Republic of the Philippines

Laguna State Polytechnic University

Province of Laguna
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Level I Institutionally Accredited

LSPU Self-Paced Learning Module (SLM)

Course Ethics
Sem/AY Second Semester/2023-2024
Module No. 1
Lesson Title Chapter I : Understanding
Week
3-5
Duration
Date February 12 - March 1, 2024
This lesson dwells on Ethics. This will discuss the importance of rules, its strength and
Description
weaknesses as well as the moral dilemma of a Filipino Character. This will also focus on the
of the Lesson
Moral and Non-Moral Standards we need to consider in ethics.

Learning Outcomes

Intended Students should be able to meet the following intended learning outcomes:
Learning 1. Distinguish between Moral and Non-Moral Standards
Outcomes 2. Discuss moral dilemma as a moral dilemma
3. Articulate what culture, enculturation, inculturation and acculturation mean

Targets/ At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

Objectives  Explain the Importance of Rules
 Cite the strengths and weaknesses
 Analyze Crucial qualities of the Filipino moral identity

Student Learning Strategies

Online Activities A. Online Discussion via Google Meet

(Synchronous/ You will be directed to attend in a 1-hour class discussion. To have Access to
Asynchronous) the online discussion, refer to this link: _______________

B. Learning Guide Questions:

1. What is rule?
2. How importat rule is?
3. What are the the things we need to consider in moral dilemma?
Note: The insight that you will post on online discussion forum using Learning Management System (LMS) will
receive additional scores in class participation.

ETHICS – J.UNIFORME
 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Province of Laguna
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Lecture Guide

I. Understanding Morality and Moral Standards

I.I Course Orientation and The Importance of Rules

Everywhere you go are rules at home, at school, in church, in the barangay. Do
these rules make our life more difficult and so should be eliminated or do these rules
make our life more peaceful and orderly? Imagine your life, your home, your
school, your Church and community without rules.

Rules are important to social beings. Just imagine the chaos that results from the
absence of rules. What happens when students and professors alike come to school
in any attire they want? Imagine what happens when in the classroom everyone
wants to talk at the same time. Let's go out of the classroom for more examples.
What if there were no traffic rules? Rules can be expanded to include the Philippine
Constitution and other laws. What if there were no Constitution and other laws of
the land?
Offline Activities Rules are meant to set order. Rules (the Philippine Constitution and other laws
(e-Learning/Self- included) are meant for man. The greatest Teacher, Jesus Christ, preached
Paced) emphatically, "The Sabbath is made for man and not man for the Sabbath". The law
of the Sabbath, i.e. to keep it holy and observe rest, is meant to make man whole by
resting and by giving him time to thank and spend time in prayer and worship for
his own good.

For the sake of order in society, everyone is subject to rules. In a democratic country
like the Philippines, we often hear the statement "No one is above the law,"
including the highest official of the country. We are all subject to rules or else court
chaos.

Rules are not meant to restrict your freedom. They are meant to help you grow in
freedom, to grow in your ability to choose and do what is good for you and for
others. If there are rules or laws that restrict your ability or strength to do good, they
are suffocating laws and they are not good laws. They ought to be abolished. Any
rule or law that prevents human persons from doing and being good ought to be
repealed. They have no reasons to exist.

In fact, if you are a rule or a law-abiding citizen, you don't even feel the restricting
presence of a rule or law because you do what the law or what the rule states
everybody should do. Looking from a higher point of view, this is the state when
one acts not because rules demand it but because one sees he has to act that way. It
is like saying one no longer needs the rule or law because one has become mature

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
Province of Laguna
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Level I Institutionally Accredited
and wise enough to discern what ought to be done. This is an ideal state which the
ancient Chinese sages (Confucius, Lao Tzu) referred to as state of no-more rules,
no-more laws, because people discern what is right or good and do what is right or
good without thinking or a rule or law; people are no longer in need of a
government because they can govern themselves. It is a state where one owns the
moral standard not just abide by the moral standard.

I.II Moral and Non Moral Standards

We often hear the terms "moral standards" and "non-moral standards." What do
these refer to? What about the word "immoral?" Is there such a thing as immoral
standards? Is immoral synonymous with non-moral?

Ethymology and Meaning of Ethics

The term "ethics" comes from the Greek word "ethos" meaning "custom" used
in the works of Aristotle, while the term "moral" is the Latin equivalent. Based on
the Greek and Latin etymology of the word "ethics" ethics deals with morality.
When the Roman orator Cicero exclaimed, "O tempora o mores" (Cicero, 1856)
(Oh, what time and what morals), he may have been trying to express dismay of the
morality of his time.

Ethics or moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy which deals with moral

standards, inquires about the rightness or wrongness of human behavior or the
goodness or badness of personality, trait or character. It deals with ideas, with topics
such as moral standards or norms of morality, conscience, moral values and virtues.
Ethics is a study of the morality of human acts and moral agents, what makes an act
obligatory and what makes a person accountable.

