Bphys102 Mod1 5azdocuments - in 45 95

Applied Physics for CSE Stream (BPHYS102/202) Sai Vidya Institute Of Technology
CBCS-2022 Scheme
MODULE-3
Quantum Computing
Introduction to Quantum Computing
Quantum Computing is the area of study focused on developing computing methods

based on the principle of quantum theory. Quantum computing is based on the
principle of quantum superposition. In Quantum computing, the information is
encoded in quantum system such as atoms, ions or quantum dots. One quantum rule
in particular creates enormous incentives to apply quantum mechanics to computing.
The algorithms are also written based on quantum principles in which, Shor’s
algorithm for factorization and Grover’s search algorithm are basics. (Grover is an
Indian born Physicist working in Bell Labs). The process of computation is incredibly
fast but it has to be done by the help of quantum computers which are yet to be
realized in practice. It is expected that 140 digit log number could be factored a billion
(109 ) times faster than classical computation. It is so powerful that a search engine
can search every part of internet in half an hour.
Moore’s law & its End
In the year 1965, Gordon Moore observed increasing performance in the first few
generations of the integratedcircuit (IC) technology. Moore predicted that it would
continue to improve at an exponential rate with the performance per unit cost
increasing by a factor or two every 18 months are so. The computer industry has
followed this prediction since then. But actually the doubling was occurring in every
24 months or 2 years. The following plot shows the 50 years of Moore’s law. The
question that arises is how long can Moore’s law continues to hold and what are the
ultimate limitations?. According to the semiconductor size data the size has reached 5
nanometer in 2021. The Demise of the Transistor in the quantum scale could be
expected as the dimensions decrease further. Quantum effects can cascade it he micro
scale realm causing problems for current microelectronics. The most typical effects are
Electron tunneling among the circuit lines. Thus Quantum Computation is the option
for the further generation.
Statement: “The number of transistors on a microchip doubles every year"

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Differences Between Classical and Quantum Computing
Classical computing Quantum computing
It is large scale integrated multi- It is high speed parallel computer

purpose computer. based on quantum mechanics.
Information storage is bit based on Information storage is Quantum bit

voltage or charge etc. based on direction of an electron
spin.
Information processing is carried out by Information processing is carried out

logic gates e.g. NOT, AND, OR etc. by Quantum logic gates.
Classical computers use binary codes Quantum computers use Qubits i.e.
i.e. bits 0 or 1 to represent information. 0, 1 and both of them simultaneously
to run machines faster.
Operations are defined by Boolean Operations are defined by linear

algebra over Hilbert Space and can be
Algebra.
represented by unitary matrices with
complex elements.
Circuit behaviour is governed by Circuit behavior is governed explicitly

classical physics. by quantum mechanics.
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Concept of Qubit and its properties
Quantum bits, called qubits are similar to bits having two measurable states
called 0 and 1 states. Qubits can also be in a superposition state of these 0 and
1 states as shown in the figure. A qubit can be in a superposition of both 0 and
1. Qubits can be expressed in quantum mechanical states with mathematical
formula, Dirac or “brac–ket” notation is commonly used in quantum mechanics
and quantum computing. The state of a qubit is enclosed in the right half of an
angled bracket, called the “ket”. A qubit |𝜓⟩ could be in |0⟩ or |1⟩ state which is
the superposition of both |0⟩ and |1⟩ state.
This is written as, |𝜓⟩ = α |0⟩+ β |1⟩
Where α and β called the amplitude of the states which are a complex number.
Properties of Qubits
Qubit is a basic unit in which of information in a quantum computer.

Superposition, Entanglement, and Tunneling are all special properties that
define a qubit.
i) A qubit can be in a superposed state of the two states 0 and 1.

Qubit is a superposition of both |0⟩ and |1⟩ state is given by
|ψ⟩ = α |0⟩+ β |1⟩.
ii) If measurements are carried out with a qubit in superposed state then the
results that we get will be probabilistic unlike how it’s deterministic in a
classical computer.
The total probability of all the states of the quantum system must be 100%.
i.e. |α|2 + |β|2 =1 is called Normalization rule.
iii) Owing to the quantum nature, the qubit changes its state at once when
subjected to measurement. This means, one cannot copy information from
qubits the way we do in the present computers and is known as "no cloning
principle".
A Qubit can be physically implemented by the two states of an electron or

horizontal and vertical polarizations of photons as |↓⟩ and |↑⟩.
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Representation of qubit by Bloch Sphere
The pure state space qubits (Two Level Quantum Mechanical Systems) can be
visualized using an imaginary sphere called Bloch Sphere. It has a unit radius.
The Arrow on the sphere represents the state of the Qubit. The north and
south poles are used to represent the basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩ respectively. The
other locations are the superposition of |0⟩ and |1⟩ states and represented by
|𝜓⟩ = α |0⟩+ β |1⟩ with |α|2 + |β|2 =1.
Thus a Qubit can be any point on the Bloch Sphere. The Bloch sphere allows
the state of the qubit to be represented unit spherical co-ordinates. They are
the polar angle θ and the azimuth angle ϕ.
The Bloch sphere is represented by the equation

𝜃 𝜃
|𝜓⟩ = cos |0⟩+ 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin |1⟩
2 2
Case i) For φ =0 and θ=0 then |𝜓⟩ = |0⟩ which is along +z axis.
Case ii) For φ=0 and θ = 180 then |𝜓⟩ = |1⟩ which is along -z axis.
𝜋 1
Case iii) For φ =0 and θ= 2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝜓⟩ = (|0⟩ + |1⟩) which is along +X axis.
√2
𝜋 1
Case iv) For φ =0 and θ= − 2
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝜓⟩ = (|0⟩ − |1⟩) which is along -X axis.
√2
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Single and Two qubits and Extension to N qubits
i) Single qubit
A Single qubit has two computational basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩. It is in general
written as by |𝜓⟩ = α |0⟩+ β |1⟩. Such that |α| 2 + |β| 2 =1
The matrix representation of |0⟩ and |1⟩ is given by
|0⟩ = (1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |1⟩ = (0)

0 1
ii) Two qubit
A two qubit system has four computational basis states denoted has |00⟩ |01⟩
|10⟩ |11⟩. The two qubit state is given by |𝜓⟩ = α |00⟩+ β |01⟩ + 𝛾|10⟩ + 𝛿|11⟩ + ⋯
iii) N qubit
A multi-qubit system of N qubits has 2N computational basis states. For
example a state of 3 qubits has 23 computational basis states. Thus for N-qubit
the computational basis states are denoted has |000 … … 00⟩ |000 … . .01⟩
|10 … … .00⟩ |10 … … .01⟩ .
Dirac Representation and Matrix Operations
Matrix representation of |0⟩ and |1⟩
The wave function could be expressed in ket notation as |𝜓⟩ (ket Vector), ψ is
the wave function. The quantum state is given by |𝜓⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ and in
𝛼
matrix form |𝜓⟩ = (𝛽 ) . The matrix form of the states |0⟩ and |1⟩ is given by
|0⟩ = (1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |1⟩ = (0)

