exile and tried
to set up an A.N.C (wing in friendly countries like Tanzania and Zambia. For example, the A.N.C
wing was established in Mazimbu -Morogoro where the A.N.C opened its branch; military trainings
were carried out there, furthermore, other fighters established RADIO FREEDOM, which was
broadcasting from Mazimbu and heard in South Africa. The radio station aired radio programs, which
awakened blacks in South Africa about the evils of the white racist regime in South Africa. The
programs pled black South Africans to come together as one people against APARTHEID.
Despite the fact that most of the ANC leaders were in prison, the ANC kept on with the nationalistic
movements in and outside South Africa. For example Steve Biko organized a massive black students’
demonstrations in South Western Township (SOWETO) on 16th June 1976 in which students were
protesting against the government’s decision of introducing separateness policy in education where
African students were required to be taught in Afrikaans language as a medium of instruction in black
African schools and colleges while the white students were to be taught in foreign languages such as
French, English etc. as a result, dozens of black African students were shot to death before the very
naked eyes of the police officers while others were badly maimed (injured) and many others were
imprisoned where they were brutally, tortured, the day is historically commemorated on SOWETO
MASSACRES, and it is celebrated on 16th June every year as agreed by the AU by then O.A.U as an
African child day.
METHODS, WHICH WERE EMPLOYED BY THE BLACK MAJORITY IN SOUTH AFRICA TO

END APARTHEID IN SOUTH AFRICA
1. Formation of political parties such as the S.A.N.N.C (1912) later the A.N.C in 1935, despite that some
political parties were banned yet; they played a fundamental role in awakening blacks in South Africa
about the evils of Apartheid. Furthermore, some of the political parties organized peaceful
demonstrations against the Apartheid policy.
2. The use of mass peaceful demonstrations, which pled the Boers’ government to grant the majority rule
in South Africa. Political activists, adult and children came together demanding for the liquidation of
the Apartheid policy in South Africa. For example, the 21st March 1961 famously termed as Sharpeville
demonstrations against pass laws in South Africa and the 16th June 1976, which is historically, recorded
as Soweto (South West Township) demonstrations. These demonstrations made the black people aware
of the evils of APARTHEID POLICY.
3. The use of arts such as poems, novels and songs, which raised the blacks’ awareness and feelings as far
as the Apartheid policy, was concerned. For example, Lucky Dube launched his music album “Together
as One” which mobilized the black and whites in South Africa to come together as brothers and sisters,
other musicians like Bob Marley (Jamaican) and Miriam Makeba played their distinguished roles in
persuading the international community to intervene what was going on in South Africa. Furthermore,
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novelists such as Peter Abrahams published the novel titled Mine Boy, which illustrates the evils that
the blacks were experiencing in mines.
4. Underground organizations. The black radicals and political leaders mobilized their supporters to
secretly join political parties and underground guerilla movements in order to end the racist white
regime in South Africa. For example, after the formation of Ukhomto women and we sizwe (the spear
of the nation) Many ANC young men joined the movement.
5. The use of mass media such as radios. For example, some A.N.C leaders who were in exile in Tanzania
in collaboration with the government of the United Republic of Tanzania established RADIO
FREEDOM which was heard in South Africa from Mazimbu – Morogoro, the radio programs which
were aired mobilized the black society in South Africa to join their hands firmly against the racist
regime in South Africa.
6. Religious forums for example the formation of the United Democratic Front (U.D.F) which was a
coalition of about 600 organizations led by Rev. Allan Boesak and Bishop Desmond Tutu, played a
significant role in ending Apartheid in South Africa.
7. The International communities put international sanctions (Vikwazo vya Kimataifa) against the South
Africa’s racist regime. The O.A.U pled the western capitalist countries not to sell weapons to South
Africa. South Africa was also denied air-landing rights.
8. Seeking international support from friendly countries within Africa and outside Africa, e.g. Cuba. Black
Nationalist parties such as the A.N.C and P.A.C set up their bases in foreign countries. For example,
the A.N.C set up its base in Dar-es- Salaam and Morogoro in Tanzania.
9. Strikes, these persuasive means and hunger strikes attracted the international community, which helped
to pressurize the racist government in South Africa to grant the majority rule in South Africa.
Question:
Why was the struggle to eliminate Apartheid in South Africa difficult and prolonged?
REASONS FOR THE PROTRACTION/DELAYOF SOUTH AFRICA’S INDEPENDENCE

1. Some western countries such as the US, France and Britain which had an economic stake in South
Africa supported South African racist regime. The countries had had heavily invested in mining
companies and plantations for example the B.P (British Petroleum).
2. The banning of all anti-apartheid movements and organizations in South Africa for example the A.N.C
and P.A.C were banned following the 1960/March/21st (Sharpeville Massacres). All these hindered the
pace towards majority rule in South Africa.
3. Imprisonment and assassination of radical political leaders. For example, Steve Biko was brutally
tortured before the very naked eyes of the police and secretly murdered, while other radical leaders
such as the late Nelson Rohilallah Tata Madiba Holisasa Mandela, Walter Sithulu were sentenced to
life imprisonment while a few others like Oliver Thambo were exiled. All these hindered and
complicated the way to majority rule “LONG WALK TO FREEDOM by Mandela describes how the
safari was long and complicated through hills and thick tribulation and triangulation.
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4. South Africa was the country that was recognized by UN to be independent country from 1980. But the
fact was that because both political and economic power were in the hands of whites ,worse still there
was apartheid that did not able the African excess to economic power the blacks were denied
democracy.
5. Lack of unity among the nationalist organization .There were many movements working independently,
they included the Indian National Congress [IAC], African people organization [APO], Pan African
Congress [PAC] UMSA, ANO, and Inkatha Freedom Movement. These except ANC were less radical
they could not bring any impact but rather weakened the strength of the struggle.
6. Poverty: It made it difficult for Africans to confront whites who were both militarily and economically
strong. Most of the black African were pushed in the reserves of Bantustan were economic activity
were very hard the land was barren no infrastructures to facilitate the activities of the movement thus it
took long to achieve their independence.
7. Lack of political unity amongst the anti-apartheid political organizations such as the A.N.C and P.A.C
(was a great set back to their liberation.
8. All liberation movements like ANC and PAC were declared illegal and banned in South Africa by the
apartheid regime of the white. The killing of prominent political activities like mass killing in
Sharpeville and the imprisonment of Nelson Mandela also made the struggle for independence to delay.
9. Methods of struggle were weak initially, until 1960s ANC and PAC were using non violent based on
Mahatma Gandhi philosophy e.g. demonstrations petition strikes and boycotts .It was until 1960 after
the Sharpeville massacre that ANC formed UMKONTO WE SIZWE meaning the spear of the nation
and adopted violence.
10. The big powers of western Europe feared that an independent south Africa may fall in the hands of
Russia a communist nation this was because Mozambique and Angola who era geographically near
South Africa had the elements of communism opposed to the situation. Thus, the struggle lacked
international support of the big capitalist countries.
11. On addition to the above, the constant indiscriminant attacks earned out by the racist white regime of
South Africa destabilized the activities of national struggle of the black Africans, their major purpose
was to kill the nationalists of the blacks and destroy their political parties.
12. The puppets that were implanted by the racist white regime in South Africa. The puppets betrayed their
fellow freedom fighters; these were great obstacles because whatever the nationalistic leaders secretly
and confidentially planned was no sooner reported than they had started implementing it.
13. The possession of Namibia by South Africa racist regime, which was used by her as naval base and
harbored the American French and British military men, hindered the military wing of the nationalistic
movement.
PROBLEMS, WHICH FACED THE NATIONALISTS IN AFRICA DURING THE STRUGGLE

FOR INDEPENDENCE
1. Banning of political parties in Africa. The colonial governments in different colonies employed their
oppressive apparatus such as colonial army, police, courts to suppress African political movements for
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example the TANU in Tanganyika was banned in 1955, the A.N.C was banned on 8th April 1960,
FRELIMO was banned, K.A.U in Kenya was banned.
2. Tribalism and ethnicity. During the nationalism movements, most Africans were divided along tribal
and ethnic trends e.g. In Uganda, the Buganda and Nyankole did not unite to fight against European
colonialism.
3. Illiteracy: Many Africans during the nationalism movements were illiterate and Europeans never took
trouble to educate them. Some Africans did not know how to either read or write and that it was difficult
for them to perceive and understand policies of the various nationalistic political parties.
4. Imprisonment, detention without trial, exile and assassination of radical political leaders. For
example, Eduardo Mondlane of Mozambique was assassinated by a parcel bomb in Dar es Salaam on
3rd February 1969, Steve Biko in South Africa was assassinated after the Soweto massacre in 1976,
Dedan Kimath in Kenya was assassinated on 27th October 1956, and on the other hand, other
nationalistic leaders were imprinted. For example, the late Nelson Mandela a distinguished political
icon in Africa was sentenced to life imprisonment in the Rivonial Trial in 1964 and he was taken to
Robben island prison, others like water Sithulu were imprisoned, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana was
imprisoned, Jomo Kenyatta was also imprisoned for a couple of years. In Tanganyika, Mwalimu
Nyerere was charged for Treason for the first time in 1955 and was required to ether serve a six (6)
months imprisonment or to pay a sum of money equivalent to the charge; he got subscription from the
TANU members and paid it as a fine.
5. Financial problems (constraints). The economic muscles of the nationalistic political parties were too
weak to sustain the costs of running their political activities and of course, most of the political parties
had no any other source of income rather than the little subscription obtained from their members as
secretly as possible.
6. Religious differences. For instance, at the time of independence in Uganda, the Catholics led by
Kiwanuka did not like to be dominated by the Protestants led by Milton Obote in Nigeria northern.
Muslims dominated Nigeria. Whereas the southerners were basically Christians, as a result the Muslims
did not want to be dominated by the Christians, whence the religious differences in both Uganda and
Nigeria did not give a well-ventilated room for them to fight against their common enemy in
colonialism.
7. Poor infrastructure such as roads physical buildings such as offices for the nationalism political
parties. Remoteness of some areas made it difficult for the nationalistic part leaders to reach their
supporters and members, also lack of physical structures such as offices were a great challenge that
these parties faced. For example, following the banning of political parties in Tanzania by then
Tanganyika the T.A.N.U was holding its meetings secretly in private houses of their members for
instance several TANU meetings were held in Abdul Sykes’ house.
8. The unwillingness of the colonial power to grant independence. Some European nations came in Africa
to stay forever and regarded their African colonies as oversea provinces, thus they were very reluctant
to grant independence this was mostly on Portuguese colonies like Mozambique, Angola.
9. The colonial state apparatus ware very oppressive and coercive to the nationalistic movements in many
Africa nations these included colonial army, police and judicially/prison which were put in place to
facilitate colonial production, e.g. in 1958 Nyerere was arrested, Kenyatta was also arrested in I954,
Mutesa of Buganda was exiled to Britain.
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10. Also there was lack of political structures to mobilize the people to the common struggle for
independence; in rural areas most of the political parties lacked branches which would have been used
as centers to create awareness and mobilization of the masses most of the nationalistic activities
centered in urban areas.
11. Tribalism also was a problem in for the nationalistic struggle it brought disunity and weakened the
nationalistic struggle for independence. Some tribes did not participant in national struggle in steady
they involved secessionist politics, e.g. Buganda in Uganda, which demanded for her separate
independence at the expense of the entire nation of Uganda.
12. The low level of education also affected the struggle for independence many masses in Africa were not
educated and lacked political awareness about the essence of their independence this was a big
hindrance in the path of independence since most of the indigenous did not know the significance of
the struggle.
END OF NATIONALISM TOPIC
WELCOME TOPIC THREE
CHANGES IN POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC

POLICIES IN AFRICA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Reasons for introduction of ideological, political and administrative changes