"Moral" is the adjective describing a human act as either ethically right or

wrong, or qualifying a person, personality, character, as either ethically good or bad.

Moral Standards or Moral Frameworks and Non-Moral Standards

Since ethics is a study of moral standards, then the first question for the course
is, what are moral standards. The following are supposed to be examples of moral
standards: "Stealing is wrong." "Killing is wrong." "Telling lies is wrong."
"Adultery is wrong." "Environment preservation is the right thing to do". "Freedom

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
Province of Laguna
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
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with responsibility is the right way." "Giving what is due to others is justice".
Hence, moral standards are norms or prescriptions that serve as the frameworks for
determining what ought to be done or what is right or wrong action, what is good or
bad character. In the Activity phase of this Lesson the following can be classified as
moral standards:
 Do not lie.
 Don't steal.
 Don't cheat others.
 Don't kill.
Moral standards are either consequences standards (like Stuart Mill's utilitarianism) or
non-consequence standards (like Aristole's virtue, St. Thomas' natural law, or Immanuel
Kant' good will or sense of duty).

The consequence standards depend on results, outcome. An act that results in the
general welfare, in the greatest good of the greatest number, is moral. To take part in a
project that results in the improvement of the majority of people is, therefore, moral.

The non-consequence standards are based on the natural law. Natural law is the law of
God revealed through human reason. It is the "law of God written in the hearts of men." To
preserve human life is in accordance with the natural law, therefore it is moral. Likewise,
the non-consequence standard may also be based on good will or intention, and on a sense
of duty. Respect for humanity, treatment of the other as a human person, an act that is
moral, springs from a sense of duty, a sense of duty that you wish will apply to all human
persons.

On the other hand, non-moral standards are social rules, demands of etiquette and
good manners. They are guides of action which should be followed as expected by society.
Sometimes they may not be followed or some people may follow them. From time to time,
changes are made regarding good manners or etiquette. In sociology, non-moral standards
or rules are called folkways. In short, non-moral actions are those where moral categories
cannot be applied.

Examples of non-moral standards are rules of good manners and right conduct,
etiquette, rules of behavior set by parents, teachers, and standards of grammar or language,
standards of art, standards of sports set by other authorities. Examples are "do not eat with
your mouth open;" "observe rules of grammar," and "do not wear socks that don't match."

In the Activity phase of this Lesson, the following are non-moral standards;

 No talking while your mouth is full. • Wear black or white for mourning; never red.
 The males should be the one to propose marriage not females.
 Observe correct grammar when writing and speaking English.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
Province of Laguna
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
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 Submit school requirements on time.
 If you are a male, stay by the danger side (roadside) when walking with a female.
 Go with the fashion or you are not "in"
 When you speak pronounce words correctly.
 Focus the microscope properly.
 Maintain a good body figure.
An indicator whether or not a standard is moral or non-moral lies in it compliance as
distinguished from its non-compliance. Non-compliance with moral standards causes a
sense of guilt, while non-compliance with a non-moral standard may only cause shame or
embarrassment.
Classification of the Theories of Moral Standards

Garner and Rosen (1967) classified the various moral standards formulated by moral
philosophers as follows: 1) Consequence (teleological, from tele which means end, result,
or consequence) standard states that an act is right or wrong depending on the
consequences of the act, that is, the good that is produced in the world. Will it do you good
if you go to school? If the answer is right, because you learn how to read and write, then
going to school is right. The consequence standard can also be a basis for determining
whether or not a rule is a right rule. So the consequence standard states that the rightness or
wrongness of a rule depends on the consequences or the good that is produced in following
the rule. For instance, if everyone follows the rule of a game, everyone will enjoy playing
the game. This good consequence proves the rule must be a correct rule. 2) Not-only-
consequence standard (deontological), holds that the rightness or wrongness of an action
or rule depends on sense of duty, natural law, virtue and the demand of the situation or
circumstances. The rightness or wrongness of an action does not only depend or rely on the
consequence of that action or following that rule.
Natural law and virtue ethics are deontological moral standards because their basis for
determining what is right or wrong does not depend on consequences but on the natural law
and virtue. Situation ethics, too, is deontological because the rightness or wrongness of an
act depends on situation and circumstances requiring or demanding exception to rule.

Rosen and Garner are inclined to consider deontology, be it rule or act deontology, as the
better moral standard because it synthesizes or includes all the other theory of norms. Under
this theory, the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on (or is a function of) all the
following: a) consequences of an action or rule, what promotes one's greatest good, or the
greatest good of the greatest number; b) consideration other than consequences, like the
obligatoriness or the act based on natural law, or its being one's duty, or its promoting an
ideal virtue. Deontology also considers the object, purpose, and circumstances or situation
of the moral issue or dilemma.

