SITE INVESTIGATION

INTRODUCTION

The stability of any civil engineering structure depends on subsoil supporting the foundations.
Hence it is essential to study the nature of soils underlying the foundations of any structure
and the design of foundation must be made suiting to the prevailing conditions. The process
of determining the layers of natural soil deposits that underlie a proposed structure and their
engineering properties at a site is generally referred as Site Investigation or Subsurface
Exploration. The objective of a site investigation (soil exploration) program is to provide
information to geotechnical engineer in the following situations.

1. Selection of type and depth of foundation for a given structure.

2. Evaluation of load bearing capacity of foundation
3. Estimation of probable settlement of a structure
4. Determination of potential foundation problems
5. Location of ground water table
6. Prediction of earth pressure on retaining walls, sheet pile walls and braded cuts.
7. Adoption of appropriate construction methods for different sub soil conditions
8. Alterations / additions to existing structures are required

Soil deposits are generally heterogeneous and profile of subsoil changes from site to site.
Hence, no single method of exploration suits all situations. The choice depends on nature of
subsoils and purpose of exploration programme.

METHODS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION (SITE INVESTIGATION)

The subsoil explorations are usually carried out in two stages namely Preliminary and
Detailed Explorations.

Preliminary Exploration: It consists of geological study of the site and the site
reconnaissance. It also includes use of geophysical methods for locating boundaries of
different strata.

A general idea of topography and the type soil at proposed site can be obtained from the
following sources.
(i) Geological survey maps.
(ii) Agronomy maps published by Department of Agriculture.
(iii) Hydrological information including records of stream flow, information
on High flood level, tidal levels, etc.,
(iv) Highway department soil manuals.

Reconnaissance: The engineer should make a visit to the site to obtain information about
(i) General topography of the site.(Existence of drainage ditches, abandoned
dumps of debris, evidence of creep of slope, deep and wide shrinkage
cracks in soil.
(ii) Soil stratification from deep cuts/open unlined wells
(iii) Type of vegetation at site.
(iv) High water marks on existing buildings and bridge abutments.
(v) Ground water level from existing open wells in nearby vicinity.
(vi) Type of existing constructions and presence of any cracks
During reconnaissance, the nature of stratification and properties of soil nearby can also be
obtained from any available site investigation report on existing structures.

Detailed Exploration: Detailed investigation follows the preliminary investigations and is

carried out to determine nature, sequence and thickness of subsoil layers, their lateral
variation, physical properties and position of water table. Open excavations, Borings and
detailed sampling are undertaken to obtain the information. Various in-situ tests such as
standard penetration test, static cone penetration test also form part of the detailed
investigation programme.

Geophysical Methods: These are used to locate different strata and to rapid estimation of
subsoil nature. The methods are approximate, but can be used as guide in planning the
detailed exploration programme. The geophysical methods are broadly classified as Seismic
and Electrical Resistivity Methods.

GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF EXPLORATION

Seismic Refraction and Electrical Resistivity methods are the commonly used geophysical
methods of exploration. The methods are described below.
Seismic Refraction Method
The method is based on the fact that seismic waves have different velocities in different types
of soil or Rock. The waves are refracted when they cross boundary between different types of
soil. The method enables determining general soil types and approximate thickness of strata
and to locate bed rock.

The method involves inducing impact (by striking a plate on soil with a hammer) or
generating shock by exploding a small charge at or near the ground surface. The radiating
shockwaves are recorded by a device called geophone which records the time of travel of
waves. The geophones are installed at suitable known distances on ground in a line from
source of shock. The source of shock may be moved away from geophone to produce shock
waves at given intervals. Some of the waves called primary waves travel directly from shock
source to geophones. Other waves travel in downward direction at various angles to the
horizontal and will be refracted if they pass into a stratum of different seismic velocity. If the
underlying stratum is denser, the refracted waves travel much faster as the distance between
source and geophones increases, the refracted waves reach geophone earlier than direct waves
(Fig. 1(a)). The arrival time is plotted against the distance between source and geophone. Fig.
1 (b) shows a typical test plot.