1. To look for unity among the Africans in order to bring unity. Many African states introduced
mono-party system.
2. To eliminate social problems especially poverty which was inherited after independence; when
Africans lived in poverty without education, health services, water and electricity. This needed
ideological changes, which require government to take responsibility of giving service to its people
and reduce poverty.
3. To destroy capitalism. Ideological change insisted the need for people to work together and
share the product of their work equally. 4. Administrative changes were effected in order to
organize the government pots and civil service so as to provide employment to Africans hence to
get money to afford basic needs.
5. Administrative changes brought true independence because it eliminated the white workers who
were the product of colonial rule.
6. To address issues such as land alienation, labor, laws, taxation etc.
BACKGROUND: In 1960 many African states began to achieve their political independence which
generally has been referred to as “flag independence” despite the fact that African got their political
independence, still African remained under indirect penetration of foreign domination, politically, socially,
economically and militarily. The political independence had little impact on the life style of the masses that
is why it has been referred to as “ceremonial independence” or “flag independence”.
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• The political independence was largely characterized with political and social economic problems
legacy of colonialism, i.e. the problems were inherited from the colonial economy and colonialism,
such problems included mass illiteracy of the masses, poverty, tribalism, poor infrastructures etc.
• The real political legacy of colonial government in Africa was that of an alien dictatorship,
benevolent at times, but always prepared to crush outspoken opposition. Many of African leaders had
suffered periods of detention without trials for daring to speak out against the unjust and arbitrary
nature the government.
What is flag independence?
Flag independence this refers to the type of Independence that the Africa nations attained during their
struggles in 1960s 70s and 80s from their colonial masters; it was just ceremonial independence of
hoisting the national flags and bringing down the colonial flags. Still African remained victims of foreign
domination in all spheres of life, Political economical and socially remained dependant to their former
‘colonial masters, and at times it’s referred to as Neo colonialism..
FEATURES OF FLAG INDEPENDENCE
• It leads dependence syndrome whereby the country will depend largely from their former colonial
masters for any development programmes.
• It leads to the rise of puppet or sycophant leaders in the government who aim at serving and appeasing
the colonial masters, but not to serve the interests of their people.
Absence of national culture and national identity, where by the foreign culture largely Influence the
culture of people like education dressing and even table manners.
• The constitution was written by the experts in the colonial government and then brought in the
metropolitan parliament to approve.
• Western model of politics with all ceremony and formality is followed in the territory like mult-party
system democracy was to be included in the national constitution.
• Absence of real political sovereignty in the sense that most of the political polices are made by the
former colonial masters there is always political interference and sabotage from foreign countries.
• Weak and small military machinery since most of the military assistance come from former colonial
masters.
• During the period of self-government, the colonial administrators reserved to themselves control of
strategic areas these included the armed forces, finances and international relations.
THE SITUATION OF AFRICA AT THE POINT OF INDEPENDENCE.
BACKGROUND: Most of the African states immediately after independence faced numerous problems.
The problems that most African nations faced since independence have, very largely, been the product of
their history. The root of many African current problems in final decades of the twenties century are to be
found in the period of colonial rule of the pervious eighty years or more. That were generated and
inherited from colonial rule. Some of the problems included the following.
A) Political problems
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a) They left a highly centralized administration system whereby the central leader has got a lot of power
in the state in most cases this power was vested in the traditional leaders or kings in case of British
colonies, Such a system of administration has proved a failure and produced many inefficient leaders,
incompetence, unnecessary bureaucracy and misdirection in administration.
b) They left limited trained African labors to carry out the administration. The majority of Africans were
uneducated or totally illiterates barely 10% were educated by the time of independence in sub -
Saharan Africa that
c) The military structure was organized in the way that it was not separated from the political
administration that is why most of the independent African states experienced numerous coups de-tat.
Where by military juntas took over the political arena
d) The colonialist planted tribalism among the Africans as to maintain disunity during colonialism, but
this was inherited even in the period of post independent African, divide and rule policy was given
priority. Most of the Africa nations with multi-party system political parties were based more upon
the personal ethnic or regional origin of a particular politician than upon differing economic
ideologies to guide the country’ s future development.
e) The boundaries left by the colonialist were mostly totally artificial. They had been created at the
whim of European politicians with little regard for Africa’s multitude of pre-colonial nation state and
stateless villages and communities, divided various ethnic groups into boundaries in other words
natural African borders were abolished and artificial ones were formed. The artificial boundaries
caused a problem of ‘national’ unity after independence.
f) They introduced foreign administration structure where by foreigners especially the whites ware
involved in the running of the colony. In the post independent African state the most important
sectors like finance Military and national planning remained in the hands of foreigners.
B) Economical and Social Problems
a) The colonial government let Africa with the mounting economic crisis that had been the end- product
of eighty year of colonial is rule. The African economies had been directed towards exporting cheap
agriculture raw materials and unprocessed minerals to Europe and in return importing relatively
expensive manufactured goods, thus an economic crisis.
b) They left inadequate Social infrastructures especially transport net work schools medical centers and
imbalanced regional development. The infrastructures that were left were inadequate for the
continental internal development, they were virtually no regional roads or rail links between one
region from another which would promote internal trade most of the railway had been developed
around the turn of the century to ease the export of continent wealthy to Europe. By the time of
independence, the few structures that had been built were badly in need of repair.
c) African government inherited two particularly repressive economic policies from their colonial
predecessors; poll tax and agricultural marketing boards. The former was charged on all adults males
regardless of their income. The latter paid fixed low prices to farmers, while selling their products for
higher prices abroad keeping the difference as government revenues. Both repressive policies were
retained by the post independent African nations.
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d) Created of economic stratification in the society i.e. the peasants who lived in rural areas were the
majority living in miserable poverty their major economic activity being agriculture which fetched
low prices that made their surviving ore difficulty by the time of independence around 95% of the
population depended on agriculture for survival and the petty bourgeoisie/working class who lived
towns in good standard of living.
e) They left a highly dependent economy, where by the post independent African states produced raw
material for their former colonial master and consumed finished goods from the metro pole. This
promoted the unfavorable terms of trade that led to indebt of many post independent African nations.
f) They left Avery small industrial sector by ensuring that Africa remain de- industrialized and prepare
it as potential market for European finished goods.
g) They introduced traditional cash crops in Africa, which were monoculture to become the source of
foreign earner from the metro pole.
h) Created cultural dependence by distorting of African culture and establishment of foreign culture.
Where by African values and culture were destroyed and de-campaigned by the colonialists. Dress
language eating manners religion were adopted and inferior complex was instilled to the Africa
always to despise their culture and customs This created disunity among the Africans.
PROBLEMS THAT FACED BY AFRICAN NATION AFTER INDEPENDENCE
After the attainment of independence many African countries faced with many problems, these can be
grouped as political, social and economic problems as explained here below;
i) Mass poverty many Africans are living below the international poverty line surviving on less than one
dollar a day this mass poverty was caused by colonialism were by African were denied to participant
in meaningful economic activities apart from providing cheap labor. However, the most important is
the fall in world commodity prices for Africa principle agriculture export in the mid1960s.
Manufactured imports, which Africa had depended on relatively, became more expensive poverty in
post independent Africa has been also contributed much by African new political masters to do much
beyond enriching themselves, ignoring the majority peasant to live abject poverty.
ii) Mass illiteracy many African are unable to read or to write this was due to inadequate educational
centers provided by the colonialists, the colonial education was segregate, and it was only
children of the chiefs that were given priority. By the time of independence less than 10 % of
Africans were fully educated most were in rural areas where they could not get access to proper
education.
iii) Tribalism and nepotism are some o the major problems that are facing the post independent
African states these were sown deliberately as a move of the colonialist to favor some tribes and
leave others un developed, as to divide and rule. Even some political parties were built on the
lines of ethnic groupings. A politician was supported not because he possessed good national
policies but because he belonged to a certain ethnic group.
iv) Lack of political administrators that has witnessed corruption misdirection of the state and
incompetence of some African leaders very few African were highly educated to provide quality
administrative services, most of the Africans lacked skills of administration and political will to
help their people. Indeed, it has been argued that within some African countries that the educated
elites in the post independent Africa era had in practice done little more than replace white
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colonial rulers with ‘black colonial rulers!’
v) Internal disputes that generated due to various political ideologies that made African nations to go
to internal wars this was especially socialism vs. capitalism. Most African nations begun to
abandon capitalism and multi-partism system of administration they went on one party state as to
bring national unity. But this led to the suppression of opposition, detention dictatorship that
accelerated civil conflict in the states
vi) The colonialist did not consider boundary disputes, the natural boundaries when partitioning
Africa this generated disputes afterwards. The artificial of national boundaries caused serious
problems of National unity after independence. Various tribes were divided by colonial bounders
e.g. Luo in Kenya and Tanzania the Haya in Uganda and Tanzania.
vii) Lack of enough social infrastructures the colonialists constructed very few social infrastructures
to serve colonial production, according to their needs in places where there was no colonial
production ware ignored.
viii) Foreign interference in internal affairs, the post independent African nations have not been free or
independent as its always portrayed, former colonial masters have always influenced the state
especially through Neo colonialism were by the former colonial master always tend to influence
the political arena economic and social aspect of African nations.
ix) Foreign debt from outside especially European nations this has been acquired especially from
World bank and IMF with high interest rates, that makes it impossible to be paid back and to
service it.
x) Military coup d’ c-tat this was because the military was not separated from the political system
many African states experienced military rule. Most of the French speaking countries apart from
Senegal Guinea and Cote’ d’ivoire, went over to military rule during the 1 960s. Togo and
Dahomey (renamed Benin in 1974) suffered frequent military coups and counter-coups. From
November 1965 coup followed coup with frightening regularity taking Nigeria and Ghana in
early 1966. By the early I 970s military rule had became a serious Africa political option.
It remained the most frequent means for change of government through the 1970s and 1980s.
xi) Corruption has become very rampant in many post independent African states especially south of
the Sahara, the political leaders like, government ministers, some civil servants and other
branches of minority-educated elite are becoming increasingly wealthier. Through corruption,
like embezzlement of public funds, office abuse, bribes misusing of public funds etc.
The income gap between the rural based poor and the urban civil servants is increasing day by
day in the post independent African states.
xii) Lack of political awareness and sensitization due to mass illiteracy among the masses tend not to
know their political rights and responsibility. They have been vulnerable to political manipulation
and abuse due to their ignorance of political responsibility.
xiii) Existence of diseases like Malaria, which kills 2 out of 5 infants and aids, has proved a problem
to the post independent African nations. Many post independent African nations have failed to
come out with political and social solution to the menace
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xiv) Lack of strong economic base agriculture has been dominant as the major economic activity, but
their yield has been always very low and price fluctuation is too much. Since colonialism, African
economies were directed towards exporting primary goods, which fetched low prices and based
on imported finished European goods that were costly to purchase.
xv) Natural calamities like floods volcano eruption famine storms epidemics etc. These natural
calamities are partly blamed on poor planning and lack of foresighted political leaders
accompanied with political will to serve the masses
xvi) Religious differences it brought disunity and internal disputes like in Nigeria and Sudan Muslims
fight Christians and many are killed in such crushes.
SAMPLE QUESTION
1. The inherited problems from the colonial past are hindrances to the development of African societies
after the independence. (Necta 2015 Qn. 10).
2. Analyze six problems facing African countries that originated from their colonial heritage. (Necta,
2012, Qno. 8).
SOLUTIONS OF THE PROBLEMS FACED BY POST INDEPENDENT AFRICAN STATES.
a) To alleviate poverty in Africa can be solved by, increasing income for every family/home. This
can be solved by increasing employment opportunities to the masses as to increase their
purchasing power, by providing free and subsidized necessities to reduce the expenditure of the
masses, which may include medical, school fees, and food.
b) To create a government of democracy and transparency whereby corruption can be checked and
lavish government expenditure should be checked and be stopped.
c) Equal distribution of national cake by stopping nepotism whereby it’s only few people of one
tribe or one region that dominate the government and enjoy sweet jobs, equal representation
should be in place to all regions and tribes in the government jobs.
d) To elect capable leaders who are patriotic and able to care for their people, with good economic
plans for development of the people.
e) To provide basic education and technical education to the masses so as they can solve the
problem of unemployment and engage into serious economic ventures/business. This calls for
revising national syllabus, which trains job seekers instead of job Creators.
f) Get rid of neo-colonialism and develop an independent self-sustaining economy, which would
help to solve the problem of Africa without foreign intervention.
g) To diversify our economy from agricultural based to be both industrial and agricultural as to
create link between these two major sectors .What we produce can be used as raw materials in
industries and industrial product can be purchase/consume by the agricultural sector. This will
increase the market base and solve the problem of poverty.
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h) To promote national unity among the masses through one party system so as to avoid many party
systems that may bring divisions among the masses, and also national languages should be
promoted as to forge unity of the people:
i) Introduction of national education that is based on the environment of Africa and needs as to
avoid the colonial education that produce white collar job seekers instead of job creators, this
definitely will solve the problem of mass unemployment.
FACTORS (REASONS) THAT HINDERED POLITICAL UNITY IN AFRICA

Since independence nationalistic leaders (heads of states) of post independent African countries
such as late JK. Nyerere, Kwame Nkrumah, Nandi Azikiwe, Jomo Kenyatta etc tried their best to
bring political unity but there were factors which hindered political unity in Africa to date as
follows.
1. The effects of colonial legacy and influence of capitalist. Africa countries failed to build
political unity because since before and after independence capitalist countries disunited and
divided Africans so as to rule them easily; or capitalist countries divided African countries so as
to rule them easily during colonial period and after independence.
2. Different political ideologies. Ideologies of African countries are not the same due to the
effect of colonial rule for example some countries in Africa apply capitalist ideology including
Kenya while others socialist ideology hence hinder political unity.
3. Different political priorities; African countries after independence to date do not have the
same social, political or economic priorities because each country faced different challenges, for
example Tanganyika priority were fighting against poverty, ignorance , disease, bring
development etc.
4. Timing of attainment of independence. African countries attained their independence
differently. Most government achieved their independence in 1960’s, 1980’s, as result fail to
share one agenda of building political unity.
5. Poverty; Many African countries still experienced poor economy depended from external
donors as result fail to unite.
6. Political instability; politically many Africans countries are not stable due to poor political
systems, leaderships etc hence hinder after political unity.
7. Civil wars. There were no peace and harmony to many African countries since government
and civilians act one another hence failure of political unity.
8. Tribalism; tribalism in most of Africans countries was still a problem because Africans
separated themselves basing on tribal differences.
9. Religious conflict. In some of African countries, there were religious conflicts between
Muslims against Christians hence hindered political unity example Nigeria Boko haram, in
Somalia sasa weed, Somalia.
10. Dictatorship of leaders in government. Since African leaders and government do not
exercise democracy, do corrupt, and do not observe rule of law and good governance hence
hinder political unity for e.g. Liberia, Zimbabwe, Sudan, and Somalia etc.
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11. Poor communication and infrastructure. Many Africans countries had no good link and
interaction of communication due to poor infrastructures such food road, railways, ports harbors
etc. hence hinder political unity.
12. Borders conflicts.
POLITICAL CHANGES IN AFRICA
This was introduction of new political systems that could govern the newly independent
countries.
There were so many political changes but the following were the main ones. These were;
1. Introduction of single party system 2. Military rule/government
DEVELOPMENT OF ONE (SINGLE) PARTY SYSTEM. [MONO PARTY]
BACKGROUND: During the struggle for independence, many African states had developed multiparty
politics as a system to prepare them for independence; it was encouraged by the colonial masters as their
pass for independence. E.g. in Tanganyika there was T.A.A and T.A.N.U. in Uganda they were U.P.C,
D.P, and K.Y. However, from 1960-1970s many African states begun to reject multi-party parliamentary
system as unworkable.
They pleaded the particular circumstances of their country’s crying to unite in order to achieve rapid
national development in social and economic. By the late 1 980s only Botswana with its low population
of one million people had maintained unbroken record of multiparty democracy since independence.
Nevertheless, almost all post independent African states had switched to one part system.
FACTORS FOR ONE (SINGLE) PARTY SYSTEM AFTER INDEPENDENCE.
• To promote unity and solidarity among the Africans under one party system after having been disunited
on political lines by the colonialist, e.g. C.C.M in Tanzania, U.P.C in Uganda K.A.N.U in Kenya
emerged as single party. The argument in favor of one party system was that parliamentary opposition
based on multi party democracy bases upon ethnic regional interest was destructive rather than
constructive opposition.
• It was introduced to eliminate political parties that showed interest to protect colonialism
during the struggles for independence e.g. U.T.P in Tanganyika allied with British leaders
feared that such parties would overthrow the government of newly independent nation.
• To avoid civil wars among Africans since they were politically inexperienced immediately after
independence and multi-party politics was viewed as a tool to divide the masses basing on their ethnic
origin that in the long run may result into civil conflicts, where by every tribe or region struggling to
dominant political power. For example in Rwanda and Burundi were the ethnic Tutsi fight ethnic Hutu
to control political power.
• Greedy for power among few African leaders who wanted to rule for many years without
being taken out of the post by political party.
• To avoid imperialist influence on local politics, through passing in other political opposition parties.
Multi-party politics also was avoided as one of the method for not allowing foreign influence into
local politics especially the former colonial power who still wanted to control their former colonies
through third party.
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• To eradicate poverty, ignorance, and diseases this can be well dealt with less than one party system,
thus promoting national development by avoiding useless political rivalry of multi-party politics.
• To promote good governance by checking on corruption .and misallocation of public funds, in some
one-party states such as Tanzania and Zambia, election showed that unpopular government ministers
could indeed be voted out of office. However, the awful lot depended upon the political integrity of
the party leader and his ability to control the enthusiasm of local party member. However, in some
states one party system led to abuse of state power like in Malawi, Uganda.
WEAKNESS OF THE SINGLE PARTY SYSTEM.

1. Encouraged authoritarianism due to lack of competition in politics i.e. only few people in the
country dominate decision making without allowing any critics.
2. Lack of enough checks and balance on government and so encouraging management and
corruption.
3 Led to abuse of power.
4. Suppress diversity of opinion, which endangers development.
DECLINE OF SINGLE PARTY SYSTEM IN AFRICA

QUESTION: By the early 1990’s single party system in Africa was replaced by multiparty
system, why?
REASONS FOR THE FALL OF MONO-PARTY SYSTEM.
I. People opposed the system of mono-party, which worked against democracy and human, rights
e.g. Right to vote, right of expression and association.
2. The collapse of U.S.S.R (United Soviet Socialist Republic) in 1980’s. The system could not
get support from this super power any longer.
3. Donor countries such as USA, British, and Germany did not support the system.
4. Economic decline in most countries with single party system in 1970s and 1980s.
5. The rise of USA as a sole super power.
POST INDEPENDENT MILITARY COUP D’ÉTAT IN AFRICAN CONTINENT.
BACKGROUND: Coup d’état refers to the sudden military overthrow of civilian government by armed
force. The post independent African countries were dominated by military regimes, which were witnessed
by military coups, especially in 1960s up to 1970s.
The first military coup was in Egypt in 1952, this marked the beginning of other coups in Sudan 1958,
1969, 1971, and later in 1980, in Zaire 1960 whereby Lumumba was overthrown by Kassa Vumbi, in
Togo 1963, in Nigeria, more than five military coups were conducted, in Algeria in 1971, in Uganda
1971, etc.
FACTORS FOR THE COUP D’ÉTAT IMMEDIATELY AFTER INDEPENDENCE.
a) Failure of the civilian government to bring development after independence, coup d’état was always
seen as the .only means of overthrowing an incompetent or unpopular leaders it made the military
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men to become frustrated and overthrow the government most of the post independent African
leaders were puppet leaders that tended to serve the interest of imperialist and themselves, this made
the military to over throw the civilian government.
b) Secondly, the cause of coups in the post independent Africa was that the army inherited at
independence had generally and originally been found as part of the process of initial colonial period
had generally been held in reserves for internal use against potential rebellious subject rather than for
defense of the country against potential hostile neighbors. At independence they had little initial role
to play beyond being part of trappings of an independent nation state.
c) Rigging of election by civilian government also prompted the military intervention to take over the
government e.g. in Nigeria the widespread that election of 1964-5 had been rigged finally destroyed
the credibility of civilian government that led to the military first coup in Nigeria in January1966
d) The influence of cold war between capitalism and socialism .Many governments, which advocated
one ideology, the opposition, prepared a coup to replace it with either bloc U.S.A capitalism or
Communism of Russia.
e) Corruption and nepotism made the military government to overthrow the civilian government. In 1
960s military coups were reactions against inefficient and corrupt civilian regimes, the military were
known for being well disciplined and usually free from corruption, thus won a lot of support from the
masses, and e.g. Milton Obote in Uganda who promoted nepotism with corrupt leaders was
eventually overthrown by Iddi Amin Dada in 1971.
f) Colonial policy of divide and rule, which encouraged differences among ethnic groups, the colonial
government, left fragmented society, which was very difficult to satisfy, this created political struggle
among various ethnic groups.
g) Involving military in politics, most of post independent African nations failed to separate politics and
military as it had been made by the colonialists’ .This involvement of the military men into politics
led to the overthrow of the civilian government.
h) Regional imbalance and tribalism E.g. in Nigeria, Uganda, this was brought by colonialism whereby
military men came from labor zones which- were undeveloped, thus the overthrow of the civilian
government. In Uganda, the northern part was dominated in the army, in Burundi it is only the Tutsi
who dominate the army such situations prepared for a military coup.
i) Suppression of opposition .Many post independent African states suppressed political parties and
begun one party system which many people viewed as a dictatorship, this paved way for military
coups e.g. In Nigeria the civilian government of 1979-83 demonstrated freedom of speech freedom of
the press but within few years personal greedy suppression of the opposition lavish government
spending, were all welcomed by the coup of 1983 as to restore moral authority and discipline in the
public.
j) Mass illiteracy .After independence many African had not attained the basic education thus they were
very easy to be manipulated by any political opportunities
k) The rise of African elite politicians who had studied in Europe with little experience about African
situation, thus after assuming power they failed to change the political, economical and social life
style of the masses which made many masses to lose confidence in them and supported military
regimes e.g. the February coup in Ghana in 1966 which led to the over throw of Nkrumah who was
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accused of spending most of his energies into being an international statesman while ignoring his own
country mounting problems which led to cut off military defense budget and the government
intervention of day to day military affairs.
l) Vicious (brutal) poverty in Africa after independence many African governments failed to meet the
standard of living for the army. Many military men were paid less and lived in miserable conditions.
Poor living conditions they shared a single room with the family the general welfare was declining
every another day. This made them very annoyed and tried to overthrow the government as a solution
to solve the problem.
m) The bag of African problems most of which generated from colonialism, colonialism emphasized
separateness, and fragmented. This has retarded the force of solving common problems of African
unity, and instead promoted military over throws of civilian government
WHY MULT-PARTY SYSTEM IN 1990?