0 1
Identity Operator
1 0
The operator of type 𝐼 = [ ] is called identity operator. When an identity
0 1
operator acts on a state vector its keeps the state intact. By analogy we study
identity operator as an identity matrix.
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
Let us consider the operation of Identity operator on |0⟩ and |1⟩states. As per
the principle of identity operation 𝐼 |0⟩ = |0⟩ and 𝐼 |1⟩ = |1⟩ .
1 0 1 1
𝐼 |0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |0⟩
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
𝐼 |1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |1⟩
0 1 1 1
Thus the operation of identity matrix (operator) on |0⟩ and |1⟩states leaves the
states unchanged.
Pauli Matrices
Pauli Matrices are set of 2 × 2 matrices. Which are very much useful in the
study of quantum computation and quantum information. The pauli matrices
are given by
0 1 0 −𝑖 1 0
𝜎𝑥 = 𝑋 = [ ] , 𝜎𝑦 = 𝑌 = [ ] and 𝜎𝑧 = 𝑍 = [ ]
1 0 𝑖 0 0 −1
Pauli Matrices operating on |𝟎⟩ and |𝟏⟩ States
0 1 1 0
1. 𝜎𝑥 |0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |1⟩
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
𝜎𝑥 |1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |0⟩
1 0 1 0
0 −𝑖 1 0
2. 𝜎𝑦 |0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = 𝑖|1⟩
𝑖 0 0 𝑖
0 −𝑖 0 −𝑖
𝜎𝑥 |1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = −𝑖|0⟩
𝑖 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
3. 𝜎𝑧 |0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |0⟩
0 −1 0 0
1 0 0 0
𝜎𝑧 |1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = −|1⟩
0 −1 1 −1
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Conjugate of a Matrix
 It is possible to find the conjugate for a given matrix by replacing each element of
the matrix with its complex conjugate.
 The conjugate of a complex number is found by switching the sign of the imaginary
part.
 The complex conjugate of 1 is just 1 and the complex conjugate of +i is −i.
1 𝑖
𝐴=[ ]
1 𝑖
The conjugate of matrix A is
1 −𝑖
𝐴∗ = [ ]
1 −𝑖
Transpose of a matrix
Transpose of a matrix, switches rows with columns.
 The first row turns into the first column, second row turns into the second column.
1 𝑖
𝐴=[ ]
1 𝑖
 The conjugate of matrix A is

1 −𝑖
𝐴∗ = [ ]
1 −𝑖
1 1
𝐴+ = [ ]
−𝑖 −𝑖
Unitary Matrix (U)
 A matrix U is unitary, if the matrix product of U and its conjugate transpose U †

(called U-dagger) produces the identity matrix.
UU† = U†U = I = 1
0 1
Let 𝑈=[ ]
1 0
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
0 1
Conjugate of U is 𝑈 ∗ = [ ]
1 0
0 1
Transpose of U is 𝑈 † = [ ]
1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
𝑈𝑈 † = [ ][ ]=[ ]=𝐼
1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
𝑈†𝑈 = [ ][ ]=[ ]=𝐼
1 0 1 0 1 0
𝑈𝑈 † = 𝐼
Row and Column matrix (Inner product)
 A Row matrix is a vector represented by Brac vector . < |

 A Column matrix is a vector represented by ket vector | >
𝛼1
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝜓⟩ = [𝛽 ] ; Row vector |𝜓⟩ = [𝛼1 , 𝛽1 ] ,Where Bra vector is a complex conjugate
1
of ket vector.
𝛼1
|𝜓 ∗⟩ = [𝛽 ] and |𝜓⟩† = [𝛼1 ∗ , 𝛽1 ∗ ]
1
Thus Brac is the complex conjugate of ket and conversely ket is the complex conjugate
of Brac.
Orthogonality and Orthonormal
Two states |𝜓⟩ and |𝜙⟩ are said to be orthogonal if their inner product is Zero.
Mathematically ⟨𝜓|𝜙⟩ = 0
The two states are orthogonal means they are mutually exclusive. Like spin up and
Spin down of an electron.
1
Consider the inner product of and ⟨0|1⟩= [1, 0] [ ] = [0 + 0] = 0
0
Two states |𝜓⟩ and |𝜙⟩ are said to be orthonormal if their inner product is one.
Mathematically ⟨𝜓|𝜙⟩ = 1
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
Quantum Gates
In quantum computing a quantum logic gate is a basic quantum circuit operating on a

small number of qubits. A qubit is useless unless it is used to carry out a quantum
calculation. The quantum calculations are achieved by performing a series of
fundamental operations, known as quantum logic gates. They are the building blocks
of quantum circuits similar to the classical logic gates in conventional digital circuits.
1) Quantum Not Gate:
In Quantum Computing the quantum NOT gate for qubits takes the state |0⟩ to |1⟩
and vice versa. It is analogous to the classical not gate. The Matrix representation of
0 1
Quantum Not Gate is given by 𝑋 = [ ]
1 0
0 1 1 0
𝑋|0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |1⟩
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
𝑋|1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |0⟩
1 0 1 0
α
A Quantum State is given by 𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ and its matrix representation is given by [β]
Hence the operation of Quantum Not Gate on quantum state is given by
α 0 1 α β
X[β]=[ ] [ ]=[ ]
1 0 β α
Thus the quantum state becomes 𝛼 |1⟩ + 𝛽 |0⟩. Similarly, The input 𝛼 |1⟩ + 𝛽 |0⟩ to
the quantum not gates changes the state to 𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩. The quantum not gate
circuit and the truth table are as shown below
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ X 𝛼 |1⟩ + 𝛽 |0⟩
Quantum Not Gate
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
Truth table of Quantum Not Gate
Input Output
|0⟩ |1⟩
|1⟩ |0⟩
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ 𝛼 |1⟩ + 𝛽 |0⟩
2) Pauli-X,Y and Z Gates
i) Pauli X Gate
The Pauli-X Gate is nothing but Quantum Not Gate.
ii) Pauli Y Gate
Pauli Y Gate is represented by Pauli matrix 𝜎𝑦 or 𝑌. This gate Maps |0⟩ state to 𝑖 |1⟩
state and |1⟩ state to −𝑖 |0⟩ state. The Y Gate and its operation is as given below
0 −𝑖 1 0
𝑌|0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = 𝑖|1⟩
𝑖 0 0 𝑖
0 −𝑖 0 −𝑖
𝑌|1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = −𝑖|0⟩
𝑖 0 1 0
Thus the Y-Gate defines the transformation
𝑌 (𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩) = 𝛼𝑌 |0⟩ + 𝛽𝑌 |1⟩ = −𝑖𝛽 |0⟩ +𝑖𝛼 |1⟩
Quantum Y-Gate is represented by
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ Y −𝑖𝛽 |0⟩ +𝑖𝛼 |1⟩
Quantum Y Gate
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
Truth table of Quantum Y Gate
Input Output
|𝟎⟩ 𝑖|1⟩
|1⟩ -𝑖 |𝟎⟩
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ −𝑖𝛽 |0⟩ +𝑖𝛼 |1⟩
iii) Pauli Z Gate
The Z-gate is represented by Pauli Matrix 𝑧 or 𝑍. Z Gate maps input state |𝑘⟩ to (−1)|𝑘⟩.
1. For input |0⟩ the output remains unchanged.
2. For input |1⟩ the output is − |1⟩.
The Matrix representation and the operation of Z-Gate on |0⟩ and |1⟩ are as follows
1 0 1 1
𝑍 |0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |0⟩
0 −1 0 0
1 0 0 0
𝑍|1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = −|1⟩
0 −1 1 −1
(𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩) = 𝛼𝑍 |0⟩ + 𝛽𝑍 |1⟩ = 𝛼 |0⟩ − 𝛽 |1⟩
The circuit symbol and the truth table of Z-Gate are as follows
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ Z 𝛼 |0⟩ - 𝛽 |1⟩
Truth table of Quantum Z Gate
Input Output
|𝟎⟩ |𝟎⟩
|1⟩ -|1⟩
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ 𝛼 |0⟩ - 𝛽 |1⟩
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
3) Hadamard Gate
The Hadamard Gate is a truly quantum gate and is one of the most important in
Quantum Computing. It is has similar characteristics of √ 𝑁𝑂𝑇 Gate. It is a self-inverse
gate. It is used to create the superposition of |0⟩ and |1⟩ states.
1 1 1
The Matrix representation of Hadamard Gate is as follows 𝐻 = [ ].
√2 1 −1
The Hadamard Gate and the output states for the |0⟩ and |1⟩ input states are
represented as follows.
The Hadamard Gate satisfies Unitary Condition. 𝐻 †𝐻 = 𝐼
𝟏 𝟏
|0⟩ H = √𝟐
|0⟩ + √𝟐
|1⟩
𝟏 𝟏
|1⟩ H = |0⟩ - |1⟩
√𝟐 √𝟐
The truth-table for the Hadamard Gate is as follows.
Input Output
|0⟩ + |1⟩
|0⟩
√2
|0⟩ − |1⟩
|1⟩
√2
|0⟩ + |1⟩ |0⟩ − |1⟩

𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ 𝛼 + 𝛽
√2 √2
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
4) Phase Gate or S Gate
The phase gate turns a |0⟩ into |0⟩ and a |1⟩ into 𝑖 |1⟩ .
The Matrix representation of the S gate is given by
1 0
S=[ ]
0 𝑖
The effect of S gate on input |0⟩ is given by
1 0 1 1
𝑆 |0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |0⟩
0 𝑖 0 0
Similarly the effect of S gate on input |1⟩ is given by
1 0 0 0
𝑆|1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = 𝑖|1⟩
0 𝑖 1 𝑖
The transformation of state |𝜓⟩ is given by
𝑆 |𝜓⟩ = 𝑆 (𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩) = 𝛼𝑆 |0⟩ + 𝛽𝑆 |1⟩ = 𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝑖𝛽 |1⟩
The symbol of S gate is given by
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ S 𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝒊 𝛽|1⟩
The Truth table for S gate is as follows
Input Output
|0⟩ |0⟩
|1⟩ 𝑖|1⟩
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ 𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝑖 𝛽|1⟩
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
𝛑
5) T -Gate / Gate
𝟖
The T Gate is represented by the matrix as follows
1 0 1 0
T= [ 𝑖𝜋 ] = [0 1+𝑖]
0 𝑒 4 √𝟐
The Operation of T- gate on |0⟩ and |1⟩ are given by
1 0 1 1
T|0⟩ = [0 1+𝑖] [ ] = [ ] = |0⟩
√𝟐 0 0
1 0 0 0 1+𝑖
T|1⟩ = [0 1+𝑖] [ ] = [1+𝑖] = |1⟩
√𝟐 1 √𝟐
√𝟐
π
T -Gate is also called Gate is shown below
8
𝑖𝜋
𝑖𝜋 −
𝑒 8 [𝑒 0]
8
T= 𝑖𝜋
0 𝑒8
The symbolic representation of T-gate is given by
1+𝑖
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ T 𝛂 |𝟎⟩ + √𝟐
𝛃|𝟏⟩
The Truth table for T- gate is as follows
Input Output
|0⟩ |0⟩
1+𝑖
|1⟩ √𝟐
|1⟩
1+𝑖
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ α |0⟩ + β|1⟩
√2
Note: Important feature of T- gate is it could be related to S gate as 𝑇 2 = S
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
Multiple Qubit Gates
Multiple Qubit Gates operate on Two or More input Qubits. Usually on of them is a
control qubit and other is target qubit.
1) Controlled Gates
The Gate with operation of kind "If ’𝐴’ is True then do ’𝐵’" is called Controlled Gate.
The |𝐴⟩ Qubit is called control qubit and |𝐵⟩ is the Target qubit. The target qubit is
altered only when the control qubit state is |1⟩. The control qubit remains unaltered
during the transformations.
2) Controlled Not Gate or CNOT Gate
The CNOT gate is a typical multi-qubit logic gate and the circuit is as follows.
The matrix representation of CNOT gate is given by
The Transformation could be expressed as |𝐴, 𝐵⟩ → |𝐴, 𝐵 ⊕ 𝐴⟩
Consider the operations of CNOT gate on the four inputs |00⟩, |01⟩,|10⟩ and |11⟩.
Operation of CNOT Gate for input |00⟩
Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |0⟩. Hence no change
in the state of Target qubit |0⟩.|00⟩ → |00⟩
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |0⟩. Hence no change
in the state of Target qubit |1⟩.|01⟩ → |01⟩
Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |1⟩. Hence the state of
Target qubit flips from |0⟩ to |1⟩. |10⟩ → |11⟩
Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |1⟩. Hence the state of
Target qubit flips from |1⟩ to |0⟩. |11⟩ → |10⟩
The Truth Table of operation of CNOT gate is as follows.
3) Swap Gate
The SWAP gate is two-qubit operation. Expressed in basis states, the SWAP gate
swaps the state of the two qubits involved in the operation. The Matrix representation
of the Swap Gate is as follows
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
The schematic symbol of swap gate circuit is as follows
The swap gate is a combined circuit of 3 CNOT gates and the overall effect is that two
input qubits are swapped at the output. The Action and truth table of the swap gate is
as follows.
4) Controlled Z Gate
In Controlled Z Gate, The operation of Z Gate is controlled by a Control Qubit. If the

control Qubit is |𝐴⟩ is equal to |1⟩ then only the Z gate transforms the Target Qubit
|𝐵⟩ as per the Pauli-Z operation.
The action of Controlled Z-Gate could is specified by a matrix as follows.
The schematic circuit of controlled Z gate and the truth table are as follows
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
5) Toffoli Gate
The Toffoli Gate is also known as CCNOT Gate (Controlled-Controlled-Not). It

has three inputs out of which two are Control Qubits and one is the Target
Qubit. The Target Qubit flips only when both the Control Qubits are |1⟩. The
two Control Qubits are not altered during the operation.
The matrix representation of Toffoli Gate is given by
The schematic circuit of Toffoli Gate is as follows
The truth table for Toffoli gate is as follows
The Toffolli matrix is unitary. The Toffolli Gate is its own inverse. It could be
used for NAND Gate Simulation.
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Applied Physics for CSE Stream Sai Vidya Institute Of Technology
CBCS-2022 Scheme
MODULE 4
Electrical Properties of Materials and Applications