Figure 1. Seismic Refraction Method

If the source- geophone distance is less than d, the direct waves reach geophone earlier than
refracted wave and the time-distance relationship is presented by a straight line AB, through
the origin. On the other hand, if source-geophone spacing is greater than d, the refracted wave
arrives earlier than direct wave and the distance-time relationship is represented by a straight
line BC at a different slope than that of AB. The slopes of AB and BC are seismic velocities
v1 and v2 of upper and lower strata. The general types of soil or rock can be identified by
having knowledge on velocity of waves in different soil conditions. The depth of boundary
between the two strata is estimated from the equation
d v2 − v1
D=
2 v2 + v1
Typical wave velocities in different materials given by IS 1892-1979 are presented in
Table 1.

Table 1. Wave velocities in different materials

Material Wave Velocity (m/s)
Top soil and Sand 180-365
Sandy clay 365-580
Gravel 490-790
Glacial Till 550-2135
Rock Tallus 400-760
Water in loose material 1400-1830
Shale 790-3350
Sandstone 915-2740
Granite 3050-6100
Limestone 1830-6100

The method is quick and reliable in establishing the profiles of different strata provided
deeper layers have greater densities and hence greater velocities. The method can not be used
to identify exact type of strata. For that, borings and samplings are required.

Limitations of the Method

1. The method cannot be used if a hard layer with grater seismic velocity overlies a
softer layer with a smaller seismic velocity
2. The method is not applicable for soils covered by Concrete slabs, pavements etc.
3. The method fails if the surface soil is frozen.
4. The interpretation of the results becomes difficult if the soil contains buried conduits,
fluctuating water table etc.
5. The method requires careful interpretation of results by an expert.
Electrical Resistivity Method
The method is based on measurement and recording of changes in mean resistivity or
apparent specific resistance of various soils. The resistivity is defined as the resistance
between opposite faces of a unit cube of the material. Significant variation in resistivity can
be noticed between different types of soil, above and below water table, between unfissured
rocks and soils.
The test is done by driving four metal spikes to serve as electrodes into the ground along a
straight line at equal distances. Current (I) from a battery flows through the soil between the
two outer electrodes, producing an electrical field within the soil. The potential difference E
between the two inner electrodes is then measured. The apparent resistivity, ρ is calculated as
ρ= 2πDE / I
Where, D is spacing of electrodes in ‘Cm’
E is in volts
I is in Amperes
ρ is in ohm-cm

The apparent resistivity is the weighted average of true resistivity up to a depth D in a large
volume of a soil, the soil close to the surface being more heavily weighted than the soil at
greater depths. If a stratum of low resistivity overlies a stratum of higher resistivity, the
current is forced to flow closer to the ground surface resulting in a higher voltage drop and
hence a higher value of apparent resistivity. It would be the opposite if a stratum of high
resistivity lies above a stratum of low resistivity.

The method of sounding is used when the variation of resistivity with depth is required. A
series of readings is taken, with each successive reading corresponding to an increased
spacing of electrodes. The centre of four electrodes however remains at a fixed point. With
increased spacing, the apparent resistivity is influenced by greater depth of soil. Increased
resistivity with increased spacing of electrodes infers that underlying stratum is beginning to
influence the readings. If increased spacing results in reduced resistivity, it infers that
underlying stratum lower resistivity is influencing the resistivity. The thickness of a stratum is
larger if its influence is observed over a greater spacing of the electrodes and vice versa.

Apparent resistivity is plotted against electrode spacing, usually on a log-log graph. Fig. 2
explains characteristic curves for a two layer system. If the resistivity of layer 1 is lower than
that of layer 2, a curve of Type A is obtained. If layer 1 has a higher resistivity, curve of Type
B is obtained. The curves become asymptotic to lines representing true resistivities R1 and R2
of respective layers. Layer thickness is obtained by comparing observed curve of resistivity
versus spacing of electrodes with a set of standard curves.