BACKGROUND: It should be remembered that during independence many African states began
multiparty system, which did not last for so long after the attainment of independence where by one
party system was adopted especially in 1960s andl97Os. However, in 1990s, one party system began
to collapse especially after the fall of Soviet Union, which was the socialist bloc, and then many
African nations began to adept multiparty system. E.g. in Tanganyika 1995 there was multiparty
election, Kenya in 1992, some of the reasons for multiparty politics was internally motivated while
others were externally motivated as we can expand below;
a) Collapse of U.S.S.R in early 1990s, the leading communist state which used to offer both ideological
and material assistance to those countries that followed communist ideology, which called for the
formation of one party system known as vanguard party or workers party.
b) The influence of the leading capitalist nations of Europe and U.S.A, also influenced the African
nations to adopt multiparty system if there to be given aid from IMF and World Bank which USA had
strong influence.
c) The influence U.N. under her international organization of I.M.F and World Bank, which persuaded
the African Nations to change from mono-party to multi-party system.
d) The influence of mass media especially the international mass media like B.B.C, C.N.N etc which
criticized one party system as a dictatorship of socialism .This made many countries especially in
Africa to change their system.
e) Changes in national ideology. Many African countries adopted multiparty system after crossing from
socialism to capitalism, which calls for many party systems, as their national ideology.
f) Integration of European Union. In 1956 the integration of European Union also had an impact to the
African countries to adopt multiparty system as to get assistance from members of European Union.
g) Failure of one party system to bring development contributed to the rise of many party politics, to
check on corruption, nepotism, egoism, and dictatorship.
h) Increase of elites who had acquired their education in western European nations. During 1990 the
elite’ people in Africa increased in number and begun to criticize the one party system, as type of
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dictatorship of socialism.
i) More commonly one party politics led to an abuse of state power. In countries such as Nkrumah
Ghana Banda’s Malawi and most of the former French colonies, the one party was used to give the
ruling party dictatorial powers in suppressing any criticisms of the government thus it became more
and more unpopular among the masses especially the educated elite.
POST INDEPENDENT POLITICAL INSTABILITIES IN AFRICA.
INTRODUCTION: Political instability is a situation where by a country is currently going through

political turmoil. It may also involve the death of people within that country and in many cases the
country detoriates in terms of its economic progress. The post independent African states were dominated
with political problems that led upheavals like civil wars. The major causes of these of political
instabilities were;
• The rise of dictators to power like Iddi Amin Dada in Uganda, Haile Sellasie in Ethiopia Kamuzu
Banda in Malawi, forced people to use force as means to overthrow them, thus rise of civil wars.
• Tribalism, regionalism, and religious differences, e.g. in Nigeria Muslim v/s Christians, in Uganda the
central region v/s the northern part, in Burundi Tutsi v/s Hutu, all these promoted instability and civil
wars.
• Weak economic base /poverty .This has been the root cause of civil wars and instability in Africa.
Many Africans have turned against their government accusing them to segregate them from sharing
the national cake.
• Existence of military Regimes like in Nigeria under San Abacha, in Uganda under Idd Amin. Such
military regimes encouraged terror and violence that lead to political instability as their technique to
continue clinging in power.
• Colonial boundaries and inter regional conflict e.g. in Kenya and Somalia, Ethiopia and Eritrea,
Cameroon and Nigeria, Uganda and Tanzania these boundaries were established by the colonialists,
But now they have promoted political instability in the regions.
• Corruption, Nepotism and lack of transparency in public offices, among the political leaders of Africa
after independence, which have led to embezzlement of public funds and uneven distribution of
national resources. Some people are segregated from the national cake, this make them to fight
against the domination.
• Violating human rights, like freedom of speech, freedom of marriage, freedom of movement, freedom
of expression heavy punishment, arbitrary arrest, extra judicial killings, etc.
• Lack of able political and patriotic administrator, who are forecasted leader who could organize
Africans to achieve development. Most of the leaders after independence in Africa were puppets that
were planted by colonialist for their own interest.
EFFECTS OF POLITICAL INSTABILITY IN AFRICA.
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a) It promoted national disunity among the masses, basing on tribal lines and regional basis e.g. in
Rwanda Burundi the Tutsi and the Hutu are highly divided basing on ethical background.
b) Civil wars caused misery, death, and destruction of properties e.g. in Angola, Sudan Uganda and
Rwanda among others million of civilians have been internally displaced living in refugee camps
were their subjected to all sorts of suffering and misery, while others were killed in the course of war.
c) It discourages economic development whereby governments spend a lot of money and time to
suppress the insurgency or rebels this may be done at the expense of other social development, lack of
social development like infrastructure and other social overheads may perpetuate the poverty
syndrome in many countries of Africa that faced civil wars.
d) Occurrence of coup d’état as a result of dissatisfaction among the disgruntled people and this may
increase more political tension among the masses which may increase the suffering and misery
among the people e.g. in Uganda 1971 where Iddi Amin took over the government that made even
foreign forces to intervene.
e) It leads to the outbreak of diseases like small pox, malaria, aids since little tension is given to healthy
sector such diseases happen to increase in numbers in Southern Sudan as much as the war claimed
many lives of innocent women and children also diseases have claimed a significant number of
children and women in the war zone etc.
f) It leads to internal displacement of people from places of war to safe places this lead to the
discouragement, of agriculture and other economic activities, this may bring famine, and malnutrition
related diseases.
g) It brought foreign intervention into national affairs e.g. United nations may intervene European Union
or USA, and this is very dangerous at times where by some times such power may not have interest to
help or to solve the conflict but rather to increase it for their own national interest e.g. to guarantee
market for weapons like in Angola and Southern Sudan were civil wars have taken more than 20
years.
MEASURES/ CHANGES AND PRIORITY OF POST (NEO) INDEPENDENCE

AFRICAN STATES.
(i) Post independent African states (countries) inherited (forced) different social, political and
economic problems/ challenges from colonial government.
(ii) Therefore, after independence African countries focused on solving social problems, which
African had, due to colonial legacy by setting up new priorities and changes in their social,
political and economic systems, which suit Africans. There were the changes;
(iii) Changes of political legacy of colonial rule. After independence post independent African
states changed brutal military political systems, which adopted by colonialist by
emphasized (advocated) on Portia monetary democracy.
(iv) Maintaining Sovereignty and security, post-independent African states after independence
they created a new system of sovereignty to avoid disintegration of people and maintain
peace and security of the state.
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(v) Building national unity, post independence African countries priorities was to build
national unity among its people who were divided by colonialists based on ethnicity (tribes)
language and religion difference.
(vi) Fight against Tribalism; post independence African countries put also a pressure of
eradicating any forms of tribalism, which was created by colonialist who favored one tribe
and made it superior than the other.
(vii) Fight against regionalization; Post independent African countries also focused on
removing uneven development in the same region in the countries because colonialist left
some part of the country more developed and having good social service and infrastructure
than the other e.g. in northern was much developed than southern.
(viii) Eradication (removal) of poverty; these was most priority of most independent African
countries because after independence many African countries were poor as a result all were
focused on improving their economies e.g. improving Agriculture, industries etc.
(ix) To improve peoples’ and national economy; post independent African countries
encouraged their people to involve and improve agriculture production so as to improve
their economies and national economies, for e.g. in Tanzania agriculture become a
backbone of national economy.
PROBLEMS HINDERING DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA AFTER
INDEPENDENCE.
The following were the factors that led to changes in economic development policies and
strategies
(i) Economically, Africans were exploited during colonialism and the independent
governments wanted to address this situation by giving equal job opportunities to their
people.
(ii) Some cash crops were prohibited to grow by the Europeans. For example, cash crops like
coffee and tobacco. Africans were not allowed to grow some cash crops, which were
reserved for Europeans only.
(iii) African countries mainly depended on the export of mineral resources and cash crops for
their foreign exchange.
(iv) Most of African countries were economically dependent on the former colonial masters
especially in the area of trade with few exceptions such as Republic of Guinea.
(v) Colonialism contributed to massive regional disparities, with European areas enjoying the
best developments, which the African governments also wanted to reduce. Infrastructure
was well developed in European areas but not in African regions.
Strengths of the economic policies and strategies adopted since independence
The following are some of the strengths of the economic policies and strategies adopted since
independence.
(i) The African public was trained so that they could take part in development. Some
Africans public servants in various fields.
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(ii) The economic strategies and policies led to the expansion of industrialization in the
continent, as careful economic planning was done with a view to improving the
economies.
(iii) There were improved infrastructures such as roads, railways and ports which were
established in many African countries
(iv) Many socialist countries achieved some measures of economic independence in particular
Tanzania under Julius K. Nyerere and Ghana under Nkrumah advocates self-sufficiency
in food production v. Many African people were mobilized to participate in development
for example The Ujamaa village’s policies were useful in enhancing mobilization.
WEAKNESSES OF ECONOMIC STRATEGIES ADOPTED IN AFRICA SINCE

INDEPENDENCE
(i) Africanization of Public positions was accompanied by corruption. This led to in
efficiency, as the new public officers were not well acquainted with administrative
responsibilities.
(ii) The civil servants fought against the interference with their work by politicians. For
example, there were many instances where unauthorized use of fund was done for
purposes of building political constituencies.
(iii) The implementation of agricultural strategies was hampered by the fact that some of the
settlement schemes were established in marginal land while other were created away
from infrastructure such as roads, railways.
(iv) The bureaucratic administrative machinery was mainly modeled on the institutions of the
metropolis tan countries, and it was expensive to run and difficult to staff without the
assistance of expatriate staff.
The following are some of the contributions of the economic strategies and
policies adopted since independence
(a) Development in infrastructure was experienced, for example in Tanzania; a new railway line
was established that connected the country to Zambia.
(b) Fast economic growth was realized in some countries. Agricultural production increased due
to the need to produce more cash crops for export, industrial raw materials and food self-
sufficiency.
(c) New industries were established, the new industries were established and also dams were
opened for supplying hydroelectric power.
(d) Employment opportunities the foreign investment created more employment opportunities
for the people. Especially in capitalist economies such as Kenya and Ivory coast
(e) It was easy for individuals to work hard and accumulate wealth in African countries.
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CHANGES IN THE PROVISION OF SOCIAL SERVICES AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Education after independence
Objectives of Education in Africa after Independence
(a) To promote self-reliance, social justice, national unity, economic development, equity and
scientific literacy.
(b) To promote African cultural values that the colonial education had neglected.
(c) African countries wanted to eradicate racialism in the education sector.
(d) Colonial education was tailored to create a structure that would perpetuate African
dependency upon well- trained non- Africans thus the objectives were to eradicate
dependency on the colonial masters on the all spheres of life.
Features of Education in Africa after independence

(i) Religious organizations and communities continued to sponsor and run the schools even
after independence.
(ii) Local staff as most and post- secondary teaching staff were trained. Therefore, much
effort was made to infuse the African values and local patterns of life to the education
system.
(iii) Many Africans emphasize great effort to acquire academic education as during
colonialism, Africans were usually provided with vocal training due to the prevailing
racial discrimination.
(iv) University education was emphasized, given that there were fewer than one hundred
Tanzanians with University degrees by 1960. After independence in 1961 University of
Dar es salaam was started with a view to achieving self- sufficiency in line with the
policy of socialism. In 1963, the University of Dar es salaam, Makerere University
College of Nairobi were merged to form university of East Africa.
(v) After independence, African countries had to continue using colonial structure of
education since they had to study how to structure their education system due to the
shortage of local skilled personnel, Africans government concentrated resources on the
expansion of Secondary and higher education. Enrolment in higher education in East
Africa increased
Objective of Health services after Independence in Africa
(a) To expand modern health facilities for Africans citizens
(b) To increase living standard of people
(c) To reduce and remove the high infant mortality rate and high material death rate during
child labor.
(d) To remove racial discrimination in the provision of health services through promoting
health to citizens.
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Features of Health Services after independence
(a) Through Ujamaa villages, health services were improved a large group of people were
able to receive services from one centre.
(b) The 5- years development plan, ( 1964- 1969) Tanzania’s ambitions to improve health
services in rural areas which benefited many people and support for preventive rather
than curative aspects of health services.
(c) The government recognized the values of medical auxiliaries after Arusha Declaration.
Health services were provided free of charge due to the introduction of socialism until
1980’s other agencies charged a small amount for health services.
(d) During 1970’s and the 1980’s Tanzania received a lot of aid towards promotion of health
services. After economic crisis, progress in health care was undermined by lack of
enough financial allocation. As the result, user charges were introduced in government
hospitals.
Strengths of provision of health services in Africa after independence

(a) Provision of free health services; enable many Africans to get health services they really
needed.
(b) None Africans have now been trained to take charge of health sector in their particular
countries medical doctors, nurses and other caregivers were trained. These enable individual
countries to have their own expert therefore reduced dependency on expatriate personnel.
(c) Provision of vaccines has enabled countries to eradicate many epidemic diseases existed in
Africa for a long time such as polio and measles.
(d) Establishment of health practitioners training institutions including medical training centers
and universities.
(e) Infant mortality has reduced dramatically in most African count vi. Alternative medicine has
now been adopted in a number of African countries to tackle health
Objectives of provision of water services after independence

1. To improve provision of clean water and reliable to all citizens.
2. To provide clean and reliable water supplies to the citizens so as to improve the standard
of living.
3. To improve sanitation level in the countries.
4. To provide more equitable distribution of infrastructures in the countries.
5. To ensure good health of citizens due to the availability of clean water
Success of provision of water services after independence
Some of the achievements in the provision of water services in Africa after independence are
a) Establishment of boreholes and dams so as to preserve water.
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b) Private companies has been given licenses to provide clean bottled water so as to avoid
it’s citizens to drink unsafe water.
c) Water treatments plans have been established.
d) Infrastructures have been established many countries so as to ensure supply of water to
citizens this includes provision of piped water
Weakness in the provision of health services in after independence