Assumptions of classical free electron theory:
 A metal is imagined as the structure of 3-dimensional array of ions in between which, there are
free moving valence electrons confined to the body of the material. Such freely moving
electrons cause electrical conduction under an applied field and hence referred to as conduction
electrons
 The free electrons are treated as equivalent to gas molecules and they are assumed to obey the
laws of kinetic theory of gases. In the absence of the field, the energy associated with each
electron at a temperature T is given by 3/2 kT, where k is a Boltzmann constant.
It is related to the kinetic energy.
3/2 kT = ½ mvth2
Where vth is the thermal velocity same as root mean square velocity.
 The electric potential due to the ionic cores is taken to be essentially constant throughout the
body of the metal and the effect of repulsion between the electrons is considered insignificant.
 The electric current in a metal due to an applied field is a consequence of the drift velocity in a
direction opposite to the direction of the field.
Drift velocity (vd):
The average velocity of occupied by the electrons in the steady state in an applied electric field is
called drift velocity.
𝑒𝐸𝜏
The drift velocity vd =
𝑚
Thermal velocity(Vth ):
The velocity of electrons in random motion due to thermal agitation called thermal velocity.
Mean free path ():
The average distance travelled by the conduction electrons between any two successive collisions
with lattice ions.
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
Temperature dependence of resistivity of a metal:
All metals are good conductors of electricity. The electrical conductivity of metal varies with the
temperature. The electrical resistance of a metal, to the flow of current, is due to scattering of
conduction electrons by lattice vibrations. When the temperature increases the amplitude of lattice
vibrations also increases, thereby increasing the resistance. The dependence of resistance of metal
(non-superconducting state) is shown in figure. The resistance decreases with temperature and
reaches a minimum value at T = 0K. The residual resistance at T = 0K is due to impurities in the
metal.
By Matthiessen’s rule
ρ = ρo + ρ(T)
Where ‘ρ’ is the resistivity of the given material, ‘ρo’is the residual resistivity and ‘ρ (T)’ is the
temperature dependent part of resistivity.
“The total resistivity of a metal is the sum of the resistivity due to phonon scattering which
is temperature dependent and the resistivity due to scattering by impurities which is
temperature dependent”
Expression for electrical conductivity of conductor according to classical free electron theory
According to classical free electron theory the expression for electrical conductivity is given by
ne2 τ
σCFET = m
Where σ - Electrical conductivity

n- Electron density
τ − mean collision time
m- mass of electron
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Failures of classical free electron theory:
Electrical and thermal conductivities can be explained from classical free electron theory. It fails
to account the facts such as specific heat, temperature dependence of conductivity and dependence
of electrical conductivity on electron concentration.
i) Specific heat: The molar specific heat of a gas at constant volume is

3
Cv = R
2
As per the classical free electron theory, free electrons in a metal are expected to behave just as
gas molecules. Thus the above equation holds good equally well for the free electrons also.
But experimentally it was found that, the contribution to the specific heat of a metal by its
conduction electrons was
CV=10-4RT
which is for lower than the expected value. Also according to the theory the specific heat is
independent of temperature whereas experimentally specific heat is proportional to temperature.
ii)Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:
Experimentally, electrical conductivity σ is inversely proportional to the temperature T.

1
i.e. σexp α → (1)
T
According to the assumptions of classical free electron theory
Since Vth α √T
1 1
But τα Vth, τα ,
√T
substituting in conductivity equation we get

ne2 τ ne2
σCFET = =m
m √T
1
Or σCFET α →(2)
T
From equations (1) & (2) it is clear that the experimental value is not agreeing with the theory.
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iii) Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration:
According to classical free electron the theory
ne2
σ= i.e., σ α n, where n is the electron concentration,
m
Consider copper and aluminum. Their electrical conductivities are 5.88×107/Ωm and
3.65x107/Ωm. The electron concentrations for copper and aluminum are 8.45×1028/m3and
18.06x1028/m3. Hence the classical free electron theory fails to explain the dependence of σ on
electron concentration.
Experimental results:
Metals Electron concentration(n) conductivity (σ)
Copper 8.45×1028/m3 5.88x107/Ωm

Aluminium 18.06x1028/m3 3.65x107/ Ωm
Quantum free electron theory:
Assumptions of quantum free electron theory:
 The energy values of the conduction electrons are quantized. The allowed energy values are
realized in terms of a set of energy values.
 The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels occur as per Pauli’s exclusion
principle.
 The electrons travel with a constant potential inside the metal but confined within its boundaries.
 The attraction between the electrons and the lattice ions and the repulsion between the electrons
themselves are ignored.
Density of states g(E):

Density of states is defined as the number of allowed energy states per unit energy range per unit
volume in the valance band of a material. It is denoted as g(E).
A graph of g(E) verses E is shown below.
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Consider an energy band spread in an energy interval between E1 and E2. Below E1 and above E2
there are energy gaps. g(E) represents the density of states at E. As dE is small, it is assumed that
g(E) is constant between E and E+dE. The density of states in range E and (E+dE) is denoted by
g(E)dE.
 3
 1
i.e. g(E)dE =  8 2  m 2
 E 2 dE
 h3 

 

It is clear g(E) is proportional to √E in the interval dE
Fermi energy and Fermi level:
The energy of electrons corresponding to the highest occupied energy level at absolute 0°K is
called Fermi energy and the energy level is called Fermi level.
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Fermi factor:
Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given energy state by the electrons in a material
at thermal equilibrium.
The probability f(E) that a given energy state with energy E is occupied by the electrons at a steady
temperature T is given by
1
f (E)  ( E  EF )
e kT
1
f(E) is called the Fermi factor.
Dependence of Fermi factor with temperature and energy:
The dependence of Fermi factor on temperature and energy is as shown in the figure.
i) Probability of occupation for E<EF at T=0K:
When T=0K and E<EF

1 1
f(E) = e−∞ +1 = 0+1 = 1
The probability of occupation of energy state is 100%
f(E)=1 for E<EF.
f(E)=1 means the energy level is certainly occupied and E<EF applies to all energy levels below
EF. Therefore at T=0K all the energy levels below the Fermi level are occupied.
ii) Probability of occupation for E>EF at T=0K:
When T=0K and E>EF