The method of profiling is used when the lateral variation of soil strata is to be investigated. A
series of readings is taken by moving four electrodes laterally as a unit for each successive
reading, maintaining electrode spacing constant. Apparent resistivity is plotted against the
centre position of four electrodes to a natural scale. These plots are used to locate positions of
soil of high or low resistivity. Contours of resistivity can be plotted over a certain area.

Figure 2 Electric Resistivity Method

The electrical resistivity technique is not reliable as seismic method. The resistivity of a soil
or rock may vary significantly subject to different conditions. So, results of tests need to be
correlated with borelog data. The ranges of resistivity values of soils/ rock are given in
Table 2

Table 2. Resistivity Values of Rocks and Soils

MATERIAL Resistivity
(Ohm-m)
Clay and Saturated Silt 0-100
Sandy Clay and wet silty sand 100-250
Clayey Sand and Saturated Sand 250-500
Sand 500-1500
Gravel 1500-4500
Weathered Rock 1000-2000
Hard Rock >5000

Limitations of the Method

1. The method detects strata based on different electrical resistivity values.

2. The results of the investigation are influenced by the wetness of soil strata, surface
irregularities and electrolyte concentration of ground water.
3. The interpretation becomes difficult because at the interface of two layers there will
be gradual change in resistivity of soil, but not abrupt change as assumed in the
method.
4. The method demands an expert for proper interpretation of the results.

Questions:
1. What is meant by “Site Investigation (Subsurface Exploration)”?
2. What are the objectives of site investigation or subsurface exploration?
3. Describe different methods of subsoil exploration and mention the circumstances under
which each is best suited.
4. What are geophysical methods of exploration? State their limitations.
5. Write short notes on Electric Resistivity Method.
6. Describe Seismic Refraction Method used in site investigation.
 METHODS FOR SAMPLES COLLECTION

Open Excavations

Test pits and trenches are used for visual inspection of soil strata and to collect undisturbed
and disturbed soil samples at different levels in almost all types of soils. Open excavations are
economical up to 3m depth. For greater depths, measures for lateral support and ground water
lowering become essential. Hence, open excavations are convenient only for shallow depths.

Methods of Boring

Making and advancing of holes into ground is called Boring. There are four methods of
Boring namely, Auger Boring, Wash Boring, Rotary Boring and percussion Boring. The
methods are described below.

Auger Boring

Boring by an auger is done by holding it vertically and pressing it down while it is rotated.
The turning action cuts the soil which fills the annular space. Once, the annular space is filled,
the auger is withdrawn and cleaned. The cleaned auger is again inserted in the hole and the
process is repeated. Fig. 3 shows two types of augers. Hand operated augers may be used for
boring holes to a depth of 6m in soft soils which can stand unsupported. However, if the sides
of the hole are likely to cave-in, casing pipe may be used to prevent the collapse of the sides
of borehole. Power driven augers are used for greater boring depths or where hard or stiff soil
strata are encountered.

Figure 3. Hand Augers Figure 4. Shell with Sinker Bar

Auger boring is convenient in the case of partially saturated soils, silts and medium to stiff
cohesive soils. As far as possible, auger borings are kept dry. Samples obtained from the soils
brought by augers are severely disturbed and therefore useful for identification purpose only.
Auger borings are well suited for explorations for shallow foundations, highways and borrow
pits, where required depth of exploration is relatively small.
Shell and auger method is used widely used in India. A shell (Fig. 4) also called sand boiler is
a heavy duty pile with a cutting edge. Different lengths and weights are used according to
requirements. Sinker bars are some times used to add weight to the boiler. The shell is placed
and let fall in a hole. The soil that is cut enters the tube which is emptied when full. Boring is
always started to begin with, by auguring and the shell is used when auguring becomes
difficult.

Wash boring

The method consists of driving a casing pipe usually through a heavy drop hammer supported
on a tripod and pulley. Water is forced under pressure through a hollow drill rod which may
be rotated or moved up and down inside the casing pipe. The lower end of the drill rod, fitted
with a sharp cutting edge or chopping bit cuts into soil. The soil thus gets mixed with water
and floats up through annular space between casing and drill rod. The slurry flowing out
provides an indication of soil type. The change in strata can be summarized from rate of
penetration and slurry washing out. Fig 5. shows set up for wash boring.