(a) Enough financial resources to provide health services was a problem to most countries.
(b) Poor planning and lack of resources has affected provision of infrastructure including clean
water and transport.
(c) Due to failure to research on local traditional medicines has led African governments to
spend many resources in buying medicines from other part of the world.
(d) Number of incurable diseases such as HIV and AID, Diabetes and Cancer also undermines
medical services. Heart ailment has increased in Africa and has also contributed to the
rising costs of providing health and medical services in the continent.
(e) Lack of enough well-trained personnel as many Africans as man Africans were neglected
to be trained during the colonial period. In some African countries, a high level of
corruption has led to the sale of government-funded medicines at a throw away to
unscrupulosis business people. This caused great suffering among the population.
(f) International drug manufacturers promoted the Western Approach to medicines due to their
self- interests. Africans were encouraged to use powdered milk for infants, although they
cannot guarantee access to safe water.
CHANGES IN PROVISION OF WATER SERVICES IN AFRICA AFTER
INDEPENDENCE
Availability of clean water in Africa cannot ignored due to its importance. In order to improve
health care in the world clean water is very important. Good sanitation cannot be available in the
absence of clean and reliable water supply
The objectives of the provision of housing services after independence
The following are some of the objectives of provision of housing services in Africa after
independence.
a) To establish modern housing for Africans. The establishment of modern housing was due to
the promises made by politicians during the struggle for independence thus helped to
promote standards of living.
b) To promote sanitation for the benefit of the citizens. Majority of African citizen were ensured
sanitation.
c) To eradicate racial discrimination, after independence the people of African were supposed
to eradicate racial discrimination.
d) To promote better planning in urban centers in order to enhance development.
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e) To provide enough accommodation spaces for the and do away with slums especially in
urban centers.
The pattern of housing distribution after independence
The most of the patterns of housing distribution after independence were;
(i) The best houses have been located in urban centres, urban centers such as Dar es salaam,
Harare, Mombasa as well as Nairobi.
(ii) European and Asian communities own the best houses. Although we got the political
independence in the 1960’s but most of the African communities occupy the poorly
constructed houses.
(iii) There were increased of population in the urban centers, after independence the
population was increased in the cities such as Dar es Salaam, Nairobi.
(iv) They used local materials to construct houses in the village (rural areas).
(v) The tall buildings mark the main urban centers such as the cities of sky’s carpers
THE STEPS TAKEN TO CHANGE THE COLONIAL PATTERN OF DISTRIBUTION
OF HOUSING AFTER INDEPENDENCE IN TANZANIA.
The following are some of the steps taken to change the colonial pattern of distribution of
housing after independence
(a) The government-controlled land allocation in the country. All free, hold land reverted to
government ownership and previous owner were expected to pay rent to the government.
(b) The government used the control of building and land strategy so as to alleviate pressure on
urban housing and community services. The government established the National Housing
Corporation (NHC) whose mission was to provide housing needs through financing as well
as other associated services in the country.
(c) The government of Tanzania did not have a systematic policy on how to deal with the
challenges of urban growth. The African population in the urban centers growing rapidly
rather than at the villages.
(d) The government of Tanzania emphasized on the need to make use of low –cost materials for
construction purposes so as to provide housing for more people, rather than following
international standards blindly
Challenges facing the provision of housing services after independence
There are some challenges facing the provision of housing services after independence such as;
(i) Lack of adequate human resources for instances there were few number of qualified
town planners in the country who could help to plan and implement the desired
programmes in most countries.
(ii) The increase in squatter settlements in most countries like Kenya and Tanzania after
independence. This was mainly due to the fast rise in population expansion especially
among the youth.
(iii) There was corruption and bias in funds allocation consequently, more taxpayer’s
money was used to fund establishment of better housing for the middle class in society
and less funds were allocated for the housing of the poor.
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(iv) Most beneficiaries of the new housing schemes were unable to pay their rents to the
NHC there by under mining its efficiency in both Tanzania and Kenya.
(v) The bias in the implementation of the projects. This leading to the low income earners
getting disadvantages at the project implementation stage by giving priority to the
middle-income earners.
NEO-COLONIALISM.
Background: Neo-Colonialism, Refers to the indirect control of the African nation by their former
colonial masters socially, politically, and economically. This came about following the attainment of flag
independence from the colonial masters. The colonial administrators took steps to ensure that the transfer
of power would not jeopardize their economic interest.
One of the methods was to prepare ground for the creation of puppet leaders by involving leaders of
national movement into colonial government. This ensured that emerging leaders were groomed to up
hold the existing exploitative relations.
Secondly the process of handing over power ensured that neo colonial relation would follow
independence as to grantee the economic interest of the former colonial master, the constitution was made
and approved by the colonialists, they made sure that the western model of political authority was
followed in the independent country, The strategic sectors were preserved to the colonial masters like
Finance, and International relation. In fact, even in those fields that African was given responsibility the
colonial did not vacant.
FORMS OF NEO-COLONIALISM.
Neo-colonialism has got four forms and it’s through these forms African countries are controlled and
exploited by their former colonial masters and other capitalist countries, like USA. In other words
how neo colonialism operates, as to meet the interest of the imperialists.
ECONOMIC FORM
• Through massive investment by imperialist multi-corporations companies, as a way to exploit

market area for investment and cheap labor of Africa e.g. such corporations include. Coca-Cola,
Barclays Banks, Shell mining companies etc.
• Through controlling the World market by fixing price of African cash crops by keeping the prices
low so that African remain dependant to their aid.
• To make Africa a damping place for cheap European manufactured goods, so that Africa remain
dc-industrialize, and depend on them for consumer goods.
• Monopolizing technology by preventing Africans to engage into new technologies,

e.g. EEC - ACP relation signed in 1976 between European Economic Community and African
Caribbean and Pacific, prohibiting African nation to produce sensitive commodities that are
produced by European nations.
• Through giving loans and grants under World Bank and IMF to Africans with very high interest
rate and unrealistic conditions, this proves hard for African nations to pay back, that result into debt
burden.
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• Sending of European ‘expatriates’ to work in African countries for interests of their countries and
then are given higher standard of living than the local people like high wages expensive
accommodation, luxurious cars, which makes all the funds given as aid to be spent to the foreigner
expatriates.
• Through international financial organs like IMF, W.B, IBRD, EU, GATT etc to make policies that
enable them to continue exploiting the third World countries e.g. S.A.P.
POLITICAL FORMS.
• Through establishing relation with a ruling class and create a puppet leader, so that can be
influenced according to their interest (the imperialist).
• Through political influence and ideology following the imperialist democracies like parliamentary
system election and multi party system, under the influence of UN.
• Through propaganda of mass media making Africans to listen their radios like BBC, CNN, VOA,
and D.W.
• Through planting and supporting puppet leaders who serve their interests e.g. Yoweri Museveni in
Uganda J. Rawlings in Ghana.
• Over throwing communist oriented government and putting capitalist based government e.g. Zaire
in case of Lumumba in l96O and Ghana in case of Nkrumah
IDEOLOGICAL METHODS.
• Through influence of films, books, and education syllabus where by the curriculum is developed by
the agents of colonialist that it is European based to a big extent.
• Provision of scholarships to Africans to study abroad, in their countries.
• Brainwashing Africans’ mind through ideological indoctrination.
MILITARY METHODS.
• Establishment of military bases e.g. USA has got 234 military base in 44 countries of Africa.
• To provide military assistance like weapons and instructors to train African military men.
• By conducting coup d’état in the case of stubborn leaders who are against their economic interests.
HOW AFRICAN COUNTRIES SHOULD DISENGAGE FROM NEO-COLONIALISM.
African countries can disengage from Ne-colonialism by doing the following;
a) By developing self-sustainable and self-reliance economies which may reduce the problem of
dependence to the metro pole.
b) African should develop science and technology of their own, by encouraging science subjects in
school and higher institutions, research must be conducted often to come out with new ideas,
instead of depending foreign on technology.
c) African should encourage and strengthen the regional integration, which may increase their
economic power and political dominance. E.g. EAC, SADC, ECO WAS, etc.
d) African countries should diversify their economies from monoculture to both industrial and
agricultural sector, this will reduce over dependence of one sector, so that incase of the collapse of
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prices of one sector should not heavily affect the national economy
e) African should socialize and nationalize productive forces to reduce individual monopolies in
economic and political power.
f) African should form democracy, transparence accountability in public offices to reduce the danger
of corruption nepotism and embezzlement
g) To reject western interference in the political, economic and social affairs of African issues so as
we develop an independent decisions and independent mind.
h) African should reject western standards like culture dressing foods etc because they only create
market for European goods and make African damping place. This discourages the development of
infant industries in the continent.
i) Avoid civil war and conflicts that bring about economic backwardness and concentrate on political
solution to iron out internal dispute instead of applying
........................................................................................................................................
TOPIC FOUR
AFRICA IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
CONTINENTAL COOPERATION: African countries worked together to solve political, social

and economic problems which faced the continent after independence.
Origins of continental cooperation the origin of continental cooperation in Africa could be traced
back to the pan- African movement, which refer to the unity of all people of African origin or
descent. The word “pan” means ‘together’ or ‘all’ Africans refers to people, implying the unity of
all people of black color
OBJECTIVES OF ESTABLISHMENT OF CONTINENTAL COOPERATION

Some of the objectives of establishing continental cooperation in Africa include
- To preserve political independence and freedom
- To fight against economic exploitation such as land alienations, poor wages and force labor.
- To unite all people of African origin in the struggle against polities oppression
- To challenge the ideology of European supremacy which undermines African political
independence, economic stability and cultural civilization
- To protect African dignity
- To preserve African culture from destruction
African co-operation existed through the formation of various organization as shown below;
THE ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (O.A.U)
The organization of African unity was founded on 25’ May 1963 in Addis Ababa Ethiopia by thirty-
two heads of state of the independent African states the first chairman was Emperor Haile Sellasie of
Ethiopia. This was inspired by pan- Africanist sentiment of bringing all people of African origin in
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both the Diaspora and Africa under a single organization, to fight and protect their rights.
Nkrumah one of the pioneers of African union and the founding father of Ghana was greatly
influenced by his education in USA. he believed that the only way to achieve complete economic as
well as political freedom from European domination was to create a powerful new ‘United states of
Africa’ then through continental wide cooperation, Africa would really take place on the world
economic and political stage on terms o equality. In unity, Nkrumah saw strength, but in practical
terms, his dream proved illusory.
OBJECTIVES OF O.A.U
• The primary aim of OAU was to promote African unity and solidarity as the only way forward to
achieve complete economic as well as political freedom from other countries of the world, because
unity and solidarity would make Africa a superpower among other countries.
• To co-ordinate and intensify the cooperation and the efforts of African states to achieve a better living
of people of Africa and to help the speeding up of the decolonization in the rest of Africa.
• To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of African states, one of the OAU
principle states the acceptance of the principle of non-interference in internal affairs of member state.
• To eradicate all forms of colonialism in Africa and acts of slavery in the entire continent of Africa by
promoting freedom and human rights to be given first priority.
• To promote international cooperation in accordance of the United Nations Organization and the
universal declaration of human rights.
PRINCIPLES OF O.A.U
These were the guidelines, which had to be followed by the member states in order to achieve
their goals and objectives;
(a) Non-interference in these domestic matters of this member states.
(b) The use of peaceful ways in finding out the solutions to conflicts and disputes between
member states.
(c) To accept the movement of Non- Alignment of Afro Asian states.
(d) Respect the rights of status to exist as independent countries.
(e) Sovereign equality of all member states had to be respected by all members’ countries.
(f) Condemn all political assassination and encouragement of people to oppose domestic
dictatorship government
ACHIEVEMENTS OF O.A.U
a) It achieved to unite the diverse countries of Africa; this has been attained despite discrepancies in
political ideology, levels of economic development, language colonial experience and vast
geographical differences. There was of course disagreement between states and groups of states but its
main aim was unity and OAU survived its first three decades with no permanent sprit.
b) It has achieved in providing a forum for discussing common problems of African states and offering
solution like discrimination or apartheid, diseases and civil wars among others. Which to a big extent
have been dealt with.
c) The regular meetings of ministers and heads of state have helped to generate greater awareness of other
countries problem
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d) OAU has also achieved in Liberation’ of Africa from colonialism e.g. Zimbabwe, Angola, and Namibia,
through the provision of moral and material support to .the nationalistic movements in various nations.
e) The African development bank, which grew out of the OAU in 1967, became an invaluable tool for
mobilizing world finance for Africa development projects. The idea of coordinating and mobilizing
international capital for the benefit of Africa was of particular value during the 1 970s and early 1 980s.
f) O.A.U has provided many African refugees with jobs and education, who came as a result of internal
conflicts in various African nations
g) The organization has taken measures to improve agriculture, industry, transport and communication
trade and education cooperation in various countries.
h) The meeting of heads of states each year to discuss the problems and achievement of the continent is
one of the achievements.
i) Many conflicts have been solved by the organization in the continent e.g. the war between Tanzania
and Uganda 1978, Mali and Burkina Faso 1985, Kenya and Somalia 1970 etc.
j) OAU has encouraged Regional integration among is member states, such as ECOWAS 1975, SADC
1980, COMESA 1993, has its roots from O.AU.
k) OAU has achieved in acting as chief mediator between various African states to avoid the occurrence
of bloodshed e.g. between Ethiopia and Eritrea.
PROBLEMS OF O. A. U
1. A member state decides individually and voluntarily to be the member of the organization and it
could withdraw its membership at any time that it fills to do so, this weakens the strength of the
organization e.g. Morocco is not a member.
2. Another big problem that faced OAU was that it had no legal sanction to enforce its resolutions.
Member state could decide to refuse or ignore to implement the organizations decisions, that is why it
has always been blamed for being little more than ‘a talking-shop’ with no serious implementation of
her resolutions.
3. Lack of adequate funds it largely based on the annual contributions of member states Most of the
member states delayed to pay or defaulted to pay their contributions, this made the organization to fail
to run its activities.
4. Unequal development of the members of the organization caused by poverty, illiteracy, and unequal
distribution o resources.
5. There are many refugees in Africa, which is the result of civil wars in many areas of the continent
such as Burundi, D.RC, Sudan, Somalia, etc.
6. The continent is still poor depending on debts and loans from World Bank and I.M.F, with difficult
conditionality to fulfill.
7. Differences in languages and religion, some societies are proud of their mother tongue; other
countries are using English, others Arabic, French etc every state/tribe wants to use the language of
her interest. There is tension between fundamentalist Muslims who want to apply Sharia law while
Christians wants western system of democracy.
8. African countries are affected by natural disasters such as drought, floods, earthquake, A.I.D.S, etc
these affects the welfare of the people.
9. Difference in ideology of the member states, head of states are unable to come together to discuss
their problems.
10. Lack of a single currency to be used by all member states since it is not decided on to be used; this
hinders trade activities in the continent.
11. Weak economic base of many of the member states most of the member state just had their
independence from European imperialist nations; all are based on production of primary goods of
agriculture products and minerals that fetched little prices.
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12. Civil wars in the member states such as Sudan, Somalia and Sierra Leone killed many people
in the member countries in 1990’s.
13. Assassination of head of states in many countries for example Melchior Ndadaye of Burundi
in 1993.
Through O.A.U succeeded, it had also failures, which include
(a) O.A.U failed to bring better and good standard of living among the Africans
(b) It failed to eradicate neo-colonial exploitation, which was practiced by the countries in
Western European countries. After its formation Africa export to European markets
continued to suffer from lower prices determined by big powers.
(c) It failed to solve political conflicts which normally led to this rise of civil war and
overthrow the elected government for example Ghana when Dr. Kwame. Nkrumah in
1966.
(d) It failed prevent inter-state conflicts. There were conflicts over boundaries and eventually
there were wars for example Tanzania and Uganda in 1978 and Kenya and Somalia
in190’s
Generally, despite its failures O.A.U existed for almost thirty-seven years. In the late 1990’s
Mr. Mwammar Ghadafi, Libyan head of state proposed to other member head of states to
create a new organization, which could take necessary steps to eliminate problems, which
were not solved by O.A.U. His proposal was taken positively and the members accepted to
form A.U (African Union)
THE FORMATION OF AU (AFRICAN UNION)
AU is the organization of African countries which originally started by the declaration to the heads of
states and Government of the O.A.U. to establish African Union on 9/9/1999. The Constitutive Act of the
African Union was adopted and entered into force in 2000 at the Lome summit in Togo.
In 2001 the African countries putdown the plan for the implementation of the Union in Lusaka while in
2002 they held the first Assembly of the Heads of states of AU in Durban where Thabo Mbeki of South
Africa became the 1st chairman. Its headquarters are in Addis-Ababa, Ethiopia
THE REASON WHICH LED TO THE RISE OF AU
The fulfillment of the basic O.A.U objectives led to the formation of AU. Formerly O.A.U. had succeeded
to achieve such objectives like eradication of colonialism in Mozambique, Angola, Zimbabwe, and
destruction of apartheid in South Africa. Then, the leaders realized that there was a need to create a new
organization, which dealt with the social, economic and political problems in the rapid changing world in
1990’s. During this time, Africa faced economic decline, unfavorable economic relationship with the
developed nation and the rise of new political systems.
There was a need to make an organization to unite Africans against the problems from the situation,
which prevailed at the moment.
Objectives /Goals of AU
African Union has so many objectives:
• To achieve greater unity and solidarity between the African countries and the people themselves.
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• To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of members.
• To accelerate or increase the political and socio-economic integration (unity) of the continent.
• To promote and defend African common positions on issues of interest to the continent and its
people.
• To encourage international co-operation in line with the Charter of the United Nations and the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
• To promote peace, security and stability in Africa.
• To promote democratic principles and institutions, popular participation and goods governance.
• To promote and protect human and peoples’ rights in line with the African charter on Human and
Peoples’ Rights and other relevant human rights instruments.
• To establish the necessary conditions which enable Africa to play its rightful role in the global or
world economy through international negotiations.
• To promote sustainable development at the economic, social and cultural levels as well as the
integration of economies.
• To promote co-operation in all fields of human activity to raise the living standard of African peoples.
• To coordinate and harmonize the policies between the existing and future Regional Economic
communities and the gradual achievement o the objectives of AU.
• To enhance the development of the continent promoting research in all the fields especially Science
and technology.
• To work with relevant international partners in the elimination of preventable disease and the
promotion of health on the continent.
The Organs of the African Union

A.U has about 10 organs, which included:
(1) The Assembly- It is a supreme organ of the Union. It is composed of heads of states and
Government. It has to meet at least once a year in ordinary session, at the request of any member
state and on approval by a two-thirds majority of member states. It is headed by a chairman for a
period of one year.
(2) Its functions are:-
• Determine the common policies of the Union.
• Receive, consider and take decision on reports and recommendations from the other organs of the
Union.
• Consider requests for membership of the Union.
• Establish any organ of the Union.
• Monitor the implementation of policies and decisions of the Union as well as ensure compliance by
all members.
• Adopt the budget of the Union.
• Give directives to the Executive council on the management of conflict war and restoration of peace.
• Appoint and terminate appointments of judges of the court of justice
• Appoint the Chairman of the commission and his or her deputy and the commissioners as well as
determining their functions and terms of office.
(2) The Executive Council - It is composed by the ministers of Foreign Affairs or such other
Ministers as decided by Member states. The Executive Council meets twice a year in ordinary session. It
also has to meet in extra ordinary session at the request of any member states and upon approval of 2/3 of
all members.
3) The Pan - African Parliament - It is established in order to provide a chance for full participation of
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African people in the development and economic integration of the continent. The first speaker has been
Gertrude Mongella from Tanzania since 2004. Many officials will succeed the post from the members in
future.
(4) The African court of Justice- when it is fully established the union will give its functions and -
composition.
(5) The commission - It is the secretariat of the union. It is composed of the chairman, his deputies and
the commissioners together with other staff. The Assembly is responsible to provide the functions and
regulations of the commission. The current chairman of the commission is H.E. Alpha Oumar Konare of
Mali.
(6) The Permanent Representative Committee - It is charged with the responsibility of preparing the
work of Executive council. Facts also on the instructions of Executive council. It may set up sub-
committee or groups as it sees necessary
(7) The Specialized Technical Committees - it includes:
• The committee on Rural Economy and Agricultural matters.