All these moral standards or ethical frameworks will be dealt with more in detail in Chapter
IV of this book.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
Province of Laguna
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Level I Institutionally Accredited

What Makes Standards Moral?

The question means what obliges us to follow a moral standard? For theists, believers in
God's existence, moral standards are commandments of God revealed to man through
prophets. According to the Old Testament, the Ten Commandments were revealed by God
to Moses. One who believes in God vows to Him and obliges himself/herself to follow His
Ten Commandments. For theists, God is the ultimate source of what is moral revealed to
human persons.

How about non-theists? For non-theists, God is not the source of morality. Moral standards
are based on the wisdom of sages like Confucius or philosophers like Immanuel Kant.

In China, B. C., Confucius taught the moral standard, "Do unto others what you like others
to do unto you" and persuaded people to follow this rule because it is the right way, the
gentleman's way. Later, Immanuel Kant, the German philosopher, formulated a criterion for
determining what makes a moral standard moral. It is stated as follows: "Act only according
to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal
law." (1993) In other words, if a maxim or standard cannot pass this test, it cannot be a
moral standard. For instance, does the maxim "Stealing is wrong" pass this test? Can one
will that this maxim be a universal maxim? The answer is in the affirmative. The opposite
of the maxim would not be acceptable. Moral standards are standards that we want to be
followed by all, otherwise, one would be wishing one's own ill fortune. Can you wish "do
not kill" to be a universal maxim? The answer has to be yes because if you say "no" then
you are not objecting to someone killing you. Thus, the universal necessity of the maxim,
what makes it a categorical imperative is what makes it obligatory. "Stealing is wrong"
means "one ought not steal" and "Do not kill" means "one ought not kill." It is one's
obligation not to steal or kill. Ultimately, the obligation arises from the need of self-
preservation.

The Origin of Moral Standards: Theist and Non-Theist

Related to the question on what makes moral standards moral is how do moral standards
arise or come into existence? A lot of new attempts to explain the origins of morality or
moral standards have been made. The theistic line of thought states moral standards are of
divine origin while 20th century thinkers claim state that they simply evolved. The issue is:
Are moral standards derived from God, communicated to man through signs or revelation,
or did they arise in the course of man's evolution?

With the Divine source concept, moral standards are derived from natural law, man's
"participation" in the Divine law. The moral principle, "Do good and avoid evil" is an
expression of natural law. Man's obliging himself to respect the life, liberty, and property of
his fellowman arises from the God-given sacredness, spirituality, and dignity of his fellow

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Province of Laguna
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
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man. It arises from his faith, hope, and love of God and man.

With the evolutionary concept, the basics of moral standards do good, avoid evil - have
been observed among primates and must have evolved as the process of evolution followed
its course.
Are these theist and non-theist (evolutionary) origin of moral standards reconcilable?

The evolutionist claims that altruism, a sense of morality, can be observed from man's
fellow primates- the apes and monkeys and, therefore, it can be said that the altruism of
human persons evolved from the primates. However, the evolutionist cannot satisfactorily
argue, with factual evidence, that the rudiments of moral standards can be observed from
the primates. Neither can it be scientifically established that the theist view, that man's
obliging himself to avoid evil, refrain from inflicting harm on his fellowman, is a moral
principle implanted by God in the hearts of men. But the concept of creation and evolution
are not necessarily contradictory. The revelation of the norms of Divine origin could not
have been instant, like a happening "in one fell swoop." It could have happened gradually as
man evolved to differ from the other primates. As the evolutionists claim, creation may be
conceived as a process of evolution. Hence, the biblical story of creation could have
happened in billions of years instead of six days

I.III Moral Dilemmas

After learning moral and non-moral standards, you must now have an idea of what a moral
experience is. When you find yourself in a moral dilemma, you are in for a moral
experience. What is a moral dilemma?

Meaning of Moral Dilemma

A moral dilemma is a problem in the decision-making between two possible options,

neither of which is absolutely acceptable from an ethical perspective. It is also referred to as
ethical dilemma. The Oxford Dictionary defines ethical dilemma as a "decision-making
problem between two possible moral imperatives, neither of which is unambiguously
acceptable or preferable. It is sometimes called an ethical paradox in moral philosophy."
(Oxford Dictionary)

Based on these definitions, moral dilemmas have the following in common: 1) "the agent is
required to do each of two (or more) actions which are morally unacceptable; 2) the agent
can do each of the actions; 3) but the agent cannot do both (or all) of the actions. The agent
thus seems condemned to moral failure; no matter what she does, she will do something
wrong (or fail to do something that she ought to do).

This means that moral dilemmas are situations where two or more moral values or duties
make demands on the decision-maker, who can only honor one of them, and thus will
violate at least one important moral concern, no matter what he or she decides to do. Moral

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dilemmas present situations where there is tension between moral values and duties that are
more or less on equal footing. The decision-maker has to choose between a wrong and
another wrong. The decision-maker is a deadlock.