In this method, heavier particles of different soil layers remain under suspension in casing
pipe and get mixed up. So, the recovered samples from wash water are of no value. Samples
of soil are to be obtained using samplers after cleaning the hole. Wash boring can be used
conveniently below water table in all types of soil, except hard soils and Rock.

Figure 5. Set Up for Wash Boring

Percussion boring

This method involves breaking up of formation by repeated blows of a heavy bit or chisel
inside a casing pipe. The borehole is relatively kept dry, except for a limited quantity of water
used to form slurry of pulverized material. The pulverized material is bailed out using a bailer
or sand pump. The method is used for making bore holes in bouldery and gravel strata.
Rotary boring

Rotary boring is used if the soil is highly resistant to auguring or Wash boring. The method
involves cutting action of a rotating bit which is kept in firm contact with bottom of hole. The
bit is attached to the lower end of a hollow drill rod which is rotated by a suitable chunk.
Drilling mud (Usually Bentonite Slurry) is continuously forced down the hollow drill rods.
The mud returning upwards through the annular space between the drill rods and side of the
hole brings the cuttings to the surface. The method is also known as mud rotary drilling.

Core barrels with diamond bits are also used in rotary drilling and enable simultaneous
collection of rock cores. The method is called core drilling.

Questions:

1. Explain different methods of boring, mentioning their best suitability with respect to
different soils.
2. Distinguish between ‘Percussion Boring’ and ‘Rotary Boring’.
3. Describe direct and semi-direct methods employed in soil investigation.

SOIL SAMPLES AND SAMPLING

SOIL SAMPLES

Disturbed Samples: These are the samples where natural soil structure is modified or
destroyed during sampling process. The disturbed samples in which the natural moisture
content and proportion of mineral constituents are preserved are called representative
samples. The disturbed samples, in which mineral constituents get altered due to mixing from
different strata and alteration in natural moisture content, are called Non- representative
samples. Representative soil samples can be used in identification of soils, bur non-
representative soils are of no use.

Undisturbed Samples: These are the samples in which original soil structure is preserved
without any modification of material properties. Collection of absolutely undisturbed samples
is difficult. However, a sample may be regarded as undisturbed if disturbance is very
minimum. The undisturbed samples are useful for evaluation of strength and consolidation
parameters of soils.

The amount of disturbance to a sample results from Cutting edge, inside wall friction and
non-return valve. The following ratios pertaining to sampler and cutting edge (Fig.6) are used
as indicators to express disturbance caused to samples.

Figure 6. Section of a Sampler

 2 2
D2 − D1
Area Ratio, A r = 2
x 100
D1
D − D1
Inside Clearance, Ci = 3 x 100
D1

D2 − D4
Outside Clearance, Co = x 100
D4

Where,
D1 = inside diameter of Cutting edge/ driving shoe
D2 = outside diameter of Cutting edge/ driving shoe
D3 = inside diameter of sampling Tube
D4= outside diameter of Sampling Tube

The inside clearance is meant for minimizing friction between soil sample and
sampling tube. If inside clearance is too large, there will be expansion of sample
laterally. Outside clearance is for reducing friction on surface of sampling tube when
it is being withdrawn after collection of sample.

IS 1892-1979 recommends that the inside clearance should be from 1 to 3 percent.

The outside clearance should not be greater than inside clearance. Area Ratio value of
sampler should not exceed 20% for stiff clays and 10% in Marine Clays for collection
of undisturbed samples.

Recovery Ratio: The sample disturbance is indicated through a parameter called

“Recovery Ratio”. It is defined as the ratio of recovered length of sample to
penetration length of sampler. It is denoted by symbol Cr

If Cr = 1.0 - Good recovery

Cr < 1.0 - Soil is compressed during sampling ( due to friction at inner surface of
sampler)
Cr >1.0 - Soil has swelled.