• The committee on Monetary and Financial Affairs.
• The committee on Trade, Customs and Immigration Matters.
• The committee on Industry, Science and Technology, Energy Natural Resources and
• Environment.
• The committee on Transport, Communications and Tourism.
• The committee on Labor, Health and Social Affairs.
• The committee on Education, Culture and Human resources. -
The Assembly has to restructure the existing committees and establish others. Ministers compose the
body with competence of respective areas.
The functions of the committees are:
a) To prepare projects and programmes of the Union and submit it to the Executive council.
b) Ensure the supervision, follow-up and the evaluation of the implementation of decisions taken by
organization of the union.
c) Coordinate the projects and programmes of the Union.
d) Submit reports and recommendations on the implementations of the Act of the Union to the Executive
council.
e) Carry out other functions as assigned to any of the committees.
f) (8) The Economic Social and Cultural Council -This is an advisory organ which is made of
professional groups of the member states. All its functions have to be given out by the Assembly.
(9) The Peace and Security Council -It is a body, which will deal with peacekeeping and conflicts
settlements in the member states.
(10) The Financial Institutions -The Union intends to have the African central Bank, the Africa
monetary fund and the African Investment Bank to provide financial help to its members.
PROBLEMS WHICH THREATEN FUTURE SUCCESS OF AU

a) Lack of fund —most of its member are poor nations. It does not get enough money to run its
activities.
b) Civil war in countries such as Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Sudan, and Northern Uganda seem to keep
these countries far from the goals of AU.
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c) Corruption such as mismanagement of public money by the leader like former president of Zambia,
Mr. Chiluba discourages good governance, which is one of the interests of AU.
d) Poor infrastructure such as roads, railways and waterways continued to weaken smooth transport of
raw materials from productive areas to industries as well as transport of products from towns to the
rural areas.
e) Epidemics such as HIV/AIDs kill skilled labor, which would have been used by AU to develop many
sectors like agriculture, industries, fishing and tourism.
f) Unfavorable economic relationship between African countries and developed nations still makes
African countries fall behind than what is required in economic and social development. They export
products to world market and sell them at lower price, which in turn could not develop the AU
members. All these problems threaten future success of AU.
THE BENEFITS OF AU TO TANZANIA
There are so many benefits, which will be acquired by Tanzania from being a member of AU. The
benefits include:
i. Tanzania would get an opportunity to unite with other African countries to solve political conflicts
peacefully in several African states and the country will use AU to discuss for the presence of
good relationship between Africa, Europe and U.S.A.
ii. Tanzania will make friendship with other African countries through the joint activities and
programmes in social and economic sectors. This condition would reduce the number of countries,
which might have intended to act as enemies of Tanzania on the continent.
iii. Tanzania will get new ideas and information that will be used to solve many problems, which exist
in agriculture, industry and the 1ea4Th sectors. They will be obtained from various meetings and
workshops attended by the leaders of the government.
iv. The financial institutions such as the African central bank and the African investment bank
obviously would provide money as loans and grants to Tanzania. The money would be used by the
country to develop agricultural production, science and technology, transport and education.
v. Tanzania gains territorial dignity through participation in the military operations
AFRICAN REGIONAL COOPERATION

The need for regional cooperation in Africa, like elsewhere in the world arose from the need to tackle
political, social and economic needs of the people.
This regional approach was found more beneficial given that this people in one region are likely to work
more closely together due to geographical, historical and cultural advantages. Among the regional
grouping existing in Africa, include the east African community (EAC) COMESA, ECOWAS and
SADC.
EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY (E.A.C)
BACKGROUND. It was founded on 6th June 1967; the government of Tanganyika, Kenya and, Uganda
signed a treaty in Kampala Uganda. Its history goes back to 1923 when the governor of Tanganyika,
Kenya, and Uganda formed the East African Governors Conference to facilitate the cooperation. In 1948
it changed to East Africa high Commission, in 1961 the East Africa common services organization was
established. Arusha became the head quarters in the community in Tanzania.
AIMS OF THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY

• To promote free trade in goods and services produced among the members.
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• To provide common services such as railways, harbors, posts and telecommunication.
• To provide wider and more secure market for industrial and agricultural goods
• To allow free movement of people in the region for trade recreation and other social activities.
• To achieve technological innovation and advancement.
• To conduct research activities in agriculture, population, medicine and mining for its development.
• It aims at solving region problems jointly by the heads of the member states
• PROBLEMS OF E.A.C
The problem of the distribution of different services, the distribution was more beneficial to Kenya than
Uganda and Tanzania.
a) Border conflicts e.g. between Tanzania and Uganda during ldd Amin.
b) The ideological disparity between the three countries, Tanzania self-reliance and socialism, Kenya
capitalist ideology, Uganda during Idd Amin fascism.
c) Uneven distribution of the community cake, Kenya took a lion share at the expense of Uganda and
Tanzania.
d) The organization had its roots from colonial period nothing changed fundamentally that Britain went
on benefiting through Kenya.
e) The East African Bank failed a balance development of industries in the three countries Kenya
benefited more than Tanzania and Uganda in income tax and custom duties.
f) Currency differences the governments’ restricted free transfer and exchange of currency. This
discourages interstate transactions in goods.
g) The community experienced great losses and debts.
h) The failure of the member country to contribute the agreed annual fees
Achievements of EAC The first East African Community had the following achievement:
(i) It put the East African countries on a course of cooperation when these countries worked together
on areas like post, telecommunication and railways.
(ii) It provided a chance for political leaders to discuss economic and political issues of their region.
(iii) Free movement of people, for example Kenyans and Ugandans could move easily to Tanzania.
(iv) Provision of funds to the members of state. This was possible through the East African Bank,
which was made by the EAC. For example, Tanzania managed to produce aluminium sheet,
assemble radio and make motor vehicles tyres and tubes. - Uganda managed to manufacture
bicycles and nitrogenous fertilizers. - Kenya made electric bulbs from the capital given by the
bank
The collapse of EAC
(a) The East African Community existed for a period of ten years. It collapsed in 1977 and revived in
2000 there were several reasons to its collapse, they includes.
(b) Difference in ideologies. Tanzania used socialism and self-reliance in which the government
controlled all means of production in the national economy while Kenya and Uganda were mainly
based on capitalism, which allowed the existence of private owned economy, hence they could not
work together.
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(c) Higher growth of Kenyan economy over Tanzania and Uganda, Kenya had many industries and
business companies, either member felt they could be exploited.
(d) Absence of common currency. It made it difficultly for people to fully not buy good and serves in
Uganda and Kenya because their currency was not accepted.
(e) Misunderstanding between the late presidents for example Julius K. Nyerere and Idd Amin of
Uganda. Nyerere did not like to work with Amin after overthrowing Milton Obote in 1971.
(f) Shortage of fund among the East African government. The member states were less development
National which could not have financial requirements for community programmes.
(g) All these reasons contributed to the collapse of the first EAC in 1977. Today the new EAC might not
grow stronger because of similar ideological practices among the countries. It is implemented on 7th,
July 2000.
THE PRINCIPLES OF THE NEW EAC

The principles of the New EAC are guidelines, which must be followed by the community members
in realizing their goals or objectives. They include-
(a) Mutual trust between the people of EAC states
(b) Peaceful co-existence and good neighborliness
(c) Peaceful settlement of disputes
(d) Good governance, acceptance of principles of democracy, rule of law and respect for social justice
(e) Co- operation for equal mutual benefit among the member states.
The goals/objective of the new EAC

The objective refers to the desire ends, which will be achieved by the members. The objectives includes;
(a) Establishment of a monetary union
(b) Establishment of a common market in which there services and information technology
(c) Formation of the East African Federation
(d) To promote peace, Security and stability within the region and good neighborliness
(e) To develop policies and programmes aimed at wide ring co-operation in polities, economic social
defense and judicial matter for the benefit of the postures state
(f) To promote sustainable and balanced growth and development among the members
(g) To promote the role of women in socio-economic development
(h) Achieve equitable economic development and higher standard of living for the people of Africa.
THE SOUTHERN ARICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY -S.A.D.C.
It was formed as the replacement of Southern African Development coordination Conference-SADCC

formed in April I980. It was in 1993 when it was changed to SADC, with headquarters in Gaborone,
Botswana. Currently SADC has a total of 15 members. The member states include Angola, Botswana,
Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mozambique and Tanzania. Other members are
Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia, Mauritius, Swaziland, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
OBJECTIVES SADC
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. To harness resources in the region for the benefit of all member states
2. To promote economic growth and standards of living of the member states
3. To promote environmental protection and utilization of resources
4. To promote peace and security among member states
5. To promote sustainable development through cooperation among the member states
6. To consolidate the age-old social, cultural and historical sites existing among the region
7. To enhance economic development by promoting transport and communications in the region.
PROBLEMS/ CHALLENGES EXPERIENCED BY SADC MEMBER STATES.

• Weak financial base, members rely on foreign aid and loan.
• Members produce similar agricultural goods such as coffee, sisal, tobacco which compete for market.
• All members depend on agriculture rather than industries, when the price of agricultural commodities
fluctuates which leads to low earnings.
• Lack of qualified and skilled labor to run the organization, they depend on foreign experts.
• Unequal distribution of the benefits of the association discourages other states.
• Every member tries to cater her national interest first rather than those of SADC
• South Africa is seen as domineering over other member states due to her strong economy this causes
a lot of anxiety to some countries.
• Political instability some of the member states experienced political instability, which has interfered
with the organization operations e.g. Democratic Republic Congo.
• Differences in political ideology- e.g. Tanzania and Angola capitalism, others capitalism
Achievements of the SADC

The achievements of the SADC are:-
9. Enhancement of security in the region. For example establishment of Ecomog in the Western part of
Africa.
10. Promotion of democracy and rule of law among the member states
11. SADC has facilitated the development of infrastructure among the members states, for example roads,
harbor, railways etc
12. Promotion of agriculture among the member states agreed in a treaty signed in 1995
13. Member state were able to consult on matters that affect the region using SADC as the main forum
14. Sharing of water resources in the region. This was agreed in a treaty signed in 1995.
THE COMMON MARKET FOR EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICA (COMESA)

Before 1993 COMESA was known as the Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and Southern Africa-
P.T.A. The heads of member states met in Kampala Uganda on 61h November 1993 and signed a treaty,
which created COMESA. A member of COMESA includes Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi,
Malawi, Zimbabwe, Lesotho Botswana, Swaziland, Mauritius, Comoro, Djibouti, Ethiopia Somalia and
South Africa.
OBJECTIVES OF COMESA
• Promoting and facilitating cooperation among member countries in trade, trade, transport and
communication.
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• Harmonizing and coordinating development strategies, policies and plans within the region,
it encourages cooperation in monetary and financial affairs in order to facilitate sub regional
integration.
• It aims at establishing joint industrial and agricultural institution to raise the production capacity.
• It aims at reducing and eventually eliminating tariffs among members in order to facilitate trade
• It encourages economic independence of the region by establishing strong economic base
• ACHIVEMENT OF COMESA
Member states have become more cooperative in the field of trade of trade, industry and agriculture.
The organization has also established a bank known as the trade and development bank situated in
Bujumbura Burundi, which finances trade and development projects.
PROBLEMS OF COMESA
• Different levels of development of member states

• Poor transport shipping facilities and communication links
• Existence of too many currencies in the region
• Weak economic base of member states i.e. dependency economies
• Civil wars, natural calamities and neo colonialism
The Reasons, Which Made Tanzania, Withdraw From COMESA:

➢ As shown earlier Tanzania withdrew from COMESA in 2002. There are various reasons, which made
this country move out of the organization.
➢ Firstly, Tanzania was discouraged by political conflicts in Zimbabwe and Civil war in Sudan,
Ethiopia and Somalia. She realized there could not be effective economic co-operation with the
members, which had these problems now.
➢ Secondly, the country wanted to maximize her efforts in some organizations like East African
Community, which was formed in early 2000s’. The government could not be able to unite fully with
other EAC if she was still a member in many other organizations.
➢ Thirdly, Tanzania withdrew from COMESA because she was avoiding duplication of regional co-
operation. The country learnt that there were no new benefits the people could get from COMESA.
Most of the benefits were similar with those, which were gained, from SADC and EAC.
➢ Fourthly, financial contributions to various economic organizations became a burden on the
government expenditure. The country could not be able to collect and spend money in many
organizations like SADC, EAC, AU and COMESA. Withdrawal from COMESA was a way to reduce
financial cost on regional co-operation
➢ Fifthly, Tanzania moved out of COMESA as a way to protect its industrial development from other
COMESA members such as Kenya, South Africa and Zimbabwe. This country still lagged behind in
industries. She feared that those countries could use many opportunities in regional co-operation to
export manufactured goods, which could compete against the products from Tanzania industries.
Thus, she withdrew to protect domestic industries and their markets.
All the points given above could explain the possible reasons, which made Tanzania, move out of
COMESA in 2002
THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS)
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ECOWAS is an organization, which was formed by English, French and Portuguese speaking countries
West Africa under the Treaty of Lome on 28th May 1975 to bring unity for economic development in
fields such as industries, transport, telecommunication, energy, agriculture monetary and commerce
Its members.
It has about 16 members such as Burkinafaso, Benin, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Cape Verde, Nigeria,
and Guinea cannonry, Senegal, Guinea Bissau, Togo, Mali, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Niger, Nigeria and
Cameroon
AIMS OF ECOWAS.
(i) ECOWAS aimed at removing barriers and allowing free movement of people services and capital for
the development of the member states.
(ii) It aims at developing industries, agriculture and mining by using good and applicable policies.
(iii) To remove custom duties between the members states to as to make West Africa a free trade area
ACHIEVEMENTS OF ECOWAS
(a) It brought unity among West African states by printing conditions in which two different countries
could carry out joint projects such as food and transport cooperation between Nigeria and Niger after
1975.
(b) ECOWAS formed a military force known as ECOMO the force helped to defeat a military regime
which over the forced helped to defeat a military regime which over the force helped to defeat a
military regime which over the force helped to defeat a military regime which over thrown civilian
government in Sierra Leone in 1990’s
(c) It set up a fund in 1986 by getting loan from financial institutions in Western Europe and America.
The fund improved agriculture, industries, transport and telecommunication in 1929.
(d) It made the movement of people between the member states easier since 1979. The member states
agreed to eliminate obstacles, which prevented people from moving for various activities in the
summit held in dalcar, Senegal.
(e) It provided a winder market for the member states commodities.
(f) The organization has managed to set energy resource development fund for oil mining industry in the
region.
(g) There have been agriculture and communication development of the whole part of the region this has
been through special fund to develop the projects and through joint ventures between members.
a) PROBLEMS OF ECOWAS.
i) Each member wants to benefit more than the other members of the community according to their
interests do.
ii) Political instability affects member states, there have been civil wars and coup d’état in ‘the
region e.g. Nigeria, Sierra Leon, Liberia, Ivory Coast etc.
iii) Poor communication network system in many parts of the region hinders organization activities
to all places
iv) Language differences, other members are using English others French, this causes
communication barrier between members.
v) Lack of a single currency creates the problem of the rate of exchange between the member states.
vi) The problem of members to have a membership in more than one organization, all the
organization have demands in terms of contributions i.e. it is difficult to contribute membership to
all the organizations due to poverty.
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vii) Poor infrastructure such as roads still exists in many West African States. This situation hinders
easy movement of goods, services and labor.
viii) . Bilateral and triple cooperation, which began before the formulation of ECOWAS, appear as
obstacle to the realization of its objectives. For example Liberia and Sierra Leone had mano River
project in 1973 to work in joint economic development, Senegal, Mali and Mauritania started the
organization for the Development of the Senegal river to construct dams since 1973
ix) Some of the member states failed to remit contributions to the organization as required, and this
make the running of the organization very difficult
x) Some of the smaller economics among the member states find the immerse military and economic
power of major economies such as Nigeria overwhelming.
xi) Ideological differences especially between the capitalist countries and socialist countries. For
example cote d’ivore under Felix Houphout –Boigny-capitalist and Burkinafaso under under
Thomas Sankara- socialist
xii) Border quarrels for example Nigeria and Cameroon had to go to international court in the Hague
for arbitration over the ownership of the Bakazi Region.
xiii) x. Foreign interference in the affairs of the member state. For instance, the stationing of French
troops in Cote d’ivoire since the 1960’s which made the neighboring states including Guinea very
uncompromising.
xiv) xi. The vast geographic region makes it difficult for affairs of the organization to be coordinated
well.
AFRICA IN THE WORLD INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