In the case of Pregnant Lady and the Dynamite, there were two options - use the dynamite
and kill the pregnant woman but save the other 5 or don't use the dynamite and all the 5 will
get drowned except the pregnant woman whose head is out.

To have a genuine dilemma, one of the conflicting solutions should not override the other.
For instance, "... the requirement to protect others from serious harm overrides the
requirement to repay one's debts by returning a borrowed item when its owner so demands."
Hence, "in addition to the features mentioned above, in order to have a genuine moral
dilemma it must also be true that neither of the conflicting requirements is overridden"
(McConnell, T. 2019). This means that none of the conflicting requirements is solved by the
other. The persons involved in the dilemma are in a deadlock. They find themselves in a
"damn-if-you-do and damn-if you-don't" situation.

Another example of a moral dilemma is the story from the Bible about King Herod. On his
birthday, his stepdaughter, Salome danced so well in front of him and the guests at his party
that he promised to give her anything she wanted. Salome consulted her mother about what
she should wish for, and decided to ask for the head of John the Baptist on a platter. The
king now had a choice between honoring the promise to his stepdaughter, or honoring the
life of John the Baptist. And Herod chose to have John the Baptist beheaded.

The king had inadvertently designed a moral trap for himself, a dilemma where whatever he
decided to do would be morally wrong.

Meaning of false Dilemma

On the other hand, a false dilemma is a situation where the decision-maker has a moral duty
to do one thing, but is tempted or under pressure to do something else. A false dilemma is a
choice between a right and a wrong. For example, a lawyer or an accountant can face an
opportunity to prioritize self- interest over client’s interest.

What to Do When Faced with a Moral Dilemma

Ultimately, dilemmas are conflicts in the application of moral standards. The question is
which moral standards must be followed? In a state of emergency, necessity demands no
moral law. You have to decide based on your best judgement or choose based on the
principle of lesser evil on greater good or agency.

I.IV The Three Levels of Dilemmas

This Lesson reinforces your understanding of moral dilemmas. After understanding the
meaning of moral dilemmas, let us now illustrate three levels of moral dilemma. In this

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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Lesson, you are expected to give examples of the levels of moral dilemmas. A research on
some significant events in history may help you arrive at a concrete understanding of
structural dilemma most especially.

A. Individual

This refers to personal dilemmas. It is an individual's damn-if you-do-and-damn-if-you-

don't situation. The case of Heinz as given the Activity phase of the lesson is one of the best
known individual dilemma's of Kohlberg's (1958). Kohlberg's dilemma questions were as
follows: "Should Heinz have stolen the drug." (Mackinnon, B., etal 2015) If he did not steal
the drug that would mean his wife's death. He was torn between stealing the drug and
saving his wife. The dilemma is faced by an individual who is torn between 2 obligations -
to save the wife or obey the law. So this an example of an individual dilemma.

B. Organizational

An organizational dilemma is a puzzle posed by the dual necessities of a social organization

and members' self-interest. It may exist between personal interests and organizational
welfare or between group interests and organizational well-being... (Wagner, J. 2019)

The example of the Catholic school in the Activity phase of the lesson shows the dilemma
between the goal of the school to give quality education for the poor and so must charge the
lowest tuition fee possible and yet to keep quality faculty the school must raise their salary
and consequently, must raise tuition.

Organizational dilemmas may likewise occur in business, medical, and public sector.

The following hypothetical case highlights the story of Mr. Brown, a 74-year old man who
is seriously ill of metastatic lung cancer. Mr. Brown completed a full course of radiation
therapy as well as chemotherapy for treatment of his cancer, and he is now hospitalized
with severe shortness of breath and pneumonia. His physician has managed the symptoms
associated with the lung disease, including chest pain, fever, infection, and respiratory
distress, but believes that there are no other options available to aggressively treat the
underlying cancer.... Both Mr. Brown and his wife clearly state that they want everything
done....

The dilemma here lies in the conflicting concerns: a) the financial problems of Mr. Brown
and his wife, b) the hospital concern of focusing its attention on this hopeless patient when
there are other cases which have still possible remedies, c) the other hospital patient's
concern, particularly their need of the medicine used by Mr. Brown, c) the concern of the
medical staff, et al.

Organizational dilemmas arise due to different opposing concerns between various

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groupings in an organization.

C. Structural

The case of the principal whether to be participatory or non participatory in school affairs
but due to her not so favorable experience of attempting to be participatory ended up to one-
woman rule is an example of a structural dilemma.

Below are more examples of structural dilemma.

Differentiation Versus Integration in Structural Dilemma

Different divisions have their own different culture and so coordination between divisions
or bringing them together for becomes more difficult.

With decentralization, local governments have become more empowered to direct their
affairs just as schools have become empowered to address their problems or are given
opportunity to localize the given curriculum.

