ENSE 013

WATER QUALITY AND DRINKING STANDARDS

WATER QUALITY

The quality of water, whether it is used for drinking, irrigation, or recreational

purposes, is significant for health in both developing and developed countries worldwide.
The first problem with water is rather obvious: A source of water must be found. Second,
when accessible water is found it must be suitable for human consumption.

Water quality is important, as it can have a major impact on health through outbreaks
of waterborne disease and by contributing to the background rates of disease. Accordingly,
water quality standards are important to protect public health.

Water quality refers to those characteristics or range of characteristics that make

water appealing and useful.
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS

The effort to regulate drinking water and wastewater effluent has increased since the
early 1900s. Beginning with an effort to control the discharge of wastewater into the
environment, preliminary regulatory efforts focused on protecting public health.

Regulatory influence on water quality improvements in both wastewater and drinking

water took a giant step forward in the 1970s. The Water Pollution Control Act
Amendments of 1972 (Clean Water Act), established national water pollution control goals.
At about the same time, the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) passed by Congress in 1974
initiated a new era in the field of drinking water supply to the public.
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS

CLEAN WATER ACT

In 1972, Congress adopted the Clean Water Act (CWA), which established a
framework for achieving its national objective “to restore and maintain the chemical,
physical, and biological integrity of the nation’s waters.”. Congress decreed that, where
attainable, water quality “provides for the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and
wildlife and provides for recreation in and on the water.” These goals are referred to as the
“fishable and swimmable” goals of the Act.

A National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) program was established

based on uniform technological minimums with which each point source discharger must
comply.
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS

SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT

The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) of 1974 mandated the USEPA to establish
drinking water standards for all public water systems serving 25 or more people or having
15 or more connections. Pursuant to this mandate, USEPA established maximum
contaminant levels for drinking water delivered through public water distribution systems.
The maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) of inorganics, organic chemicals, turbidity, and
microbiological contaminants.
USEPA Primary Drinking Water Standards
USEPA Primary Drinking Water Standards
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

These represent a category of parameters or characteristics that can be used to

describe water quality, including those that are apparent to the senses of smell, taste, sight,
and touch.

● Solids
● Turbidity
● Color
● Taste and odor
● Temperature
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

SOLIDS

Classified by their size and state, by their chemical characteristics, and by their size
distribution, solids can be dispersed in water in both suspended and dissolved forms. With
regard to size, solids in water and wastewater can be classified as suspended, settleable,
colloidal, or dissolved. Solids are also characterized as being volatile or nonvolatile.

In water treatment, the most effective means of removing solids from water is by
filtration. It should be pointed out, however, that not all solids, such as colloids and other
dissolved solids, can be removed by filtration.

● Wastewater is normally 99.9% water and 0.1% solids.

● If a wastewater sample is evaporated, the solids remaining are the total solids.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

TURBIDITY

The clarity of water is usually measured by its turbidity. Turbidity is a measure of the
extent to which light is either absorbed or scattered by suspended material in water. Both
the size and surface characteristics of the suspended material influence absorption and
scattering.

● Microorganisms and vegetable material may also contribute to turbidity.

● Detergents, soaps, and various emulsifying agents contribute to turbidity.

In water treatment, turbidity measurements are particularly important whenever

ultraviolet (UV) irradiation is used in the disinfection process. For UV irradiation to be
effective in disinfecting wastewater effluent, the UV light must be able to penetrate the
stream flow.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

COLOR

Water takes on color when foreign substances such as organic matter from soils,
vegetation, minerals, and aquatic organisms are present.

Color in water is classified as either true color or apparent color.

● True color is the color of water that is partly due to dissolved solids that remain after
removal of suspended matter.
● Color contributed by suspended matter is said to have apparent color

In water treatment, true color is the most difficult to remove.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

COLOR
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

COLOR

Water also has an intrinsic color, and this color has a unique origin. Intrinsic color is
easy to discern, as can be seen in Crater Lake, Oregon, which is known for its intense blue
color.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

TASTE AND ODOR

Domestic sewage should have a musty odor. Bubbling gas or a foul odor may indicate
industrial wastes, anaerobic (septic) conditions, and operational problems.