The world international organizations are referred as co-operation between the countries, which exist in
the world between various continents. This sub-topic intends to examine the origin objectives and the way
African countries have joined and benefited from the world international organizations popularly
mentioned as the United Nations, Common wealth of Nations, the French Community and Non —
Aligned Movement (NAM).
Most of African states gained political independence in the 1960’s long after, most of the global
organizations like United Nations had been established, thus nevertheless played an important role in
Global affairs.
OBJECTIVES OF PARTICIPATING IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIR
The following are some of the objectives of Africa participating in international affairs
(a) To show solidarity with other states of the world especially during emergencies
(b) To give the continent a forum through which thus could discuss the continental affairs
(c) Increased participation in the United Nations General Assembly meant that Africans would
henceforth receive more international attention than was the case before.
(d) To demonstrate their sovereignty through participation in global affairs
(e) To enhance Africa’s development for example the participation in the common wealth of Nations
intended to develop Africa though English – speaking states that are more developed.
(f) African participation in Non-Aligned Movement was to put the continent in a strategic situation
in the struggle for between the Eastern and the Western block during the cold War.
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Similarly, the French community was meant to coordinate cooperation of the francophone and their
former colonial masters
UNITED NATIONS (UN)

United Nation (UN) is an organization of the world independent countries, which was formed to promote
and maintain international peace and security after the failure of the League of Nations in the prevention
of the rise of the Second World War of 1939-1945.
The representatives of 50 countries in San Francisco USA on 26th June - 1945, originally drew the charter
of the formation of UN. However, the representatives made the charter based on the ideas and proposal
given out by the delegates from China, USSR, UK and U.S.A in 1944. After its formation, Poland
immediately signed the charter and became one of the original 51 member states of the UN.
The UN officially came into existence on 24th October —1945 when the charter was formally approved
by China, France, the Soviet Union (USSR) UK (Britain) and USA and by a majority of other countries.
Its headquarters today are in New York USA and the United Nations day is always celebrated on
24thOctober each year.
Objectives of United Nations
Objectives of UN are all the desired ends, which UN intends to achieve as the members work together
as world independent states. Objectives are:
❖ Maintain peace and security internationally.
❖ Develop friendly relations among nations.
❖ Encourage international co-operation in solving economic, social, political and humanitarian
problems.
❖ Promote international respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
❖ UN becomes a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in attainment the objectives
The Principles of UN
The principles are guidelines of UN as it works to achieve its goals. The principles are:
➢ All its member states are sovereign and equal.

➢ All its members have to fulfill in good faith the charter obligations
➢ All its member countries have to solve international conflicts peacefully without jeopardizing
peace, security and justice.
➢ Members must avoid the threat or use of force against other states.
➢ Members should provide any help in the action it takes.
➢ Members should not give help to any nation being under punitive measures.
➢ Non-members have to act according to these principles in order to maintain world peace and
security.
➢ UN should not interfere in internal matters of any nation:
The Organs of UN
There are important organs through which UN performs its duties such organs include.
(f) The UN General Assembly: - This is an organ made by all member states. All member states always
have one vote regardless of size and powers. Decisions on issues require two thirds of members’
votes. It functions are: Recommends on the world peace, security, disarmament and regulation of
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armament discuss any matter, which endangers peace and security. Elects non-Permanent members of
Security Council and Judge of International court of justice jointly with the Security Council. The
latest UN General Assembly took place in September, 2004, in New York, U.S.A
b) Secretariat — it is an organ, which is headquartered in New York, USA. It contains international
civil servants under the leadership of the General Secretary who is appointed by the General
Assembly based on recommendations by the Security Council.
There have been several General Secretaries since the creation of this organ. These officials by their
names included:
• Trygve Lief of Norway from 1946-1952.

• Dag Hammarskjold of Sweden from 1953-1 961.
• UThantMyanmar (Burma) 1961-1971.
• Kurt Waldheim of Austria from 1972-1981.
• Javier de Perez de Cuellar of Peru from 1982-1991.
• Boutros Boutros -Ghali of Egypt from 1992-1996.
• Kofi Anan of Ghana from 1997-2006
• Ban Ki-Moon of South Korea from 2007 to the present until the appointment of new secretary.
The Secretariat carries out important functions such as:

• It administers peacekeeping operations in many countries, which have wars and conflicts.
• It implements the decisions of the General Assembly and the Security Council.
• Informs the world’s communications media about the work of United Nations.
• It mediates international disputes.
• Interprets speeches and translate documents into the UN’s official languages.
• It draws annual budget of the UN
b) The Security - It an organ, which makes decisions that, bind all other UN members. Before 1963 the
council had only eleven members of which 6 members were elected by the General Assembly for two
years terms and there are also five permanent members.
After 1963 the number of members increased to fifteen including the permanent members such as
Britain, USA, France, USSR and China and Ten Non-Permanent members continued to be elected for
two years terms.
The UN Secretary Council has a veto vote in which all the decisions cannot be passed unless all five
permanent members approve the decisions. When any permanent member casts a “No” vote the
decision automatically, get blocked. This situation creates dissatisfaction among other members;
today they demand more enlargement of the permanent membership seat so as to include many
countries from Africa, Asia, and Latin America in deciding matters of the UN. They also recommend
the elimination of veto, which is used to defend the interests of few people.
The functions of UN Security Council are:
• Maintain international peace and security in line with the principles and purposes of the United
Nations.
• To investigate any conflict or situation which can lead to international war
• To formulate plans for the establishment of a system to regulate armament.
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• To persuade members of UN to fix sanctions on the aggressive states.
• Takes military actions against the aggressors.
• Recommends the admission of new members.
• Recommends the appointment of the secretary - General to the UN General Assembly.
• Works with the General Assembly to elect the judges of International court of Justice.
c) International court of Justice- This is a court of 15 judges who are elected by the General Assembly
and Security Council. It has headquarters at Hague, Netherlands. Its judges are elected for 9 years.
The court normally deals with all matters of the UN charter. However, the decisions only advise the
General Assembly and the Security Council.
d) Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) - It is an organ which works through UN specialized
agencies and other autonomous bodies in the UN system. It promotes high standard of living,
economic and social development as well as respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
There are several UN specialized agencies under ECOSOC. Some of those institutions include:
1. FAQ - (Food and Agriculture organization) was founded in Quebec, Canada on 16th October, 1945
2. ILO- (International Labor organization) - It was firstly formed under the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.
It allied with UN as specialized agency to rise up the living standard of the workers.
3. UNESCO - (The UN International Children and Education Fund). It was founded in December1946
to provide care for children.
4. WHO - (The World Health organization). It was founded on seventh –April-1947 as autonomous
organization to improve health for all people in the world. Its head office is in Paris, France. It has
worked under ECOSOC to eliminate health problems in the world.
5. UNHCR - (The UN High Commission for Refugees). It started in 1951 to help people who are
forcefully shifting their nations as refugees.
6. UNCTAD - (The Conference on Trade and Development). It began on 20th December, 1994 to
promote international trade
7. UNDP - (The UN Development Programme it was formed in 1965
8. UNIDO - (The UN Industrial Development Organization) it was made in 1967 to promote industries.
9. GATT - (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) it was made in order to make the developed
world fix lower tariffs and fair prices of products from developing countries.
10. Trusteeship Council -It was an organ, which was formed in 1945 to supervise the administration of
the Trust territories .taken from the Mandate status of the League of Nations .The aim of the
trusteeship council, was to prepare the trust territories such as Tanganyika, Rwanda Burundi and
Namibia for their self- government and independence. The council was allowed to examine and
discuss the reports from the administering authority on the political, social and economic progress of
people in the territories. The members of the council were, all. Five permanent members of the
Security Council such as China, France, Russia, United Kingdom and U.S.A. The council suspended
its duties on 1st, November 1994 when Palau, the last remaining trust territory achieved independence
on 1St November-1994.
The Achievements of UN
Since the creation of UN there have been several achievement reached by this organization. They
included:
a) UN has assisted many countries in the struggle for independence. Many countries, which are
members of UN, were helped by the organization in the elimination of colonialism. UN worked
tirelessly in ending apartheid in South Africa. It put economic sanctions, arms embargo to the white
regime. The United Nations General Assembly even called apartheid a crime against humanity. All
these efforts led to the elections in April 1994 in which African people got a chance to participate on
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equal terms with the whites and followed by the formation of a majority government.
b) Though UN has proved failure in maintaining peace in many parts of the world, it has attempted to
make peace by negotiating many peaceful settlements, which ended regional disputes. For example,
the UN succeeded to end Iran - Iraq war, the withdrawal of soviet from Afghanistan and an end of
civil war in El Salvador.
c) UN has tried to promote development of people in the member states. For instance, the United
Nations Development programmes (UNDP) and other agencies of UN carries out projects for
agriculture, industry, education and environment. It is said that UNDP supports more than 5000
projects with a budget of $ 1.3 billion. UNICEF spends more than $.800 million a year on
immunization, health care, nutrition and basic education in 138 countries. In areas where these
projects exist, they lower poverty levels.
d) The United Nations has been able to provide humanitarian aid to the victims of conflict in Sudan,
Somalia and other states. There so many refugees who receive aid from the UN High commissioner
for Refugees since 1951. It eliminates scourges of war or conflicts from the Africans.
PROBLEMS FACING THE UNITED NATIONS
United Nations faces many problems in its daily activities. The most significant problems include:
a) Non-compliance of UN decisions is a problem. Some members especially developed countries like

USA and Britain sometimes do not comply with the decisions, which prevent these countries from
taking action against the other states. For instance, UN disapproved US invasion of Iraq but the USA
and Britain could not respect the decisions. They invaded Iraq in 2003.
b) UN’s veto among the five permanent members of the Security Council hinders just decisions and
course of action. When one of its members cast a veto vote, all the decisions get blocked. This has
been used by the big powers to serve their own interests as opposed to the general interests of the
members.
c) There have been inter-states and civil wars among the members. For example, the war between
Tanzania and Uganda in 1979 destroyed many properties. Civil wars have occurred in Rwanda in
1994, Liberia in 1997 and Southern Sudan for a long period. Many people have lost their life.
d) Though the UN give humanitarian aid to improve the living standards of people, the organization still
has mainly third world countries, which suffer from poverty, which endangers peace and security in
the world.
BENEFITS OF UNITED NATIONS TO AFRICAN STATES

1. African states benefit from being members of the United Nations. The benefits, which can be, shown
below are:
2. Many African states, which do not have enough food for their people in some parts of their countries,
receive food aid from the World Food Programme (WFP) of the UN. This assistance has been given
to the people in Somalia and Sudan.
3. African states normally attempt to improve health standards of their people through vaccination
services, which are conducted by the World Health Organization under the United Nations. In the
present UNAIDS gives fund to fight against HIV/AIDS in African states.
4. African states receive financial help from UNDP to invest in sectors of education and water services.
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5. The UN Security Council always sends forces to keep peace, order and end violence in areas, which
have civil wars. For example, UN peacekeeping forces have been sent to Liberia and Democratic
Republic of Congo to keep peace in these countries between 1995 and 2005.
6. UNO provides a platform to African states to air out their grievances against the mistreatments, which
are done over the people by the developed world. It can be used to influence policies of big powers to
Africa.
Conclusion: The United Nations is very important organization for the countries in the world. However, it
provides aid to African states and other countries outside Africa many member states complain against
the UN. They see it as an organization, which mainly works in favor of USA and European countries. UN
has been found to take very slow action to solve problems in Africa. It neglected the civil war in Rwanda
where about 800 000 people were killed by the rebels in 1994. Even the General Secretary, Kofi Anan
admitted that UN had no active measures to end civil war in Rwanda.
It normally carries out quick actions to end the crises in European countries. It cannot be effective
organization unless the UN treats all its members equally and conducts its functions fairly in all its
organs.
COMMON WEALTH OF NATIONS
Common Wealth of Nations is a voluntary association of independent sovereign states mostly formed by
the UK (Britain) and its former colonies. The members of common wealth recognize Queen Elizabeth II
as the head of the common wealth.
It’s Origin. The Common wealth originated from the Imperial Conference of the late 1920’s which
recognized the colonies, which had self-government within the British Empire. Such colonies were
Canada, Australia and New Zealand. They were considered as equal in status with Britain. In 1931,
Britain made a statute of West Minster to establish Common wealth as an association of free and equal
states and membership based on common allegiance to the British Crown. Many countries joined after
Independence though many think it is after British imperialism.
Its Principles
• The principles were given out by the Declaration of Commonwealth in the summit held in Singapore
in 1972.The principles are:
• They believe and accept that peace and order are essential to the security and success of humankind.
• They put beliefs in liberty of individuals and equal rights for all people.
• Recognize discrimination as an evil in the member countries.
• Oppose all forms of colonial exploitation and discrimination in the members.
• They believe absence of equality in wealth create social tensions. Therefore, they are committed to
development and improve the living standard.
• Attain free flow of international trade for all countries.
• Promote international co-operation and tolerance.
• Maintain the security of each member from foreign aggression.
• Promote the exchange of knowledge, ideas on education, culture, economic and legal matters.
It’s Organs. Common Wealth has 4 organs including:
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a) The Secretariat- It was made in 1965. It has been based in London. Secretary General elected by
heads of the government heads it. Since it started, secretaries such as have headed it: Arnold Smith,
Shadrack Raphael, Emeka Anyaouku from Nigeria and Don Mackinnon, from New Zealand in 2004.
The secretariat is the main body far the exchange of information among the members and solving
various problems. It functions through several branches such as:
International Affairs —, which deals with matters like democratic practices in many countries.
Economic Affairs Division - which is concerned with trade, finance, and industrializing the members.
Science and technology -It tries to promote rural technology and energy.
Food production and rural development.
Export market Development — helps less developed nations to secure markets and improve their
goods.
Arts and sports—deals with regular performance of the dancers from all members of Common
Wealth in London. It also organizes all Common wealth Games.
Education - members co-operate in areas like teacher training and book production.
The common Wealth fund for technical co-operation provides fund to train personnel in sectors like
agriculture and transport.
Others are Youth, Health, Law and Information.
b) Common wealth heads of Government Meeting — it contains presidents or prime ministers. They
meet for a week after every two years to discuss political problems and economic affairs. Then
establish consensus on various matters.
c) Ministerial Meeting- It is composed of ministers of member states. They meet to consult on issues.
The foreign ministers meet before heads of state. Ministers of Finance meet annually. Ministers of
Education Health and law also meet to discuss matters of co-operation.
d) High Commissioners-they work as ambassadors to countries they are posted.
Members of common wealth
Many ex-British colonies are members with exception of Mozambique which was ruled by the Portuguese
but joined Common wealth in 1995. Zimbabwe was firstly suspended in 2002 over concerns with unfair
elections and land reform policies of Robert Mugabe’s ZANU — PF. The Government of Zimbabwe left
completely in 2003 after Britain Australia and other members condemned its policies. United States,
Egypt and Israel do not show interest in joining the common wealth in spite of being ex-British colonies.
Most of the members share similar culture such as the use of English language, the common law system
and wigged judges in courts. British system of administration and driving on the left side of the roads.
Currently there are 59 members in the world.
The Benefits of Common Wealth to Tanzania
a) Tanzania expands markets and sources of foreign currency because normally members charge
low tariff on the export from common wealth.
b) It provides a chance to Tanzania to join international forums for discussion of social, economic
and political problems.
c) Tanzania gets aid and services of the division of the secretariat of Common wealth. For example
economic affairs division deals with industrial problems in Tanzania while common wealth
Youth programmes help to train some youth leaders and officials in Community development.
d) Tanzania sportsmen, women, and those who participate in different games get a chance to
promote their talents by participating in common wealth games. They can also get some money
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for their own life.
Problems in the Common Wealth
• Some problems are facing common wealth countries. These problems include:
• Civil war in Sierra Leone in 2000 led to the loss of lives. The war still made it impossible for Sierra
Leone to unite with others against political, social and economic problems.
• Poverty especially in African and Asian states create situations in which majority the people cannot
get adequate income education, water and health services.
• Britain’s domination over other members has prevailed since the creation of Common Wealth. Britain
has had much power in making decision and determining major actions by the members. All the
members conduct their ways of life according to the British culture; former colonial master.
• Poor leadership has existed in many member countries. Many leaders especially in Africa tend to
mismanage the economy of their nations by using the national income for their private personal gains.
An example of such leaders is Mr. Chiluba the ex-president of Zambia was accused of the misuse of
money during his rule.
• Multiple memberships among the member states such as Tanzania have membership in SADC, EAC
and AU. Members like Tanzania can stressfully participate in this organization.
NON - ALIGNED MOVEMENT (NAM): It was a movement, which was mainly formed by Afro-Asian
states and Yugoslavia in order to protect themselves against any exploitation, oppression and pressure
from either the capitalist camp led by USA or socialist camp led by USSR during the cold war and any
other imperialist nations after 1945. NAM officially started under Tito to as the chairperson in 1961 in
Belgrade, Yugoslavia after efforts, which had been made in Bandung, Indonesia in 1955 expressing the
need for unity between Afro -Asian states.
Its Objectives or Goals
• Promote economic balance between developed and developing nations.