In effect, local governments and schools have likewise become more differentiated and so it
becomes more difficult to integrate them for a unified structure. Local governance and
schools curricula have become more complex. There is need for more costly coordination
strategies.
Any attempt to introduce reform in society or government creates structural dilemma. For
instance, promoting or introducing universal health care, which is tantamount to socialized
health care, gives rise to a structural dilemma, that is, a conflict of perspective of sectors,
groups and institutions that may be affected by the decision. Why would those who
contribute less to the social fund enjoy the same benefits as those who contributed big
amounts of premium? In a study on the prices of medicines in the Philippines, it was
established that "patients are buying medicines from the private sector at many times their
international reference price" (Ateneo de Manila University 2019). If the government
intervenes by introducing price control, the drug stores may lose so much that they may
close shop. If the government does not do anything at all, the patients will continue to suffer
because they may not be able to afford the high prices of medicines.

Gap Versus Overlap

There may be gaps and overlaps in roles and responsibilities. If key responsibilities are not
clearly assigned, there may be gaps or overlaps in important tasks. If there are gaps,
organizations end up with no one doing the responsibility. If there are overlaps, things
become unclear and may lead to more confusion and even conflict and worse wasted effort
and perhaps even resources because of the unintended overlap.

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Here is an example. A patient in a teaching hospital called her husband to report how
disturbed she is and how sleepless she was during the night. At night, she couldn't sleep
because hospital staff kept waking her up, often to repeat what someone else had already
done. This is an overlap of nurse duty. Conversely, when she wanted something, her call
button rarely produced any response. This is a gap. There is a gap as to who according to
rule is supposed to respond to the buzzer.
(www.humancapitalreview.org/content/default.asp?Article ID528#

To illustrate further the consequence of gap and overlap, here is a story to show what
happens when there is a gap or overlap. A boy wa his pants shorter. So he went to his
mother to ask him to shorten it. His mother was busy computing grades and told her son to
ask his sister to do it. His sister was busy reviewing for the final exams and asked her
brother to ask their elder brother to do it. But his older brother was also busy with his school
project and so could not also attend to it. The boy highly frustrated went to sleep. His pants
were beside him. After finishing her grades, Mother peeped into her son's room, saw the
pants and remembered her son's request. So she took a pair of scissors and shortened them.
Before she went to bed, the sister also remembered her brother's request. Full of remorse
she went to her younger brother's room, saw the pants, got a pair of scissors and shortened
them, too. The older brother finally completed his school project and suddenly remembered
his brother's asking for help to shorten the pants. So he went to his younger brother's room,
got a pair of scissors and cut them, too. When the younger brother woke up, he was
surprised to see a pair of extremely short shorts. The pants which he wanted to make just a
little bit shorter ended up too short to him!

That is what happens when there are gaps or overlaps in an organization. The gaps leave an
important thing in an organization undone. The overlap results in unnecessary and
counterproductive, redundant procedures which ultimately lead to waste of resources.

Lack of Clarity Versus Lack of Creativity

If employees are unclear about what they are supposed to do, they often tailor their roles
around personal preferences instead of system wide goals, frequently leading to trouble.
Most McDonald's customers are not seeking novelty and surprise in their burgers and fries.
But when responsibilities are over defined, people conform to prescribed roles and
protocols in "bureaucratic" ways. They rigidly follow job descriptions regardless of how
much the service or product suffers and so end up uncreative.

"You lost my bag!" an angry passenger shouted, confronting an airline manager. The
manager's response was to inquire, "How was the flight?" "I asked about my bag," the
passenger said. "That's not my job," the manager replied. "See someone in baggage claim."
The passenger did not leave as a happy airline customer. www.
humancapitalreview.org/content/default.asp?Article ID528# The job of the manager was
overdefined and made the manager uncreative and inefficient. Her job in relation to the

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airline system wide goals was neither clear and so ended up giving the wrong answer that
turned off the airline passenger.

Flexibility versus Strict Adherence to Rules

You accommodate by bending rules to help someone or you stick strictly to rules no matter
what and so unable to help someone who is thrown into a helpless situation. Or you may
become being too accommodating that all rules are no more. Your jobs are defined so
clearly that you will stick to them even if circumstances are such that by sticking to your job
description the service or product that your organization provides suffers.

Excessive Autonomy Versus Excessive Interdependence

This refers to being too isolated versus too much coordination.