Water contaminants are attributable to contact with nature or human use. Taste and
odor in water are caused by a variety of substances such as minerals, metals, and salts
from the soil; constituents of wastewater; and end products produced in biological
reactions.
When water has a taste but no accompanying odor, the cause is usually inorganic
contamination. Water that tastes bitter is usually alkaline, whereas salty water is
commonly the result of metallic salts. When water has both taste and odor, however, the
likely cause is organic materials.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

TASTE AND ODOR

In water treatment, a common method used

to remove taste and odor is to oxidize the
materials that cause the problem. Oxidants
such as potassium permanganate and chlorine
are used.
Another common treatment method is to
feed powdered activated carbon before the
filter. The activated carbon has numerous small
openings that absorb the components that
cause the odor and tastes.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

TEMPERATURE

Water temperature does determine, in part, how efficiently certain water treatment
processes operate; for example, temperature has an effect on the rate at which chemicals
dissolve and react.
● When water is cold, more chemicals are required for efficient coagulation and
flocculation to take place.
● When water temperature is high, the result may be a higher chlorine demand
because of the increased reactivity, as well as an increased level of algae and other
organic matter in raw water.

Temperature also has a pronounced effect on the solubility of gases in water.

WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Chemical impurities can be natural or manmade (industrial), or they can be added to

raw water sources by enemy forces. Some chemical impurities cause water to behave as
either an acid or a base. Because either condition has an important bearing on the water
treatment process, the pH value must be determined. Water has been called the universal
solvent. This is, of course, a fitting description. The solvent capabilities of water are directly
related to its chemical characteristics or parameters.

● Total Dissolved Solids

● Alkalinity
● Hardness
● Fluorides
● Metals
● Organics
● Nutrients
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS

Because of the solvent properties of water, minerals dissolve from rocks and soil as
water passes over and through them to produce total dissolved solids (TDS), which are any
minerals, salts, metals, cations, or anions dissolved in water.
TDS constitute a part of total solids (TS) in water and are the material remaining in
water after filtration. Dissolved solids may be organic or inorganic.
Dissolved solids can be removed from water by distillation, electrodialysis, reverse
osmosis, or ion exchange. It is desirable to remove these dissolved minerals, gases, and
organic constituents because they may cause psychological effects and produce
aesthetically displeasing color, taste, and odors.
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

ALKALINITY

The major chemical constituents of alkalinity in natural water supplies are the
bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxyl ions.
Highly alkaline waters are unpalatable; however, this condition has little known
significance for human health.
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

HARDNESS

Hardness is due to the presence of multivalent metal ions, which come from minerals
dissolved in water. Hardness is based on the ability of these ions to react with soap to form
a precipitate or soap scum. In freshwater, the primary ions are calcium and magnesium;
however, iron and manganese may also contribute.

Hardness is classified as carbonate hardness or noncarbonate hardness. Carbonate

hardness is equal to alkalinity but a noncarbonate fraction may include nitrates and
chlorides. Hardness is either temporary or permanent. Carbonate hardness (temporary
hardness) can be removed by boiling. Noncarbonate hardness cannot be removed by
boiling and is classified as permanent.

Hardness values are expressed as an equivalent amount or equivalent weight of

calcium carbonate
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

HARDNESS

The use of hard water does offer some advantages, though, in that:
(1) hard water aids in the growth of teeth and bones
(2) hard water reduces the toxicity of poisoning by lead oxide from lead pipelines,
(3) soft waters are suspected to be associated with cardiovascular diseases
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

FLOURIDE

Fluoride is seldom found in appreciable quantities in surface waters and appears in

groundwater in only a few geographical regions. Fluoride is sometimes found in a few types
of igneous or sedimentary rocks. Fluoride is toxic to humans in large quantities.

Fluoride used in small concentrations (about 1.0 mg/L in drinking water) can be
beneficial. Experience has shown that drinking water containing a proper amount of
fluoride can reduce tooth decay by 65% in children between ages 12 to 15. When large
concentrations are used (>2.0 mg/L), discoloration of teeth may result.

Fluoride combines chemically with tooth enamel when permanent teeth are forming.
The result is teeth that are harder, stronger, and more resistant to decay
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

METALS

Although iron and manganese are most commonly found in groundwaters, surface
waters may also contain significant amounts at times. Metal ions are dissolved in
groundwater and surface water when the water is exposed to rock or soil containing the
metals, usually in the form of metal salts.

Toxic metals are present in only minute quantities in most natural water systems;
however, even in small quantities, toxic metals in drinking water are harmful to humans and
other organisms.

Arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, and silver are toxic metals that
may be dissolved in water. Arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury, all cumulative toxins, are
particularly hazardous. These particular metals are concentrated by the food chain,
thereby posing the greatest danger to organisms near the top of the chain.
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

ORGANICS

Organic chemicals in water primarily emanate from synthetic compounds that contain
carbon, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxin, and
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), all of which are toxic organic chemicals. These
synthesized compounds often persist and accumulate in the environment because they do
not readily breakdown in natural ecosystems.

The presence of organic matter in water is troublesome for the following reasons:
(1) color formation
(2) taste and odor problems
(3) oxygen depletion in streams
(4) interference with water treatment processes
(5) the formation of halogenated compounds when chlorine is added to disinfect water
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

NUTRIENTS

Nutrients (biostimulants) are essential building blocks for healthy aquatic

communities, but excess nutrients (especially nitrogen and phosphorus compounds)
overstimulate the growth of aquatic weeds and algae.

● Carbon is readily available from a number of natural sources, including alkalinity,

decaying products of organic matter, and dissolved carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.
● Nitrogen in water is commonly found in the form of nitrate (NO3). Nitrate in drinking
water can lead to serious problems. Specifically, nitrate poisoning in infant humans, as
well as animals, can cause serious problems and even death.
● In aquatic environments, phosphorus is found in the form of phosphate. Major sources
of phosphorus include phosphates in detergents, fertilizer and feedlot runoff, and
municipal wastewater discharges. Freshwater systems are most often limited by
phosphorus.
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The presence or absence of certain biological organisms is of primary importance to

the water/wastewater specialist. These are, of course, pathogens. Pathogens are organisms
that are capable of infecting or transmitting diseases in humans and animals. It should be
pointed out that these organisms are not native to aquatic systems and usually require an
animal host for growth and reproduction.

● Bacteria
● Viruses
● Protozoa
● Parasitic worms
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

BACTERIA

bacteria are single-celled, microscopic organisms that multiply by splitting in two

(binary fission). Their energy comes either from sunlight, if they are photosynthetic, or from
chemical reaction, if they are chemosynthetic. Bacteria are present in air, water, earth,
rotting vegetation, and the intestines of animals.

Gastrointestinal disorders are common symptoms of most diseases transmitted by

waterborne pathogenic bacteria. In water treatment processes, bacteria are fundamental,
especially in the degradation of organic matter, which takes place in trickling filters,
activated biosolids processes, and biosolids digestion.
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

VIRUSES

A virus is an entity that carries the information required for its replication but does not
possess the machinery for such replication. They are obligate parasites that require a host
in which to live. They are the smallest biological structures known, so they can only be seen
with the aid of an electron microscope.

Waterborne viral infections are usually indicated by disorders with the nervous system
rather than of the gastrointestinal tract.

Waterborne viral pathogens are known to cause poliomyelitis and infectious hepatitis.
Testing for viruses in water is difficult because:
(1) they are small
(2) they are of low concentrations in natural waters
(3) there are numerous varieties
(4) they are unstable
(5) limited identification methods are available.
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

PROTOZOA

Protozoa (singular: protozoan) are mobile,

single-celled, complete, self-contained organisms that
can be free living or parasitic, pathogenic or
nonpathogenic, microscopic or macroscopic.

They are highly adaptable and widely distributed in

natural waters, although only a few are parasitic. Most
protozoa are harmless; only a few cause illness in
humans—Entamoeba histolytica (amebiasis) being an
exception.

Because aquatic protozoa form cysts during

adverse environmental conditions, they are difficult to
deactivate by disinfection and must undergo filtration
to be removed.
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

WORMS (HELMINTHS)

Worms are the normal inhabitants in organic mud

and organic slime. They have aerobic requirements but
can metabolize solid organic matter not readily
degraded by other microorganisms. Water
contamination may result from human and animal waste
that contains worms.

Worms pose hazards primarily to those persons

who come into direct contact with untreated water;
thus, swimmers in surface water polluted by sewage or
stormwater runoff from cattle feedlots and sewage
plant operators are at particular risk.
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

‘ THANK YOU ‘
INTRODUCTION

Zoogleal slime The biological slime that forms on fixedfilm treatment devices. It contains a wide
variety of organisms essential to the treatment process.