• Oppose any policy, which violates human rights and self-awareness of all over the world.
• Oppose segregation or discrimination based on race.
• Solve conflicts peacefully between nations.
• Oppose military alliances and pacts such as NATO and Warsaw Pact led by U.S.S.R
• Oppose establishments of foreign military base in the third world countries.
In September 1998, NAM members had XII summit in Durban, South Africa. In this summit, they
seem to have added new objectives to the original objectives. They introduced those objectives
because they experienced new problems such as terrorism, famine, AIDS, poverty, environmental
destruction, changing world from two to single super power and globalization in which the rich
countries require the weak nations to open boundaries for foreign investments.
The new objectives included:
• Emancipation of women and respect for the rights of people such as children, Elders and disable
persons.
• Creation of jobs and increase of education, health and water for the people.
• Eliminate corruption, and promote good governance in member countries.
• Co-operate in order to remove the burden of debts on developing countries.
• Maintain peace in the members and oppose terrorism in the world.
The Principles of NAM
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• Attain solidarity and oppose all actions, which endanger independence.
• All members have the right to participate in international relations on equal basis.
• Members have to give support to the efforts of disarmament.
• Work together with regional organizations such as SADC, COMESA, and ECOWAS.
Problems of NAM
• It had members, which still abused human rights for example in Uganda under ldd Amin in 1970’s
many people was killed.
• Poor economy among the members still exists to the present.
• Civil war in many countries such as Pakistan and Indian weakened unity between the members.
• Un-equal terms of trade between the members and the developed nations in the world market.
Developing nations normally sell their products at low prices.
Benefits of NAM to the Members
• They secure larger markets for products from agriculture and industries.
• They were able to make neutral decisions, which were not imposed by U.S.A. or USSR.
• It helped the members to reduce dependence on western capitalist nations.
• It united the developing nations in the struggle against any mistreatment from powerful nations
during the period of world war.
• It helped some nations such as Namibia to get her independence from the Boers.
Conclusion: Though NAM was formed by the states to protect themselves against the super powers and
other imperialist nations, the movement is still needed at this moment where the U.S.A acts as a super
power of the world. The states face many problems such as unequal terms of trade with big countries,
poverty, low level of technology and production in agriculture. They have to unite ad press for equal
terms of trade and assist each other in technology, industries and bring social services to the people in
their countries. Changes which can be made in the organization is the name ‘Non-Aligned Movement
because in the matter of fact its members today are aligned with the policies of U.S.A. and western
European countries.
Even the period before the late 1980’s many of the NAM members were allied to the socialist camp at the
same time tried to practice non-alliance. However, the situation today is worse because all members are
openly linked with USA-policies. They do not have to call themselves Non-Aligned countries.
SAMPLE QUESTION
1. Examine eight challenges of Non Aligned Movement (Necta, 2011, Q no. 8)
HOW TO ANSWER HISTORY ESSAY QUESTIONS
When answering history essay type questions you should adhere to the following procedures;
1. Read the asked questions thoroughly so that you can detect what exactly the said questions demand. In
order to know exactly what the demand of the question try to observe the terminologies used in the
question.
2. Make a recall on the points necessary in answering the given questions.
3. Start writing your essay by providing introduction: Normally, an introduction should clearly define the
key words, giving periodisation, as well as other relevant issues based on the asked questions.
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4. Then, create a coherent (linking) words/statement in order to draw attention to the one who will be
reading your essay.
5. Put your points at the beginning of every paragraph; never hide your points by putting it at the middle
of your paragraph. Normally the given point has to be well explained followed by relevant and plausible
examples basing on the asked question.
6. Create a relevant conclusion, when concluding avoids making repetition of the given points, you should
give your general comment/judgment. Most of the students fail to score in this part since they provide
conclusion, which do not qualify in academic writing.
7. Make sure that you maintain tidiness and cleanliness by having good handwriting, using simple and
well grammatical English so that your work can be more attractive to anyone who sees it.
8. Be precise in choosing the right question. Sometimes a question carries two sides for example, a
candidate may be asked to discuss the causes and effects of First World War. In this regard, the
allocation of marks will base on causes and effects thus do not put much focus on only one side rather
both. Alternatively, if there are other questions that you may opt it is potential to skip a question that
has two sides and instead attempt a question that direct ask a candidate to produce only points basing
on one side example, Explain the roles of agents of colonialism to the colonization of Africa.
To enable your competences in writing good and scholarly essays, read the given sample essays to
guide you.
1. Analyze six characteristic features of first non-exploitative mode of production

Communalism refers to as the first mode of production, which was non-exploitative in nature. It implied the
communal ownership of major means of production by all members. Each specific group was assigned communal
works to perform according to their age, size and capabilities. It was mainly practiced by societies like Tindiga,
Hadzabe and Dorobo. The following are the characteristics of the communal mode of production.
It was characterized by communal ownership of major means of production. This is because all major means of
production in terms of land and labor were owned and controlled by the whole society, additionally, there was
no private ownership of major means of production and the products obtained were equally divided to all
members in society.
Production relations was based on cooperation as there was no exploitation of man by many people cooperated
during production without allocating specific task to individual person and the product obtained especially out
from the harvest or hunting exercise was further equally shared by all members.
It was characterized by low level of development of productive forces such as tools (hoe and axes) developed to
be used in production was so poor (crude), this forced them to perform subsistence agriculture in which
production is only meant for food source and surplus if present is sold.
It was characterized by low level of development of political institutions such as political institution by this time
like armies were hardly developed, there was no any army or court that was prepared but for the case of
emergency the whole clan or communal area would have to go into war to their interests.
Societies lived in small kingship according to the blood relations. This was seen through clan expansion in a
small area as people lived basing on the relationship existed.
Generally, communalism did not last for long time because of the social changes that occurred, the increased in
population and need for surplus production was few factor to mention that spearheaded the need to change mode
of production to slavery mode of production, which was indeed exploitative in nature.
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2. Elaborate six techniques used by colonialists to obtain laborers during the colonial period
Colonial labor refers to the labor that was employed (used) by the colonialists in various colonial sectors for
instance in mining, agriculture, industries and even in the whole process of building/ construction of infra
structures like, roads, railways, and office work. The colonialists made use of African laborer deliberately as it
was difficult and expensive to get labor from Europe in thus colonialists had to think on how they could meet
this challenge African laborers became a solution to this phenomena as colonialists exploited heavily their energy
by paying them how wages. The notable techniques used by colonialists to get laborers during colonial period
were as follows;
They imposed different taxes to the Africans; this was because colonial government imposed poll, cattle and head
taxes to Africans. The introduced taxes were to be paid in cash and it was difficult for the Africans to get cash
needed to meet the introduced taxes Africans were eventually forced to sell their laborer power to the white
settlers’ plantations and mines order get cash for paying tax.
Colonialists passed legislation (laws) that aimed to force Africans work for them. Good example in 1920’s the
British colonial government passed Master servant land act popularly known as Kipande system in Kenya in
which Africans in Kenya were forced to work in settlers’ farms for a certain agreed number of days (90 -180
days) per year and there was a special identification card (Kipande) which mark the a completion of assigned
task.
Colonialists Introduced foreign goods especially luxurious items in terms of clothes, food staffs and ornaments.
Africans being made a market for European manufactured goods from Europe made up from African raw
materials it later motivated them to provide their labor power so that they can have access to possess these
finished European goods.
Colonialists introduced land alienation and this was manifested with Master ordinance land act of 1915
especially in Kenya in which the British colonial government forced Africans to surrender all best land to the
white settlers and who ever went against this law could be severely punished by being sentenced to prison, in
course of time Africans remained landless. This act brought much consequence to Africans having been removed
from their area, which were fertile, and being squeezed into unfertile (marginalized) area, they started living by
depending on their labor power especially by working to the whites to earn a living. (for survive).
Colonialists created labor reserves centers (regionalism). This was because some area were made to act as a
source of their labor for instance Kigoma, Ruvuma, Rukwa and Dodoma were made to produce labor where as
Morogoro, Tanga and parts of Kilimanjaro were for plantations, similarly, in Uganda especially northern region
was made to provide their labor. This enabled the colonialists to have access in getting needed laborers who
would in turn work in their farms.
They destroyed the Africans economies such as industries and replaced with European imported goods. In so
doing African self-sufficient economy like barter trade that in a sense enabled them to have equal exchange of
goods among Africans particularly for their immediate consumption (demands) like food later European
destroyed it and introduced system of money economies forced all transactions (buying of goods) to be done
through cash bases this forced Africans work in colonial plantations as a solution of getting money.
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Briefly, African laborers were extremely undermined by the colonialists as seen on how African laborers were
poorly fed, accommodated and lowly paid. Besides, the act of utilizing African laborers during colonial period
can be counted as the root cause for the underdevelopment of African continent because Africans economies
lacked needed laborers to work for them.
3. Elaborate six roles of agents of colonialism to the colonization of African continent.

Colonialism refers to the process whereby one powerful nation dominates the weaker nations in all aspects of life
that is socially, politically as well as economically. This was very much common due to the imperialist nations
like Britain, France, Belgium and Italy dominating the African colonies during the 19 th C. Colonialism was
facilitated by the agents of colonialism of which were the ones of whom persuaded/penetrated the rise of
colonization in the African continent. This involved the explorers like David Livingstone, John Speke, Mungo
Park, and Missionaries like Dr. Living Stone, Ludwing Kraft and John Rebman. Also the Merchants like William
Mackinnon under IBEACO (Imperial British East African Company), Cecil Rhodes under BSAC (British South
African Company), and George Goldie under Royal Niger Company, all with the aim of causing colonization.
The following were the contributions of the agents of colonialism to the colonization of Africa.
They abolished slave trade (1873); this was the strategy of the imperialist nations due the industrial revolution
in their nations. In this way, missionaries were sent to African continent to remove the slavery and slave trade.
In addition, some of the British abolitionists like Moresby (1822), Harmeton (1845) and also Barrle feere (1873).
This was to concertize their interests of coming in Africa and colonizing it easily by the imperialists.
They signed bogus treaties; this involved the work done by the explorers and some of the traders/merchants in
many parts of Africa. This was to encourage the officialization of the resources like land from the chiefs, for
example, Karlpeeters of GEACO (Germany East African Company) made a bogus treaty with sultan Mangungo
of Msowero, and Cecil Rhodes of BSACO (British South African Company) made a bogus treaty with chief
Lubengula of Ndebele in Southern Rhodesia.
They exposed the hinterland of (interior) to the external world; this involved the collection of the various
information from the African continent towards their mother countries. Explorers of whom they sent sensitive
information of land scenery mainly did this. For example, John Speke went back in his mother country with the
information about source of river Nile of which was Lake Victoria, David Living Stone discovered the Victoria
Falls (Zambia).
They spread Christianity, this was the role played by the missionaries in the African colonies so as to allow the
prevention of colonialism. It was through the civilization of the Africans towards imperialists’ colonization for
example, Dr. Ludwing Kraph formed the Crus at Rabai mpya at Mombasa in 1844. In addition, there were several
church societies like the Holy Ghost fathers, London Missionary society, UMOA and white fathers.
They introduced cash crop production; the missionaries in the African colonies mainly did this by putting more
emphasis on cash crop production like the coffee, cocoa, sisal, tea and tobacco, these were the raw materials for
the imperialists, as they would come to the African areas to colonize for imperialistic interests. For example, the
missionaries in Ghana motivated much on the cocoa production as the raw materials.
They sent important information to their mother countries this involved the sending information of the strategic
areas towards the imperialists. The explorers did this and also some traders from companies for example, De
Braze of Congo of whom was working for King Leopold II of Belgium, Cecil Rhodes in Southern Rhodesia under
B.S.A.Co, George Goldie of Royal Niger Company in the Niger Delta potentiality.
Generally, the agents of colonialism led to the occupation of African continent towards the imperialists during
the 19th C. this is whereby it was after the Berlin conference of 1884-1885. The evils of colonialism were the
effective exploitation of the African resources, destruction of the African culture and also the inferior of African
race.
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4. Examine any six reasons as to why Mandika resistance took long time than any other resistance in
Africa.
Colonialism refers to the situation whereby developed nations like France, Britain and France control or rule
another weak country in social, economic and political affairs. Colonialism started during the 19 th C due to the
development of capitalism in its monopoly stage. On the other hand, Mandika resistance was a type of African
resistance against the establishment of French rule in Guinea. Samoure Toure led the movement from 1891 to
1898. The following are the reasons as to why Mandika resistance took long time;
They had strong army called “sofa” that were well drilled and disciplined, so, they developed their efforts to fight
against the French encroachment from 1891-1898.
They had an efficient system of calling up the reserves who then calves underwent annual military training. Each
time the number of soldiers could be decreased in the battle while others would be called to fill the gap and
confront the French.
They already had an efficient trade network of getting fire ours from the coast, even from French trades. He used
such weapons to fight against the French. Samoure Toure also opened up his Owen armories, which not only
repaired his weapons but also manufactured effective copies of them.
They used good military technique that is scorched earth policy. As the army fought the soldiers burnt all the
crops on the way of the French they could not have food for their troops. This eventually weakened French
soldiers since they faced with hunger and starvation.
The Mandika people had a very efficient administration of his empire so that when he was defeated in the battle
he could move the headquarters without too much destruction for example; he moved his whole empire eastwards
to a completely new area in the face of French successes. The French could not capture Samoure Toure easily.
He held off French advances while he rebuilt his empire.
The use of guerilla was tactics helped Samoure Toure and his people so much. His soldiers did not only confront
the soldiers in open battle but also crushed them bunch which his troops known much better that the French army.
Generally, the French army defeated Samoure Toure and his people since they used the modern weapons than
that of Mandika people, the emergence of natural disaster, which affected the Mandika people, and other
weaknesses that faced Mandika people fueled to their defeat.
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5. Inherited problems from colonial past are major hindrances to the development of African
countries. Justify this statement.
Development is a gradual change from low to higher stage. Imperialists mostly colonized African countries for
quite long. The colonialists only aimed at exploiting African wealth such as minerals and raw materials such as
ivory, gold, iron, cotton and wax. In this way, the colonialists left Africans with number of problems that now
become hindrances to African development. The following are some inherited problems from colonial legacy.
Poverty and unstable among African countries is among the challenges facing most African countries right from
the attainment of independence in a sense that colonialists heavily exploited Africans to the point of remaining
extremely poor and thus live in bad conditions. In addition to that, Africans still live by depending on foreign
countries led by Britain, USA and the like. This has become an obstacle to the development of the continent because
Africans cannot decide on their own matters, majority also still living under dollar they cannot afford meeting a
balanced diet and other social demands.
Poor social service is another challenge mostly encountered African countries right from the independence. This
is because during the colonial era colonialists posed it purposely and unevenly depending on the site of colonial
economy like plantations and mines, however, these services were poorly provided. The education given to
Africans meant to train few Africans who could serve for the colonial interests as messengers, clerks and teachers.
This situation made it difficult to get well-trained African personnel who would work for their favor. Besides, the
health services provided by then were poor.
This trend still facing many African countries despite the attainment of their independence because transport
system is indeed poor, hospitals still lack experts worse still Africans’ education still of European curricular.
Gender imbalance is another problem facing African countries to development. This has its roots right from
colonial social services where education was provided basing on gender lines. Equally important, after
independence women still remaining in backwardness as they are less regarded and majority regard them terrible
comparing to men.
In Tanzania for example, many women are only responsible for family taking care rather than contributing in
national building. Imbalances in gender have been acting as a barrier to development of a given nation in Africa.
Ignorance and illiteracy is among the stumbling factor to the development of African continent. This is because
most people in Africa are un educated and the root cause of this phenomena emanated from colonial era where
few especially sons of chiefs had access to education. This trend has in turn created a big gap among Africans
where the educated among Africans exploit no-educated class causing chaos and mistrust among them.
New-colonialism as a situation in which an independent country becomes less free in deciding her own matter in
terms of resources (both human and materials) utilization is a critical problem that hinders the development of
African countries because mostly, Africans still depending on donors from developed countries through being
granted aids and grants this in turn creates the exploitation our valuable resources particularly minerals and raw
materials due to the fact that the prices for our produce are determined by foreigners, also the exchange of money
is un fair and unevenly to Africans. More than those African leaders are being remote by foreigners in leading
their countries. In this case whatever decided by African leaders aim at meeting foreign interests.
To bring to a close the above discussion it may be concluded that African countries have been employing several accounts
aiming to mitigate the problems that impinge them particularly the declaration policies like Ujamaa and self-reliance in
Tanzania. Others decide to establish campaign for national buildings like Harambee in Kenya as well as humanism in
Zambia are few examples to mention in this regard. In addition, they have keenly involved in regional groupings like
COMESA, ECOWAS, SADC, EAC and the likes. All these have been aiming at maintaining African development.
6. Appraise six roles played by the colonial state to support Settler agriculture in Kenya
Settler agriculture was a type of colonial agriculture established by Europeans who came to settle in Africa and
later they engaged in production of raw materials. It was much developed in Kenya and Zimbabwe where it was
characterized by land alienation, existence of taxation, forced labor, low wages as well as existence of
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monoculture. The following are the central arguments on the roles played by the colonial state to support settler
agriculture in Kenya.
The settlers were given improved social services like education, health services and water supply. This was done
as the way to motivate the white settlers to engage in production of raw materials like cotton, sisal, rubber which
were indeed needed as raw materials in capitalist’s industries from Europe.
The colonial government ensured constant supply of labors to the setter farms. To this, accomplish this, the
colonial government introduced land alienation, forced labor and taxation. For instance, Kipande system, low
wages were put in place in order to encourage the natives to provide labor in their farms.
The colonial government exempted (excluded) the white settler from paying taxes. This was to encourage settler
production where setter was not allowed to pay any kind of tax. This was deliberately reserved to Africans who
were forceful to pay it.
The colonial government did not allow the natives to grow cash crops. This was because the colonial government
wanted to avoid market cooperation between Africans and white settlers. In addition, they wanted to ensure
availability of labor in settler farms.
The colonial government provided subsides during drastic climatic change. The white’s settlers were given soft
loans, fertilizers and pesticide so as to encourage them to engage in production of raw-materials such as cotton,
sisal and coffee which were highly needed so as to solve the industrial needs in Europe.
The colonial government introduced and improved the introduction of modern infrastructures such as railways
and roads, which passed through the white settler farms. The whites later on used these infrastructures as a means
to transport their crops to the coast ready for export of raw materials and labor.
To sum up the settler agriculture in Kenya has both positive and negative impact in Kenya. This is because, issues
like introduction and improvement of modern infrastructures like railways, improvement in provision of social
services, intensive exploitation forced labor and low wages.
7. Examine six contributions of welfare associations to the rise of nationalism in Africa.