To illustrate:
When individuals or groups are too autonomous, people often feel isolated and
disconnected. School teachers working in self-contained classrooms and rarely working
with other teachers may feel lonely and unsupported. Yet, efforts to create closer teamwork
have repeatedly failed because of teachers' difficulties in working together. In contrast, if
units and roles are too tightly linked, people are distracted from work and waste time on
unnecessary or too much coordination. IBM lost an early lead in the personal computer
business in part because new initiatives required so many approvals - from levels and
divisions alike that new products were over designed and late to market. Hewlett-Packard's
ability to innovate in the late 1990's was hindered by the same problem.
(www.humancapitalreview.org/content/default.asp? Article_ID528#)
Structural dilemma is the dilemma arising from conflicting concerns among various sectors
of society. In the first instance of differentiation versus integration, the dilemma is how to
enforce a decision, policy, or rule intended for everybody among many different or unique
groups or individuals. In the second, the dilemma arises because of either gaps or overlaps
in the procedure of implementation of certain projects or policies among involved agencies
like the FBI and CIA in the U.S.A. or like the NBI and the INP in the Philippines. GAPS
creates serious consequences. Read about the unforgettable Mamasapano massacre in
Mindanao, Philippines.

Contextualized versus Decentralised Decision Making

In decentralized decision making, organizations can respond to change more rapidly and
effectively because the decision makers are the people closest to the situation. However, top
managers may lose some control. This is the dilemma of tight overcentralization or
diffusing authority which is loose.

Structural Dilemma in a World Organisation like the UN

Succinctly put, a structural dilemma in a world organization like the UN is the problem of
the balance between world order and national sovereignty re-stated as the balance between

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the measure of international authority essential to the establishment of an organized
common peace and the continued freedom of action of the separate members of the world
community or the balance between interdependence and independence. (Jenks, 1971)
Source: digitalcommons.law.uga.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article-2186&context-gic

Some Structural Dilemmas of World Organization* C. Wilfred Jenks** Georgia Journal of

International & International & Comparative Law Volume 3 1973 Issue 1

Resolving Moral Dilemmas

The following offer some techniques in resolving moral dilemma: One way is to think of
available alternative options revealing that the dilemma does not really exist. This happens
where there are available alternative options. For instance one is experiencing a dilemma
between stealing or not stealing otherwise his family will either die of hunger or survive.
The creative moral agent will try to think of other alternatives, like "alternative means of
income or support such as social safety net, charity, etc."

Another way is "choosing the greater good and lesser evil" or...," Or one may apply the
situation ethics approach, following the rule, one must do only what he can where he is. Do
not resort to extraordinary or supernatural means.

Joseph Fletcher offers some principles in resolving moral dilemma. He uses Kant's "ought
implies I can" rule. If I ought to do something, then I can do it. By contraposition, if I
cannot do something, then I cannot be obliged to do it. Or by implication, either I cannot be
obliged to do something or I can do it. In other words, one is only obliged to do something
if and only if he can do it. So Fletcher says, "do what you can where you are." Or quoting
St. Augustine's, "Dilige, et quod vis fae" (love and do what you will). The extent of one's
obligation and responsibility is the extent of one's ability and the measure of the "extent" is
one's capacity for love.

Here is a situation: You are a father of seven children. On your support, seven children plus
your wife depend. You work in the mines and receive only a minimum wage. After working
like a "carabao" in the mines, you need to ease your pains with a bottle of gin before you lie
down to rest and sleep. You also need to eat food sufficient enough to replace your wasted
energy. Hence, you spend for wine, food, and cigarette. Minus these expenses, the balance
of your wage is just enough for the food of your children. Nothing is left for their education,
and other expenses. Question: Should you be faulted for not being able to sacrifice enough
by giving up your needs, so that your dependents can have something left for their
education? You love your family, but you have a need you cannot give up. Is your case
what Fletcher wants to picture? Your obligation ends where your capacity for love ends.
Love is supposed to be unconditional, no limits of sacrifice or boundaries. But your love is
human, you are only human. "You can only do what you can where you are." Others can
sacrifice more by giving up their gin and cigarette and eat less expensive food. Yes others

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can, but can one be faulted for not being like the others, not having the strength to overcome
a vice? Can one not argue that the extent of his ability is the limit of his responsibility? On
the other hand, can it not be said that resorting to human frailty is just a convenient or
comfortable way of justifying one's lack of moral will? That may be easier said than done,
although it is possible for one who has virtue as his moral strength. But what can be said of
one who has no moral virtue or strength to sacrifice with the discomfort of self-giving?
Endless condemnation? That would be un-Christian.

I.V Freedom as Foundation for Moral Acts

Do the lower forms of animals have ethics? Like can we say that a dog is immoral or
unethical if it defecates right there at you doorstep? Or is ethics only for human persons? If
so, why?

Ethics Applies only to Human Persons

The song, My Way/Born This Way, implies choice or freedom "I did it my way". Unlike
the lower forms of animals, human persons have a choice or freedom, hence morality
applies only to human persons.

Ethics, therefore, applies only to human persons. We cannot say a cat is "unethical" when it
eats the food at table intended for you or when a dog urinates on your favorite bag lying on
the floor.