1 1
f(E) = e∞+1 = ∞ = 0
f(E)=0 for E>EF
... At T=0K, all the energy levels above Fermi levels are unoccupied. Hence at T=0K the variation
of f(E) for different energy values, becomes a step function as shown in the above figure.
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iii) The probability of occupation at ordinary temperature( for E≈EF at T>0K)
At ordinary temperatures though the value of probability remains 1, for E<E F it starts reducing
from 1 for values of E close to but lesser than EF as in the figure.
The values of f(E)becomes ½ at E=EF
This is because for E=EF
e(E−Ef )⁄kT = e0 = 1
1 1 1
.. . f(E) = = 1+1 = 2
e(E−Ef )⁄kT +1
Further for E>EF the probability value falls off to zero rapidly.
Hence, the Fermi energy is the most probable or the average energy of the electrons across which
the energy transitions occur at temperature above zero degree absolute.
Super Conductivity:
Super conductivity is the phenomenon observed in some metals and materials. Kammerlingh
Onnes in 1911 observed that the electrical resistivity of pure mercury drops abruptly to zero at
about 4.2K .This state is called super conducting state. The material is called superconductor .The
temperature at which they attain superconductivity is called critical temperature Tc.
Temperature dependence of resistivity of a superconductor:
One of the most interesting properties of solid at low temperature is that electrical resistivity of
metals and alloys vanish entirely below a certain temperature. This zero resistivity or infinite
conductivity is known as superconductivity. Temperature at which transition takes place is known
as transition temperature or critical temperature (Tc). Above the transition temperature, the
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substance is in the normal state and below it will be in superconducting state. Tc value is different
for different materials.
“The resistance offered by certain materials to the flow of electric current abruptly drop to zero
below a threshold temperature. This phenomenon is called superconductivity and threshold
temperature is called “critical temperature”.
Meissner effect:
A superconducting material kept in a magnetic field expels the magnetic flux out of its body when
it is cooled below the critical temperature and thus becomes perfect diamagnet. This effect is called
Meissner effect.
Fig: Superconductor sample subjected to an applied magnetic field with temperature (i) above
and (ii) below TC. The flux expulsion below Tc is called Meissner effect
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When the temperature is lowered to Tc, the flux is suddenly and completely expelled, as the
specimen becomes superconducting. The Meissner effect is reversible. When the temperature is
raised the flux penetrates the material, after it reaches Tc. Then the substance will be in the normal
state.
The magnetic induction inside the specimen
B = µo (H + M)
Where 'H' is the intensity of the magnetizing field and ‘M’ is the magnetization produced within
the material.
For T < Tc, B=0
µ0 (H + M) = 0
M = -H
M/H = -1= χ
Susceptibility is -1 i.e. it is perfect diamagnetism.
Hence superconducting material do not allow the magnetic flux to exist inside the material.
Experimental demonstration of Meissner effect:
Consider a primary coil and a secondary coil, wound on a superconducting material. The primary
coil is connected to a battery and a key. The secondary coil is connected to ballistic galvanometer
(BG). When the key is closed the current flows through the primary coil and the magnetic field is
produced. This flux is linked with the secondary coil and the current flows through the secondary
coil which makes a deflection in the galvanometer. If the primary current is steady the magnetic
flux and the flux linked with the coil will become steady. As the temperature of the specimen is
decreased below the critical temperature, BG suddenly shows a deflection indicating that the flux
linked with the secondary coil is changed. This is due to the expulsion of the magnetic flux from
the specimen.
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Effect of magnetic field:
Superconductivity can be destroyed by applying magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic field
required to destroy the superconductivity below the Tc is called critical field. It is denoted by Hc(T).
If ‘T’ is the temperature of the superconducting material, ‘Tc’ is the critical temperature, ‘Hc’ is
the critical field and ‘Ho’ is the critical field at 0oK.
They are related by
Hc = Ho[1-(T/Tc)2]
By applying magnetic field greater than Ho, the material can never become superconductor
whatever may be the low temperature. The critical field need not be external but large current
flowing in superconducting ring produce critical field and destroys superconductivity.
Types of superconductors:
There are two types of superconductors. They are type-I superconductors and type-II
superconductors.
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i)Type-I superconductors:
Type-I superconductors exhibit complete Meissner effect. Below the critical field it behaves as
perfect diamagnetic. If the external magnetic field increases beyond Hc the superconducting
specimen gets converted to normal state. The magnetic flux penetrates and resistance increase
from zero to some value. As the critical field is very low for type-I superconductors, they are not
used in construction of solenoids and superconducting magnets.
ii) Type-II superconductors
Type-II superconductors are hard superconductors. They exist in three states
i) Superconducting state
ii) Mixed state
iii) Normal state
They are having two critical fields Hc1 and Hc2. For the field less then Hc1, it expels the magnetic
field completely and becomes a perfect diamagnetic. Between Hc1 and Hc2 the flux starts
penetrating throughout the specimen. This state is called vortex state. Hc2 is 100 times higher than
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
Hc1. At Hc2 the flux penetrates completely and becomes normal conductor. Type-II
superconductors are used in the manufacturing of the superconducting magnets of high magnetic
fields above 10 Tesla.
BCS theory superconductivity:
 Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) in 1957 explained the phenomenon of superconductivity
based on the formation of cooper pairs. It is called BCS theory. It is a quantum mechanical
concept.
 When a current flow in a superconductor, electrons come near a positive ion core of lattice, due
to attractive force. The ion core also gets displaced from its position, which is called lattice
distortion. The lattice vibrations are quantized in a term called Phonons.
 Now an electron which comes near that place will interact with the distorted lattice. This tends
to reduce the energy of the electron. It is equivalent to interaction between the two electrons
through the lattice. This leads to the formation of cooper pairs.
 “Cooper pairs are a bound pair of electrons formed by the interaction between the electrons with
opposite spin and momentum in a phonon field”.
 When the electrons flow in the form of cooper pairs in materials, they do not encounter any
scattering and the resistance factor vanishes or in other words conductivity becomes infinity
which is called as superconductivity.
 In superconducting state electron-phonon interaction is stronger than the coulomb force of
attraction of electrons. Cooper pairs are not scattered by the lattice points. They travel freely
without slow down as their energy is not transferred. Due to this they do not possess any
electrical resistivity.
High temperature superconductors:
The term high-temperature superconductor was first used to designate the new family of cuprate-
perovskite ceramic materials discovered by Bednorz and Müller in 1986. The first high-
temperature superconductor, LaBaCuO, with a transition temperature of 30 K and in the same year
LSCO (La2-xSrxCuO4) discovered with TC of 40K. In 1987 it was shown that superconductors
with Tc greater than 77K could be prepared, this temperature is greater than the liquid helium
temperature. YBa2Cu3O7 was discovered to have a Tc of 92 K. Bismuth/lead strontium Calcium
Copper (Bi Pb)2Sr2 Ca2Cu3Ox (x<0.1) with Tc=105K. Thallium barium Calcium copper oxide (Tl
Ba2Ca2Cu3O4) of Tc=115K. Mercury barium calcium copper oxide (Hg Ba2Ca2Cu3O4) with
Tc=135K.
All high temperature superconductors are different types of oxides of copper, and bear a particular
type of crystal structure called Perovskite crystal structure. The number of copper layers increases
the Tc value increases. The current in the high TC materials is direction dependent. It is strong in
parallel to copper-oxygen planes and weak in perpendicular to copper-oxygen planes.
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
High Tc materials are Type-II superconductors and they are brittle and don’t carry enough current.
The formation of electron pairs is not due to interaction of electron lattice as in the BCS theory.
Still it is not clear what does cause the formation of pairs. Research is being conducting in this
direction. The high temperature superconductors are useful in high field applications. It can carry
high currents of 105 to 106 amps in moderate magnetic fields. They are used in military
applications, Josephson junction in SQUIDS, under sea communication, submarines.
Quantum Tunneling:
Consider two superconductors separated by insulating barrier of thickness less than 10-20 Å, then
the cooper pairs tunneling through the insulating barrier is known as Josephson superconducting
quantum tunneling. The junction between the two superconductors with insulating barrier is
known as Josephson junction.
Josephson junction is an arrangement of two superconductors separated by an insulating barrier.