African nationalism refers to the political desire of Africans to unite as the nation so as to eliminate the
foreign rule with the intention of ruling themselves in social, political and economic affairs. The movement gained
momentum after the Second World War due to the internal pressure such as the role played by African elites like
Nelson Mandela who championed for the decolonization of African country, intensive colonial exploitation. Apart
from internal influence, there were external factors as supported by the role played by ex-soldiers, the role-played
United Nations Organization (U.N.O. Welfare associations were the workers associations which formed by the
African who were employed in various colonial economic sectors like mining industries and plantations. Examples
of welfare association formed by Africans were Tanganyika African Association (TAA) and Kenya African
Association (KAA). The role played by welfare associations to the rise of nationalism in Africa were as follows;
They opposed racial discrimination, which was practiced by Europeans. The formation of welfare associations
such as Tanganyika African Association started to oppose the racial discrimination hence this action raised self-
awareness to Africans, thus they started to demand for their lost independence from the colonial government.
They created foundation for education. This was because the formation of welfare associations demanded the
Africans to get access to education so as to oppose the use of African chiefs as the puppets during the system of
Page 216 of 220

indirect rule. They wanted their posts to be run by elected Africans hence it raised African nationalism so as to
demand their lost independence.
They showed the evils of colonialism to their fellow Africans such as force labor, raised discrimination, low wages
and land alienation. These factors created the rise of self-awareness to Africans and they saw the need of uniting
so as to oppose the colonial government. from the point is where the Africans started to demand for their lost
independence from the colonial government.
They facilitated the formation of political parties. This was as the way of uniting all Africans regardless of their
job, religion or color in order to achieve this situation is where most of this welfare associations changed to
political parties for instance, the Tanganyika African Association changed to Tanganyika Africans Nationalist
Union (TANU), which enabled the attainment of independence on 9th December 1961.
They exposed Africans political feelings to the colonialist. Through this way is where colonialist discovered the
needs of Africans towards achieving their major roles. Again, these factors created self-awareness to Africans
hence they started to force various as the way to demand for their majority rule.
Most of welfare associations opposed colonial intensive exploitation. For example, peasant co-operatives disliked
low prices of cash crops, the workers associations demanded high salaries and opposed low wages.
Generally, welfare associations contributed greatly to the attainment of African independence after the change of
these associations to political parties for instance the change from Tanganyika African Association (TAA) to
Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) a political party that spearheaded the attainment of the
independence in Tanganyika due to its effort to cement a solid unity among the Africans.
8. Why did Ethiopians managed to defeat foreign encroachment and give any six (6) reasons for the
success of Ethiopia.
Answers:
Ethiopia resistance was a type of African resistance against the establishment of colonial rule in Ethiopia.
Menelik II led the resistance from 1986 over the Italians. The Ethiopian leader was able to unite his people by
encouraging strong unity and solidarity so as to fight against the Italian in order to preserve their culture and
protect their trading interest. They aimed at promoting social political and economic development of their
country. The following are the central arguments as to why Ethiopians managed to defeat foreign encroachment
and access their resistance;
The geographical advantage. This factors influenced greatly to the success of Ethiopian resistance since the
country consists of mountainous great valleys, semi desert which hindered penetration of Italians.
The existence of strong unity and solidarity motivated the success of Ethiopian resistance since it enables them
to have the common goal to fight against the Italians. The strong unity and solidarity was influenced by the spread
of Christian religion to many Ethiopians hence, they were able to fight against the Italians.
The emergence of strong and outstanding leadership of Menelik II. The presence of strong leadership motivated
the success of Ethiopian’s resistance since he was able to encourage strong unity and solidarity also he could
encourage the people to fight against the Italians. He was also able to organize his people on their way to fight
the Italians.
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The existence of strong standing army, which contributed to the success of Ethiopian resistance since it, managed
to defeat the Italian’s army.
Italy was still poor and weak nations, this factor motivated the success of Ethiopians resistance since they were
not capable to fight against the Ethiopians because of being economically weak. This in turn made them to have
poor organization to defeat the Africans.
Menelik II adopted military weapons and fighting tactics from other European nations such as Britain, Russia
and Portugal who in turn encouraged and motivated the Ethiopians to fight against the Italians.
Generally it may be concluded that, although Ethiopians were succeeded to defeat the Italians encroachment still
they were badly affected by the war taking into account that they faced economic stagnation, death, massive
destruction of social and physical infrastructure like roads and health services.
9. Account for the challenges that were faced by the traders in the Trans-Saharan trade.
Trans-Saharan trade was the trade, which was conducted across the Saharan desert between the people of North
Africa and West Africa. It also includes the people around Mediterranean Sea Arabs from Asia. The trade started
during the 8th century and developed in 10th century after introduction of camels.
In connection to the main body, the following are the central argument on the challenges that were faced by the
traders in the Trans-Saharan trade.
The introduction of Christian religion in West Africa societies. The introduction of direction religion led to the
emergence of religions conflict among the Muslims and Christians. The situation resulted into the emergence of
political unrest among the West Africa societies, which resulted into the decline of Trans-Saharan trade.
The introduction of slave trade by the European. Slave traders. This factor caused the transportation of slave who
was taken to America to work in mines and plantation such as sisal and coffee. This situation caused the
emergence of depopulation to the decline of Trans-Saharan Trade.
The introduction of European manufactured goods. The introduction such as clothes, beads and alcohol
discouraged market for Trans-Saharan Trade as their products lacked market. In addition, it created fear and
insecurity to trade. This was much influenced by the coming of European traders who were capturing the African
traders hence the Trans-Saharan trade was no longer developed.
Fall of Western Sudanic States like Mali, Ghana and Songhai. These were trading centers for Trans-Saharan
Trade and the source of market for the commodities from North Africa. Hence the trade was no longer developed.
The introduction of Triangular Slave Trade, this was because, the Triangular trade changed its direction of trade
routes instead of going to North Africa the trade route changed to European, this made Trans-Saharan trade to
collapse.
Despite its decline, Trans-Saharan Trade contributed greatly to the availability of strong armies due to the
presence of guns from the Arabs. However, more importantly, cities like Gao, Timbuktu grew steadily because of
high population, which acted as a catalyst for the state formation.
10. Why did centralized states developed in interlacustrine region and not in arid areas?
Page 218 of 220

A state means the political unit with the centralize power to provide necessary services like security needed by
the people as well as collecting taxes. Interlacustrine regions fares to the areas around Lake Victoria. Basically,
in interlacustrine region there was for motion of centralized states like Karagwe, Buganda and Bunyoro, which
were influenced by geographical setting to the area. The formation of these states was due to the influence of pre-
colonial societies to create social, political and economic development. The following are the central arguments
on the reasons as to why centralized states developed in interlacustrine region and not in arid areas.
Development of agricultural activities like bananas, maize. This was the one of the factor that facilitated the
formation of centralized state in intercustrine regions since the agriculture was developed as these areas received
high amount of rainfall throughout the year compared to semi arid areas, which has a tendency of receiving low
amount of rainfall in this case arid areas did not support agricultural development.
Presence large population influenced agriculture, which went hand in hand with the emergence of surplus
population. The emergence of large population facilitated the emergence of centralized states in interlacustrine
region since the population provided labor in production activities as well as acted as market contrary to arid
areas, which tend to have low population due to poor production.
The emergence and development of trade especially long-distance trade. This was a contributing factor for the
development of centralized states in intercustrine region since the trade facilitated the growth of population,
which is contrary to semi arid region where the trade was not developed.
good geographical location especially equatorial region. The regions around Lake Victoria had a tendency of
receiving high amount of rainfall throughout the year, which is unlike to semi- arid region. Due to this reason, it
contributed greatly to the emergence of centralized states to the intercustrine region since the geographical
location encouraged population growth, which in a sense promoted the development of agriculture as well as
development of of trade within these regions.
The presence of strong leadership like Rumanyika. The emergence of strong leaders like Rumanyika, Kabaka
Mutesa motivated the formation of centralized states since they were able to encourage unity and solidarity among
the people, which is contrary to semi-arid region.
Generally, the emergence and development of centralized states in intercustrine region verify (signifies) the
development of political system in pre-colonial African societies as the European claimed that there was no
development of any kind before the advent of colonialism which is not historically fact.
SECTION C (60 Marks) (NECTA 2015)
Answer three (3) questions from this section.
5. Explain six characteristics of the first nonexploitative mode of production.

6. Elaborate six techniques used by colonialists to obtain labourers during the colonial period.
7. Analyse the problems experienced during the struggle for independence in Tanganyika.
8. Discuss six contributions of the agents of colonialism to the colonization of Africa.
Page 219 of 220
9. With examples show how the establishment of colonial economy affected the African societies.
(Give six points).
10. Inherited problems from colonial past are major hindrances to the development of Africa after
independence. Justify this statement by giving six points.
SECTION C (60 Marks) NECTA 2014
Answer three (3) questions from this section.
1. Explain six effects of the pre-colonial contacts between the people of Africa and Asia.
2. Elaborate six reasons, which made the Boers to escape to escape the Southern African Cape
between1830 and 1850.
3. Analyze six methods that were used by the imperialists in imposing colonial rule in Africa.
4. How did the First World War affect the East African colonies? Give six points to support
your answer.
5. Examine six factors, which enabled Tanganyika to attain her independence earlier than Kenya.
6. “Migrant laborers were very useful to the capitalists during colonial economy in Africa.”
Substantiate this statement by giving six points.
Page 220 of 220

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HISTORY FORM ONE TOPIC 1:

SOURCES AND IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING HISTORY.

8. It also helps us to develop an understanding of the relationships between African’s development

Therefore, the following are sources of history/historical knowledge:

FUNCTION OF ORAL TRADITION

ADVANTAGES OF ORAL TRADITION

DISADVANTAGES OF ORAL TRADITION

In Uganda Nsongezi, Biggo, Ntubi, Rusinga Island, Magosi and Ishago.

FUNCTIONS OF HISTORICAL SITES

DISADVANTAGES OF HISTORICAL SITES

3. ARCHAEOLOGY: This refers to the scientific study of past human remain.

FUNCTIONS OF WRITTEN RECORDS

DISADVANTAGES OF WITTEN RECORDS

DATING HISTORICAL EVENTS

HOW TO DETERMINE DATES

2 1914-1918 The first World war period

3 1939-1945 The second world war period

5 1962 Tanganyika became republic

6 1992 Introduction of multipart’s in Tanzania.

EVOLUTION OF MAN, TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION OF MAN.

STAGES OF MAN’S EVOLUTION

1. PRIMATES (Ape, Gorilla, Monkey, Chimpanzee)\

• He is a true man of today

(i) Development of man’s ability to design make and use tools.

(a) Early or Old Stone Age.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY OR OLD STONE AGE

IMPORTANCE/EFFECTS OF FIRE TO MAN DURING THE MIDDLE STONE AGE

• Man started to eat roasted food i.e. meat

Characteristics of the late stone age.

Famous iron Sites

THE RESULT/EFFECTS/ IMPACTS OF USING IRON TOOLS

DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND THEIR IMPACT

THE MAIN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN THE PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGRICULTURE, THE ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGICAL

✓ These in most cases were determined by environmental factors such as;

HANDCRAFT INDUSTRIES AND MINING IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA.

Specialized handcraft industries in Africa.

▪ Some traders became very rich. e.g. Mirambo and Isike.

FACTORS THAT LED TO THE GROWTH OF THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE

EFFECTS OF THE TRANS SAHARAN TRADE IN AFRICA.

THE DECLINE OF THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SYSTEM

DUTIES OR FUNCTIONS OF THE CLAN HEAD

Types of clan organizations in agricultural societies.

GENERAL FACTORS FOR STATE FORMATION.

THE WESTERN SUDANIC STATES

GENERAL FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF WESTERN SUDANIC STATES

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE GHANA EMPIRE

FACTORS FOR THE DECLINE OF GHANA EMPIRE

DECLINE OF THE MALI EMPIRE

FACTORS FOR THE GROWTH OF SONGHAI EMPIRE

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE BENIN EMPIRE

1. Some of capable rulers the greatest of those was Aware

DECLINE OF THE BENIN EMPIRE

• Introduction of Slave trade

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE OYO EMPIRE

1. It had organized political system headed by a number of great Alafins

DECLINE OF THE OYO EMPIRE