Dilemmas presuppose freedom. Freedom-loving societies have customary ways of training

the young to exercise their freedom. Parents regularly give their children opportunities to
choose. "Guys, what do you want for breakfast - ham and egg or pancake?" Later in life,
they come face to face with hard choices. Then dilemmas come along. There is such a thing
as a dilemma because there is such a thing as freedom. If there is no ability or power of
choice, then any incident simply happens without any interference. There would also be no
obligation to do any act in expectation of the responsibility following the act.

Freedom and Moral Choice

Without freedom it is impossible to make a moral choice." If we are to have free will we
must have the ability to make a decision that is unhindered. Kant believed that we must
have free will if we are to be held morally responsible for our actions. If God did not give
us free will then our decisions cannot be considered immoral or moral as we would have
had to act in the way we did. Thus we cannot be held responsible; a good moral action
cannot be praised as you had no other option, whilst an immoral action cannot be punished
as once again there was no free choice. In other words, making moral choice is a necessary
consequence for being free, a consequence of being a human person.

Because a human person has freedom, he/she has a choice and so is responsible for the

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consequences of his/her choice. The lower forms of animals have no choice since they are
bound by instinct and so cannot be held responsible for their behavior.
To be Ethical: Own Not Merely Abide by Moral Standards
Having free will or freedom to choose among alternatives, which implies prior analysis and
study, is coming to terms with what you finally affirm or deny. When you arrive at a
personal conviction and self affirmation, you begin to own the moral standard. The moral
standard begins to be integrated, internalized. You follow the norm not because it is
imposed by others, not because others say so or authoritatively impose it on you. On the
other hand, merely abiding by moral standards means applying them as basis to resolve a
moral problem without necessarily having internalized them. Merely abiding by them
means once the enforcer is not around, the moral standard is not followed.
Or if you do not own or internalize the standard, you will tend to use it for convenience, to
evade responsibility, to put the blame on the standard itself when things do not end well.
You simply become legalistic, and adopt the maxims, "follow the rule or law, even if the
sky falls down"; "the law says so"; the law is hard, but it is the law (dura lex sed lex). You
follow the law because others, authorities, regulators say so; not because you say so.

Owning moral standards means internalizing them, making them part of your conviction.
Internalized or embodied moral standards are being followed with or without anyone telling
you. You internalize a rule after using reason to understand. When you are persuaded of its
wisdom, it becomes your basis of resolving an ethical problem. You decide to do something
not because the law says so but because you yourself say so. This may be termed as the
embodiment of the moral standard in you.

The moral standard becomes one with the moral agent. As the moral agent, this moral
standard becomes your natural and immediate basis in your ethical decision making. The
presupposition is that you have come to own the moral standard after having been
convinced of its wisdom, having chosen it among other principles or standards. Any
dilemma regarding the standard has been resolved. Under the Chinese Taoist concept of
harmony, this is where the thought, the word, and the action become one. This author once
visited a Taoist temple and had a chance to ask what a Taoist live by as a principle of life.
He replied, "what I think must be the same as what I say, and what I say must be the same
as what I do." The result is oneness of thought, word and action, and its effect is an
integrated personality, personality made whole.

Making your mind, word, and action, a unity is not easy. You have in mind the maxim,
"honesty is the best policy." As a teacher you always tell that to students. But deep in your
heart you know it has been difficult to be honest all the time. There was the joke, of which
no one knew the source regarding the motto of the Philippine Military Academy (PMA)
"Integrity, Courage, Loyalty." This is a signage at the gate of PMA in Baguio City. At that
time, some military officials, alumni of PMA, were being investigated for corruption, the
word "Integrity" disappeared.
I.VI Culture : How it defines moral behaviour

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The "absolute freedom" that the existentialist and phenomenologist are talking about does
not of course exist in vacuum. It exists in a world. with all its spatio-temporal conditions, its
"facticity." Facticity refers to the "givens" of our situation such as our language, our
environment. Our previous choices and our very selves in their function as in-itself
constitute our facticity. (Sartte, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) That includes.
culture. In this Lesson, we shall discuss culture and how it affects our definition of moral
behavior.

What is Culture?

Culture "is the integrated pattern of human knowledge, beliefs, and behaviors. This consists
of language, ideas, customs, morals, laws, taboos, institutions, tools, techniques, and works
of art, rituals and other capacities and habits acquired by a person as a member of society."
(Taylor as quoted by Palispis, 1997). These include the list of items you made in the
Activity phase of this Lesson. Culture is the one word expected of Question # 2 of Activity
# 1.

The Magisterium of the Church explains culture as "the set of means used by mankind to
become more virtuous and reasonable in order to become fully human. In its fullest sense,
culture means opening up to the divine, and ultimately, to a religious dimension." Based on
this Church definition, it is clear that culture is meant to serve human persons.