The use of undisturbed and disturbed samples can be used in the laboratory for
analysis of the properties as listed in Table 3.

Table 3. Utility of Disturbed and Undisturbed soil samples

Parameter Type of Sample to be used

Natural Water Content Undisturbed or SPT sample
Density Undisturbed
Specific Gravity Disturbed
Grain size Distribution Disturbed (Representative)/ Undisturbed
Atterberg Limits Disturbed (Representative)/ Undisturbed
Shear Parameters Undisturbed
Consolidation parameters Undisturbed
Coefficient of Permeability Undisturbed
 SOIL SAMPLING

Soil sampling is done using open drive, piston or rotary samplers depending on type
of soil

Open Drive Sampler: It consists of a seamless open ended steel tube with a cutting
edge. The tube is connected through a head to the drill rod. The sampler head is
provided with vents to permit water and air to escape during sampling and also a ball
valve to retain sample during withdrawal of sampler. The sampling tube is thick or
thin walled. The thick walled samplers yield disturbed, but representative samples.
The samplers are in the form of a solid tube or split tube with or without a liner. The
split tube sampler used in Standard Penetration test is a thick walled sampler. The
sample is collected by repeated blows of 65 kg mass hammer falling through a height
of 75cm.

The thin walled samplers are used for collection of undisturbed samples. The area
ratios of the samplers are less than 15 percent. Thin walled tubes are cold drawn
seamless tubes made of brass, aluminum or any other material having adequate
strength, durability and corrosion resistance. Sampling is done by pushing the sampler
into soil without any impact or twisting. The requirement given by IS 2132-1972 for
thin walled samplers are presented in Table 4. Open drive thin wall samplers are
suitable for sampling in cohesive soils, but not suitable for sampling in Hard Gravels
(due to Driving Problem) and Very soft Clays (Retention problem). Fig 7 (a) shows
section of a thin walled sampler.

Table 4. Requirements of Sampling Tubes

Inside Diameter (mm) 38 70 100
Outside Diameter (mm) 40 74 106
Minimum Effective Length (mm) 30 45 45

Figure 7. Sampling Devices: a) Thin Walled Tube Sampler b) and c) Piston Sampler
Piston Sampler: It consists of two separate parts namely Sampler cylinder and Piston
System. The piston is actuated separately to tightly fit in sample cylinder. Bottom of
piston is maintained flush with cutting edge of sampler during driving of sampler upto
the depth of sampling. At sampling depth, the piston is fixed in position and cylinder
is forced into soil independently to cut a sample of soil. As sampler cylinder slides
past the piston, it creates negative pressure above the sample and helps in holding
back the sample during withdrawal. After the sampling is over, both sampler cylinder
and piston system are withdrawn with sample inside sample cylinder. Piston sampler
is useful for sampling in saturated sands and other soft soils where sampling by open
drive samplers is not possible.

Rotary Sampler: A Rotary sampler is a double walled tube sampler with an inner removable
cover. The outer barrel or tube is provided with a cutting bit. The bit cuts an annular ring
when the barrel is rotated. The inner tube, which is stationary, slides over the cylindrical
sample cut by the outer rotating barrel. The sample is collected in the inner barrel. Rotary
samples are useful for sampling in Stiff clays and Rocks. The rock quality can be estimated
from the core recovery ratio termed as Rock Quality Designation, RQD. The ratio of the total
length of core recovered to the length of sampler advanced on a given run, expressed as
percentage is the value of RQD. While determining length of core recovered, only those
pieces of sound and hard rock having length more than 100mm long are to be considered.
The diameter of core shall preferably more than 54mm. RQD is useful in assessing in-situ
modulus of elasticity and compressive strength of rock based on corresponding values
obtained in laboratory tests on rock cores. Classification of Rocks based on RQD values as
given by Deere (1963) are presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Relation between RQD and In-situ Rock Quality

RQD Rock Quality Ef / El

<25 Very poor 0.15
25-50 Poor 0.20
50-75 Fair 0.25
75-90 Good 0.3-0.7
90-100 Excellent 0.7-1.0

NUMERICAL PROBLEM

Determine area ratio for the samplers with the following details and comment on nature of
samples that can be collected by them.

a) Core Cutter 160mm (outer Dia.) 150mm (Inner Dia.)

b) Split barrel 50mm (outer Dia.) 35mm (inner Dia.)