When the barrier is thin enough, cooper pairs from one superconductor can tunnel through the
barrier and reach the other superconductor.
Josephson proposed that this kind of tunneling leads to three kinds of effect, namely
1. dc Josephson effect
2. ac Josephson effect
3. quantum interference
1. dc Josephson effect
As per dc Josephson Effect, the tunneling of cooper pairs through the junction occurs without any
resistance, which results in a steady dc current without any application of voltage between the two
superconductors.
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
The super current through the junction is given by,

IS = IC sin Ф0
Where, Ф0 = phase difference between the wave functions describing the cooper pairs on both the
sides of the junction.
IC = critical current at zero voltage which depends on the thickness and width of the insulating
layer.
2. ac Josephson effect
When a dc voltage is applied across the junction, the tunneling of cooper pairs occur in such a way
than an ac current would develop in the junction and this effect is called as ac Josephson Effect.
When a potential difference of ‘V’ is applied between the two sides of the junction then a radio
frequency (RF) current oscillations across the junction is generated.
I = IC sin(Ф0 + ∆Ф)
The energies of the cooper pairs on both sides of the barrier difference is E = hν = 2eV (Calculated
using quantum mechanical concept).
2 eV
Therefore it can be shown that, ∆Ф = ωt = 2πt ( h
)
2 eV
Hence, I = IC sin (Ф0 + 2πt ( ))
h
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
2 eV
I = Alternating current of frequency ν = h
It shows that a photon of frequency ν is emitted or absorbed when a cooper pair crosses the
junction. Thus when a voltage is applied across the junction, an ac current gets generated. This is
known as ac Josephson Effect.
SQUID
 SQUID is an acronym for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device.

 It is an Ultra-sensitive measuring instrument used for the detection of very weak magnetic fields
of the order of 10-14 T.
 A SQUID is formed by incorporating two Josephson’s junction in the loop of a superconducting
material.
 When a magnetic field is applied to this superconducting circuit, it induces a circulating current
which produces just that much opposing magnetic field so as to exclude the flux from the loop.
[Note: The flux remains excluded as long as the junction current do not exceed a critical value.
But the circuit switches to resistive phase and thereby the flux passes into the loop once the current
in either of the junction or in both the junction exceed the critical value. Thus the loop acts like a
gate to allow or exclude the flux]
DC Squids
 DC Squids are nothing but a double junction SQUIDS.

 A DC SQUID consists of two Josephson junctions connected in parallel on a closed
superconducting loop as shown in the Fig.
 In this device the two weak links are not shorted by superconductor path; therefore the dc
current-voltage characteristics can be observed.
 This device applies current slightly greater than the critical current and one can monitor the
voltage drop across the device.
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
RF SQUIDS
 The single junction SQUIDS are also known as RF SQUIDS.

 The junction is shorted by superconductor path; therefore the voltage response is obtained by
coupling the loop to a RF bias tank circuit.
 The RF (Radio Frequency) SQUID is a one-junction SQUID loop that can be used as a
magnetic field detector.
 In this configuration, the RF SQUID is inductively coupled to the inductance LT of an
LC tank circuit. The tank circuit is driven by an rf current, and the resultant rf voltage is
periodic in the ﬂux applied to the SQUID loop with period Φ0.
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MODULE-5- Physics of Animation
Animation
Animation is the process of displaying still images (drawings, models, or even puppets)
in a rapid sequence to create the illusion of movement. Because our eyes can only
retain an image for approx. ⅒ th of a second, when multiple images appear in fast
succession, the brain blends them into a single moving image.
Frames and frames per second.

A frame is a single image in a sequence of pictures. A frame contains the image to be
displayed at a unique time in the animation. In general, one second of a video is
comprised of 24 or 30 frames per second also known as FPS. The frame is a
combination of the image and the time of the image when exposed to the view. An
extract of frames in a row makes the animation.
The Taxonomy of Physics-Based Animation Methods

At the highest level, the field of physics-based animation and simulation can roughly
be subdivided into two large groups:
1. Kinematics is the study of motion without consideration of mass or forces.
2. Dynamics is the study of motion taking mass and forces into consideration.
kinematics and dynamics come in two flavors or subgroups:
1. Inverse is the study of motion knowing the starting and ending points.
2. Forward is the study of motion solely given the starting point.
Elucidate the Importance of Size & Scale, Weight and strength

in animations (8M)
Size and Scale

The size and scale of characters often play a central role in a story’s plot.
We cannot imagine a Superman be without his height and bulging biceps? Some
characters, like the Incredible Hulk, are even named after their body types.
We can equate large characters with weight and strength, and smaller characters with
agility and speed. As it is noticeable in real life scenarios that, larger people and
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animals do have a larger capacity for strength, while smaller critters can move and
maneuver faster than their large counterparts.
When designing characters, we can run into different situations having to do with size
and scale, such as:
1. Human or animal-based characters that are much larger than we see in our
everyday experience. Superheroes, Greek gods, monsters,
2. Human or animal-based characters that are much smaller than we are accustomed
to, such as fairies and elves.
3. Characters that need to be noticeably larger, smaller, older, heavier, lighter, or more
energetic than other characters.
4. Characters that are child versions of older characters. An example would be an

animation featuring a mother cat and her kittens. If the kittens are created and
animated with the same proportions and timing as the mother cat, they won’t look like
kittens; they’ll just look like very small adult cats.
Proportion and Scale

Creating a larger or smaller character is not just a matter of scaling everything about
the character uniformly.
Example: When we scale a cube, its volume changes much more dramatically than its
surface area. Let us say each edge of the cube is 1 unit length. The area of one side of
the cube is 1 square unit, and the volume of the cube is 1 cubed unit.
If we double the size of the cube along each dimension, its height increases by 2 times,
the surface area increases by 4 times, and its volume increases by 8 times. While the
area increases by squares as we scale the object, the volume changes by cubes.
Wight and strength

Body weight is proportional to volume. The abilities of our muscles and bones, however
increase by area because their abilities depend more on cross-sectional area than
volume.
To increase a muscle or bone’s strength, we need to increase its cross- sectional area.
To double a muscle’s strength, for example, you would multiply its width by √2.
To triple the strength, multiply the width by √3.
Since strength increases by squares and weight increases by cubes, the proportion of
a character’s weight that it can lift does not scale proportionally to its size.
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Let us take an example of a somewhat average human man. At 6 feet tall, he weighs
180 pounds and can lift 90 pounds. He can lift half his body weight.
If we scale up the body size by a factor of 2, the weight increases by a factor of 8. Such
a character could then lift more weight. But since he weighs more than 8 times more
than he did before, he cannot lift his arms and legs as easily as a normal man. Such
a giant gains strength, but loses agility.
Discuss the timing in Linear motion, Uniform Motion, ease in (Slow in )

and ease out (slow out) (8M)
Timing animation refers to the duration of an action.
In animation, timing of action consists of placing objects or characters in particular