2 2
D −D
Solution: Area Ratio, A r = 2 2 1 x 100
D1
D1 = inside diameter of Core Cutter/Split Barrel
D2 = inside diameter of Core Cutter/ Split Barrel

a) Core Cutter
 1602 − 1502
Ar= x 100 = 13.78 %
1502
As the area ratio is less than 20%, the sample collected by core cutter is
undisturbed sample.

b) Split Barrel

502 − 352
Ar= x 100 = 104.8% >>20%
352
As the area ratio is very much greater than 20 %, the sample collected by the
barrel is highly disturbed in nature.

Questions:

1. Distinguish between ‘Disturbed’ and ‘Undisturbed’ soil Samples. Explain the purposes
for which they can be used.
2. Distinguish between “Representative” and “Non Representative” Soil Samples.
3. Distinguish between ‘Open Drive Samplers’ and ’Piston Samplers’.
4. Explain the terms “Area Ratio”, “Inside Clearance” and “Outside Clearance” in relevance
to soil samplers.
5. During a field exploration, core barrel was advanced 1.5 m during coring and length of
core recovered was 1.02m. What was the recovery ratio?
6. Determine the area ratio of a Shellby tube sampler having inside and outside diameters of
110mm and 115mm respectively. Comment on the type sample that can be extracted from
it.
7. The inner diameters of a sampling tube and cutting edge are 75mm and 72 mm
respectively whereas outer diameters of are 77mm and 79mm respectively. Determine the
inside clearance, outside clearance and area ratio of the sampler.
8. Compute area ratio of a thin walled tube sampler having an external diameter of 60mm
and a wall thickness of 3mm. Do you recommend the sampler for collection of
undisturbed soil samples? Justify your answer.
9. What is “Rock Quality Designation’? Explain its significance.
 PLANNING OF SITE INVESTIGATION PROGRAMME and
IN-SITU TESTS DURING SITE INVESTIGATION

NUMBER AND DISPOSITION OF TRIAL PITS AND BORINGS

The number and spacing of boreholes or trial pits depend on extent of site, uniformity of
strata and importance of the structure. As per IS 1892-1979, for a compact building of about
0.4 hectare, one bore hole or trial pit in the centre and one bore hole at each corner is
adequate. For small and less important structures, even one borehole or trial pit in the centre
is adequate. For larger areas, sounding / penetration tests are to be performed at a spacing of
50m to 100m by dividing the area in a grid pattern. The actual number of holes is decided by
observing variation in penetration resistance.

DEPTH OF EXPLORATION

Soil exploration should be carried out to a depth bypassing all unsuitable foundation material
and where the vertical stress due to loading from structure becomes insignificant in terms of
settlement aspect. The depth up to which soil contributes settlement of foundation under
transmitted load is called Significant Depth. Task committee report (1972) recommends that
boring should be carried out to a depth where net increase in soil stress due to load of
structure becomes less than 10percent of effective overburden pressure. In case of square
loaded areas, the depth of exploration may be taken as twice the width of foundation below
base of foundation as isobar of 10% Isobar extends to that depth. The depth of exploration
recommended by IS: 1892-1979 for different works are presented in Table 6.

Table 6 Depth of Exploration

Type of Foundation / Work Depth of Exploration

Isolated Spread Footing / Raft 1.5 times width of foundation
Adjacent Footings with clear 1.5 times the length of the footing
spacing less than twice the width
Adjacent rows of footings 4.5,3 and 1.5 times width of footing(B) if clear spacing
is less than 2B,4B and greater than 4B respectively.
Pile and Well foundation 1.5times width of structure from bearing level.
Road Cuts 2m below ground level or equal to height of fill
Road Fills whichever is more.