locations at specific frames to give the illusion of motion.
Line of action: Individual drawings or poses have a line of action, which indicates the
visual flow of action at that single image.
Path of action Motion has a path of action, which indicates the path along which the
object or character moves. The path of action refers to the object’s motion in space.
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An object moving with linear motion might speed up, slow down or move with a
constant speed and it follows a linear path.
1) Uniform motion: It is the easiest to animate because the distance the object travels
between frames is always the same.
The object moves the same distance between consecutive frames. The longer the
distance between frames, the higher the speed.
2) Ease out / Speed up
The object is speeding up i.e it’s speed increases gradually, often from a still position.
The frames are located such that, initially the frames are closely spaced with gradual
increase in the spacings.
3) Ease in/ Slowed down.
The object is slowing down, it’s speed decreases gradually often in preparation for
stopping.
The frames are located such that, initially the frames are widely spaced with gradual
decrease in the spacings of the frames.
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4) Ease out- Ease in or Ease-Ease.
It is the combination of speed up and slowed down. That is the object initially gets speed
up initially and finally comes to still position with slowing down.
In the beginning the frames are located such that, initially the frames are closely spaced
with gradual increase in the spacings up to middle position.
From the middle position onwards, the frames are widely spaced with gradual decrease
in the spacings of the frames towards the still position.
Illustrate the odd rule and odd rule multipliers with a suitable
example (8M)
• When acceleration is constant, The Odd Rule is used (Simple Pattern of Odd
Numbers) to time the frames.
• Between consecutive frames, the distance moved by the object is a multiple of an

odd number.
• For acceleration, the distance between frames increases by multiples of 1, 3, 5, 7,

etc.
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• For deceleration, the multiples start at a higher odd number and decrease, for
example 7, 5, 3, 1.
• The Odd Rule is a multiplying system based on the smallest distance (base distance)
travelled between two frames in the sequence
• Base distance :For a slow-out is the distance between the first two frames and for
a slow-in: the distance between the last two frames is called as the base distance.
Odd Rule Multipliers can be used to calculate the distance from the first frame to the
current frame and use these distances to place the object on specific frames
Odd multipliers for Consecutive Frames = ((Frame# − 1) × 2 − 1)
Multiplier for distance from first frame to current frame = (Current Frame# − 1)2
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Odd rule scenarios
• Base Distance Known Speeding up : Base Distance * odd rule multipliers from
the first frame
• Base Distance Known Slowing Down : The base distance * Odd rule multipliers
backwards.
• Total Distance and Number of Frames Known, Speeding Up :
Base distance = Total distance
(Last frame number –1)2
Example: Suppose there is a jump push (take-off) with constant acceleration over 5
frames, and the total distance travelled is 0.4m. Using the formula above, we find the
base distance.
𝟎. 𝟒𝒎 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟐
= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝒎
(𝟓 − 𝟏) 𝟏𝟔
A slowing in object in an animation has a first frame distance of 0.5 m

and the slow in frame 0.35m. Calculate the base distance and the number
of frames in sequence (5M)
For the given example the illustration can be written as
One of the features of the Odd Rule is that the base distance is always half the
difference between any two adjacent distances.
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Thus, Consecutive Frame Multiplier ’7’ Corresponds to ’4’ Frames
Describe Jumping, parts of Jump and Jump Magnification (8M)

A jump is an action where the character’s entire body is in the air, and both the
character’s feet leave the ground at roughly the same time.
A jump action includes a take-off, free movement through the air, and a landing.
Parts of Jump :
Crouch—A squatting pose taken as preparation for jumping.
Take off—Character pushes up fast and straightens legs with feet still on the ground.
The amount of time (or number of frames) needed for the push is called the push time.
In the air— Both the character’s feet are off the ground, and the character’s CG moves
in a parabolic arc as any free-falling body would.
Landing—Character touches the ground and bends knees to return to a crouch. The
distance from the character’s CG when her feet hit to the ground to the point where the
character stops crouching is called the stop height. The stop height is not always exactly
the same as the push height.
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
Push height: The distance between Center of gravity (CG) in crouch position to CG of
Take off position
Jump Height: The distance between CG in takeoff position to CG of position at air.
Stop Height: The distance between CG in Landing position to CG of Crouch position

during landing.
Jump Magnification
Jump Magnification is in fact an exact ratio that tells one how much the character has
to accelerate against gravity to get in to the air.
Push time: The number of frames required to move from ‘crouch position’ to ‘Take off
position’.
Jump time: The number of frames required to move from ‘Take off position’ to ‘In air
position’.
Stop time: The number of frames required to move from ‘In air position’ to ‘Landing
position’.
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Example:
Push Time: 5 frames
Push Height: 0.4m
Stop Height: 0.5m
Stop Time = (5 * 0.5) / 0.4 = 6 frames
Define Strides and Gait.
Walking
Walks feature all the basics of mechanics while including personality. The ability to
animate walk cycles is one of the
most important skills a character animator needs to master.
Strides and Steps

A step is one step with one foot. A stride is two steps, one with each foot. Stride length
is the distance the character travels in a stride, measured from the same part of the
foot. Step and stride length indicate lengthwise spacing for the feet during a walk.
Gait is the timing of the motion for each foot, including how long each foot is on the
ground or in the air.
During a walk, the number of feet the character has on the ground changes from one
foot (single support) to two feet (double support) and then back to one foot. You can plot
the time each foot is on the ground to see the single and double support times over time.
A normal walking gait ranges from 1/ 3 to 2/3 of a second per step, with 1/2 second
being average.
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Statistical Physics for Computing
Distinguish between Descriptive Statistics and Inferential
statistics
Statistical physics is a branch of physics that evolved from a foundation of statistical
mechanics, which uses methods of probability theory and statistics, particularly the
mathematical tools for dealing with large populations and approximations, in solving
physical problems.
Descriptive statistics: The term “descriptive statistics” refers to summarizing and

organizing the characteristics of a data set. A data set is a collection of responses or
observations from a sample or entire population.
In quantitative research, after collecting data, the first step of statistical analysis is to
describe characteristics of the responses, such as the average of one variable (e.g., age),
or the relation between two variables (e.g., age and creativity).
Descriptive statistics comprises three main categories – Frequency Distribution,

Measures of Central Tendency, and Measures of Variability.
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
Inferential Statistics:
Inferential Statistics is a method that allows us to use information collected from a
sample to make decisions, predictions, or inferences from a population. The major
inferential statistics are based on statistical models such as Analysis of Variance, chi-
square test, student’s t distribution, regression analysis, etc.
Methods of inferential statistics:
• Estimation of parameters
• Testing of hypothesis
Explain the Poisson’s distribution with an example

Poisson Distribution If the probability p is so small that the function has
significant value only for very small k, then the distribution of events can be
approximated by the Poisson Distribution. Probability mass function A discrete Radom
variable X is said to have a Poisson distribution, with parameter , if it has a probability
Mass Function given by
Here k is the number of occurrences, e is Euler’s Number,! is the factorial function. The
positive real number λ is equal to the expected value of X and also to its Variance. The
Poisson distribution may be used in the design of experiments such as scattering
experiments where a small number of events are seen.
Example of probability for Poisson distributions On a particular river, overflow floods

occur once every 100 years on average. Calculate the probability of k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
or 6 overflow floods in a 100 year interval, assuming the Poisson model is appropriate.
Because the average event rate is one overflow flood per 100 years, λ = 1
Discuss the modelling probability for proton decay
Proton decay
Proton decay is a rare type of radioactive decay of nuclei containing excess protons, in
which a proton is simply ejected from the nucleus. The mechanism of the decay process
is very similar to alpha decay. Proton decay is also a quantum tunneling process.
Modeling the Probability for Proton Decay
The probability of observing a proton decay can be estimated from the nature of particle
decay and the application of Poisson Statistics. The number of protons N can be modeled
by the decay equation
Where:
N0: is the initial quantity of the element
λ: is the radioactive decay constant
t: is time
N(t): is the quantity of the element remaining after time t.
Here 𝜆 = 1/𝑡 = 10−33/ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 is the probability that any given proton will decay in a year.
13
CBCS-2022 Scheme
Since the decay constant λ is so small, the exponential can be represented by the first two terms of the
Exponential Series.
Most recently the experiment on proton decay has been done by Super Kamiokande,
Japan which started observation in 1996. It is a large water Cherenkov detector which
is the most sensitive detector in the world used to examine proton decay with the huge
source with 7.5×1033 protons
For one year of observation, the number of expected proton decays is then
No-N = No λ t
Proton decay has not been detected experimentally till now probably because of fact that
the event is extremely rare. Assuming that λ = 3 observed decays per year is mean, then
the Poisson distribution function tells us that the probability for zero observations of
decay is
This low probability for a null result suggests that the proposed lifetime of 10 33 years is
too short.
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
Discuss the salient features of normal distribution using bell
curves
Normal Distribution:
The bell curve is a normal probability distribution of variables plotted on the graph and
is like a bell shape where the highest or top point of the curve represents the most
probable event out of all the series data.
CHARACTERISTICS
1. The Normal Curve is Symmetrical: The normal probability curve is symmetrical

around its vertical axis called ordinate which represents the mean of distribution. The
symmetry about the ordinate at the central point of the curve implies that the size,
shape, and slope of the curve on one side of the curve is identical to that of the other.
In other words, the left and right halves of the middle central point are mirror images,
as shown in the figure given here.
2. The Normal Curve is Unimodel: Since there is only one maximum point in the curve,
thus the normal probability curve is unimodal, i.e. it has only one mode.
3. The Normal Curve is Bilateral: The total area under the curve is 1, the 50% area of
the curve lies to the left side of the maximum central ordinate and 50% of the area lies
to the right side. Hence the curve is bilateral.
4. The Normal Curve is a mathematical model in behavioral Sciences: This curve is used
as a measurement scale. The measurement un it of this scale is ± 1σ (the unit standard
deviation).
Standard Deviations: The standard normal distribution is a normal probability

distribution that has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. The Standard Deviation
is a measure of how spread-out numbers are. As per 3 sigma rule of normal distribution,
I. 68% of values are within 1 standard deviation of the mean.
II. 95% of values are within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
III. 99.7%of values are within 3 standard deviations of the mean
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CBCS-2022 Scheme
Mention the general pattern of Monte-Carlo Method and hence

determine the value of pi.
Monte-Carlo Method:
Monte Carlo Simulation, also known as the Monte Carlo Method or a multiple
probability simulation, is a mathematical technique, which is used to estimate the
possible outcomes of an uncertain event. The Monte Carlo Method was invented by John
von Neumann and Stanislaw Ulam during World War II to improve decision-making
under uncertain conditions. It was named after a well-known casino town, called
Monaco.
The statistical method of understanding complex physical or mathematical systems by

using randomly generated numbers as input into those systems to generate a range of
solutions.
How to use Monte Carlo methods
1. Define a domain of possible inputs
2. Generate inputs randomly from a probability distribution over the domain

16
CBCS-2022 Scheme
3. Perform a deterministic computation on the inputs
4. Aggregate the results
Estimation of Pi
• The idea is to simulate random (x, y) points in a 2-D plane with the domain as a
square of side 2r units centered on (0,0).
• Imagine a circle inside the same domain with the same radius r and inscribed
into the square.
• We then calculate the ratio of the number of points that lay inside the circle and
the total number of generated points.
Refer to the image below:
We know that the area of the circle πr 2 , while that of square 4r2 . The ratio of these
two areas is as follows:
17

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Applied Physics for CSE Stream (BPHYS102/202) Sai Vidya Institute Of Technology

Quantum Computing is the area of study focused on developing computing methods

Moore’s law & its End

Statement: “The number of transistors on a microchip doubles every year"

Differences Between Classical and Quantum Computing

Classical computing Quantum computing

It is large scale integrated multi- It is high speed parallel computer

Information storage is bit based on Information storage is Quantum bit

Information processing is carried out by Information processing is carried out

Operations are defined by Boolean Operations are defined by linear

Circuit behaviour is governed by Circuit behavior is governed explicitly

This is written as, |𝜓⟩ = α |0⟩+ β |1⟩

Qubit is a basic unit in which of information in a quantum computer.

i) A qubit can be in a superposed state of the two states 0 and 1.

A Qubit can be physically implemented by the two states of an electron or

Representation of qubit by Bloch Sphere

The Bloch sphere is represented by the equation

Single and Two qubits and Extension to N qubits

The matrix representation of |0⟩ and |1⟩ is given by

|0⟩ = (1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |1⟩ = (0)

Dirac Representation and Matrix Operations

Matrix representation of |0⟩ and |1⟩

|0⟩ = (1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |1⟩ = (0)

The conjugate of matrix A is

Transpose of a matrix, switches rows with columns.

 The conjugate of matrix A is

Unitary Matrix (U)

 A matrix U is unitary, if the matrix product of U and its conjugate transpose U †

Row and Column matrix (Inner product)

 A Row matrix is a vector represented by Brac vector . < |

Orthogonality and Orthonormal

In quantum computing a quantum logic gate is a basic quantum circuit operating on a

1) Quantum Not Gate:

Hence the operation of Quantum Not Gate on quantum state is given by

𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ X 𝛼 |1⟩ + 𝛽 |0⟩

Quantum Not Gate

Truth table of Quantum Not Gate

𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ 𝛼 |1⟩ + 𝛽 |0⟩

2) Pauli-X,Y and Z Gates

The Pauli-X Gate is nothing but Quantum Not Gate.

ii) Pauli Y Gate

Thus the Y-Gate defines the transformation

𝑌 (𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩) = 𝛼𝑌 |0⟩ + 𝛽𝑌 |1⟩ = −𝑖𝛽 |0⟩ +𝑖𝛼 |1⟩

Quantum Y-Gate is represented by

𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ Y −𝑖𝛽 |0⟩ +𝑖𝛼 |1⟩

𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ −𝑖𝛽 |0⟩ +𝑖𝛼 |1⟩

iii) Pauli Z Gate

1. For input |0⟩ the output remains unchanged.

2. For input |1⟩ the output is − |1⟩.

(𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩) = 𝛼𝑍 |0⟩ + 𝛽𝑍 |1⟩ = 𝛼 |0⟩ − 𝛽 |1⟩

𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ Z 𝛼 |0⟩ - 𝛽 |1⟩

Truth table of Quantum Z Gate

𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ 𝛼 |0⟩ - 𝛽 |1⟩

The Hadamard Gate satisfies Unitary Condition. 𝐻 †𝐻 = 𝐼

The truth-table for the Hadamard Gate is as follows.

|0⟩ + |1⟩ |0⟩ − |1⟩

The Matrix representation of the S gate is given by

The effect of S gate on input |0⟩ is given by

Similarly the effect of S gate on input |1⟩ is given by