PENETRATION AND SOUNDING TESTS

These tests are used to evaluate resistance of soil to penetration of a split spoon sampler, cone
or sleeve under dynamic or static loading. The penetration resistance is correlated to various
engineering properties of soil such as relative density, bearing capacity, elastic modulus etc.
The two commonly used tests are Standard Penetration test and Cone Penetration test.

1. Standard Penetration Test: The test is performed in clean hole of 150mm dia. The sides
of borehole are supported using a casing or drilling mud. The test involves driving of a split
spoon sampler, 50.8mm in outer diameter and 35mm in inner diameter, having a minimum
length of 600mm, under the impact of blows of 65kg mass hammer falling through a height of
75cm. The number of blows taken for first 15cm is not recorded and it is treated as seating
drive. The number of blows taken for next 30cm penetration is recorded as Standard
Penetration Resistance, N. The recorded value of N may exceed 100. If the penetration of
sampler is less than 25mm under 50 blows, refusal is said to have reached and the test is
discarded. The observed value of Standard Penetration Resistance need to be corrected for
‘Overburden’ and ‘Dilatancy’ (if Required) corrections before using for any engineering
application.

Overburden Correction: Though the soil is homogeneous, as the depth of soil where
standard penetration test is conducted increases, the observed value of N also increases owing
to increase in overburden pressure and associated higher lateral confinement of soil. Hence,
Gibbs and Holtz proposed the following correction to nullify the effect of overburden on ‘N’
50
No = N
1.42σ ' + 10
Where = effective overburden pressure 280 kN/m2
Peck, Hansen and Thornburn proposed the following correction for overburden

for greater than or equal to 24 kN/m2

= 2 N at ground surface
Where, is effective overburden pressure in soil 24 kPa

Dilatancy Correction: In saturated fine sands and silty sands, an apparent increase in
penetration resistance occurs due to the pore water pressure developed during driving of
sampler. So, Terzaghi and Peck recommended the following correction to determine
Corrected N.

1
C N = 15 + (N o − 15) ) if No is greater than 15
2
= No if No is less than or equal to 15
Where, No is Value of N Corrected for overburden.

The Corrected value of Standard Penetration Resistance is correlated to various properties of

Soil as given in Tables 7 and 8.

Table 7. Correlations of Standard Penetration Resistance to cohesionless Soil Properties

Penetration Density Index Denseness Bulk Density

Resistance (N) (%) of Soil (t/m3)
0-4 0-15 Very Loose 1.1 – 1.6
4-10 15-35 Loose 1.44-1.84
10-30 35-65 Medium Dense 1.76-2.08
30-50 65-85 Dense 1.76-2.24
> 50 100 Very Dense 2.09-2.4

Table 8. Correlation of Standard Penetration Resistance to unconfined Compressive

strength (qu) of cohesive soils

Penetration Consistency qu (kN/m2)

Resistance (N)
0-2 Very soft < 25
2-4 Soft 25-50
4-8 Medium 50-100
8-16 Stiff 100-200
16-32 Very Stiff 200-400
>32 Hard >400
Dutch Cone Test: The test is used to assess continuous penetration resistance of a soil to a
cone having base area of 10m2 and an angle of vortex of 600 under static pressure. The cone is
attached at the end of a steel drilling rod passing through a steel tube (Mantle) with external
diameter equal to base of cone. Either the cone or the tube or both together can be forced into
soil by means of Jack. Cone alone is pushed through a distance of 8cm to evaluate cone
resistance. The steel tube is then pushed onto cone and both together are pushed through a
distance of 20cm to yield cone resistance and frictional resistance along the tube. The test is
useful in determining bearing capacity of cohesionless soils, particularly fine sands. The cone
resistance (kg/cm2) is about 10 times Standard Penetration Resistance.

Numerical Problem:

1. In a standard penetration test conducted in saturated silty sand deposit, the observed
standard penetration number (N) was 22 at a depth of 4m. The water table was present at
a depth of 1.5m below ground level. If bulk and saturated unit weights of soil are
18.5 kN/m3 and 20 kN/m3, calculate corrected N value.

Solution: Observed Standard penetration Resistance, N= 22

Correction for overburden suggested by Peck, Hansen & Thornburn

Where, is effective overburden pressure in soil = 1.5x18.5+ 2.5x(20-9.81)

= 53.225 kN/m2
No= 1.196 N = 26

As the type of soil is saturated silty fine sand and the value of No is greater than 15,
the dilatancy correction has to be applied.

Dilatancy Correction given by Terzaghi and Peck is

1
C N = 15 + (N o − 15) ) for No >15
2
= 20

Hence, Corrected Value of Standard Penetration Resistance is 20

Questions:

1. Discuss the considerations involved in selection of depth and extent of subsurface

exploration.
2. What is ‘Standard Penetration Number’? What are the corrections to be applied to it?
3. A standard penetration test was performed at a depth of 20m in a dense sand deposit
having unit weight of 17.5 kN/m3. If the observed N-Value is 48, calculate N value
corrected for overburden?
 BORING LOG AND SOIL INVESTIGATION REPORT

Preparation Of Boring Logs And Site Investigation Report

The detailed information gathered from each borehole is presented in a graphical form called
the BORING LOG. During advancing borehole, the driller should record the following
information in a standard log.
1. Name and Address of Drilling Company
2. Job, Description and Number
3. Number, type and location of boring
4. Date of boring
5. Subsurface Stratification based on visual observation of soil brought out by auger, split
spoon sampler / thin walled tube sampler.
6. Position of Ground water Table
7. SPT test Data at different depths
8. Number, Type and depth of soil sample Collected
9. In rock coring, Type of Core Barrel used, the actual length of Coring, length of Core
Recovery and RQD.
After completion of necessary tests in the laboratory, the geotechnical engineer prepares a
finished log that includes notes from Driller’s field log and the results of tests conducted in
the lab. Table 8 shows a typical boring log.
Table 8. BORING LOG
Name of the Project:
Location: Date(s) of Boring:
Borehole No.: Type of Boring: Dia. of Bore:
Depth of Water Table:
Description of Depth Soil Sample Standard In-situ Natural Remarks
Soil (m) Type and Penetration Density water
Number Resistance (t/m3) content
(N) (%)
Red clayey -0 -- -- -- -- --
Sand (Fill)
-3
Black Clay UD -- 1.8 17.8 LL=
(CH) 56%,PL=28%
-5 SPT 6 1.82 18.4 G=4%, S=23,
F=73
Silty Sand(SM) DS G=3, S=72, F=25
-8
SPT 27 1.88 12.7 LL=23,PL=19
Clayey Gravel UD 1.98 15.9
(GC) -10 G=42,S=33,F=25
End of boring SPT 45 2.05 16.2
@12m -12m LL=30,PL=22
UD 54 2.10 16.3
UD: Undisturbed Sample DS: Disturbed Sample SPT: Standard Penetration Test
G: Gravel S: Sand F: Fines LL: Liquid Limit PL: Plastic Limit
 Site Investigation Report

It consists of details of investigations carried out, borelogs prepared based on field

observations/tests and laboratory analysis and recommendations relating to design and
construction. The soil investigation report normally contains

1.Introduction
2. borelogs
3. Field and Laboratory Test Results
4. Analysis of data
5. Recommendations
6. References

In introduction, the details of boring programme stating the purpose are given. The laboratory
and field tests conducted in the programme are explained. Borelog is prepared based on field
and laboratory data. The data of the bore is analysed for bearing capacity, settlement
prediction etc., depending on the requirement of project.

Recommendations are to be prepared clearly and point wise based on the prevailing subsoil
conditions observed from borelogs, suiting to the intended purpose. Various foundation /
ground improvement options are recommended. Finally, the references are given with regard
to IS Codes of Practice of soil Testing and other relevant literature extracts.

Questions:
1. What is a ‘Boring Log’?
2. Give a typical Boring log and explain about the information it should contain.
3. List out the details to be presented in a soil investigation report?
4. Describe in brief how a soil investigation report is prepared?

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