Sociologists categorize culture into material and non-material culture. "Nonmaterial culture
consists of language, values, rules, knowledge, and meanings shared by members of society.
Material culture is the physical object that a society produces-tools, streets, homes and toys,
to name a few." (Brinkerhoff, 1989). If you review your lists again in the Activity phase,
you will be able to categorize those that belong to material culture and to the non-material
culture.

Culture is passed on to the next generation by learning not through the genes or heredity.
"Culture" includes all human phenomena which are not purely results of human genetics.
(Kroeber et al, 1952)

The Human Person and Culture

As a moral agent you are born into a culture, a factual reality you have not chosen. You are
not born nothing. It may be said that the Aristotelico-Thomistic tradition is one dominant, if
not the most dominant culture. This Aristotelico-Thomistic culture is a Greco-Roman
culture, which has influenced and shaped the moral life of those who have been exposed to
it. Those who were born into this culture, educated under this culture, are persuaded that
there is God, that a divine order and law keep and govern the world, which includes you.
But what happens when there are different cultures with their own different views of man's

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direction and destiny? For instance, the Greek culture introduced the idea of perfection. In
terms of numbers, a perfect thing is 100%; in terms of figures, it is a whole circle. A perfect
thing has no privation, no lack, no absence of being. What if a new culture redefines
perfection as any created and present model, which may be recreated, remolded like clay?
Any change in the model may be perceived as the creation of a new model of perfection,
not the actualization of what was lacking. Every created model is a perfection in its own
right.

Enculturation, Inculturation and Acculturation

Cultures change or evolve. There are various ways by which cultures change - by
enculturation, inculturation and by acculturation. Enculturation, an anthropological term,
was coined by J.M. Herskovits Margaret Mead has, however, was the one who defined the
term as "the process of learning a culture in all its uniqueness and particularity".

Enculturation is a process of learning from infancy till death, the components of life in
one's culture. The contents of this learning include both the material and non-material
culture. The latter refers to values while the former refers to tools such as a hoe or mask.
In the said process of learning, a person grows into a culture, acquires competence in
that culture and that culture takes root in that person and becomes the cognitive map, the
term of reference for acting.

For instance, African girls (South of the Sahara) grow up learning that as a woman she has
less rights privileges as the African man. For instance, a man can marry more than one
woman while she cannot. While the African wife cannot share her love with other men, the
man can share his with other women in the system. It turns women into an appendage, a
property of the man - one of the man's laborers. Umoren, U.E. (1992)

Another marriage practice that shows that the African woman is the property of the husband
and his family is levirate marriage. Levirate marriage is the marriage between the widow
and the brother of her deceased husband. Therefore at the husband's death the woman is
generally expected to stay on (as property of the family) without any choice in the matter.
She raises children to immortalise the deceased husband's name. Umoren, U.E. 1992.

This is enculturation in concrete terms. The African girl grows up and becomes a woman
through the said process of enculturation. This enculturation process has both cognitive and
emotional elements. The girl child who later becomes a woman learns and internalizes the
idea that she, because she is a woman, has less privileges than the African man. This
learning takes place through example, direct teaching and in patterns of behavior. What is
learned becomes her cognitive map, her term of reference that directs her behavior.

Another term is inculturation. Inculturation refers to the "missiological process in which the
Gospel is rooted in a particular culture and the latter is transformed by its introduction to

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Christianity." Umoren, U.E. (1992) In the Special Assembly of the Synod in 1985, Pope
John Paul II defined inculturation in Redemptoris Mission, n. 52, as...
the intimate transformation of authentic cultural values through their integration in
Christianity and the insertion of Christianity in the various human cultures." This means
that inculturation is characterized by a dual movement, i.e. a dialogic movement towards
cultures via the incarnation of the Gospel and the transmission of its values, and a
movement towards the Church that involves the incorporation of values that come from the
cultures the latter encounters. Therefore, a fruitful cross-fertilisation can follow. (Umoren,
U.E., 1992)

In other words, inculturation raises two related problems, that of the evangelisation of
cultures (rooting the Gospel in cultures) and that of the cultural understanding of the
Gospel. It was this movement that led Pope John Paul II to say in 1982, "The synthesis
between culture and faith is not only a requirement of culture, but also of faith..... Faith that
does not become culture is not fully accepted, nor entirely reflected upon, or faithfully
experienced"
This means that inculturation is not an action but a process that unfolds over time, one that
is active and based on mutual recognition and dialogue, a critical mind and insight,
faithfulness and conversion. transformation and growth, renewal and innovation.
Inculturation is a two way process: it roots the Gospel in a culture and introduces that
transformed culture to Christianity. For example, to root the Gospel in the African culture is
to initiate two events. The first event is to transform the African culture of oppressing
women into a culture where men and women are treated as human persons equal in dignity,
rights and privileges. The second event is to develop the African culture's latent potential
towards the human development of the woman, created like her male counterpart in the
image and likeness of God. The other aspect is to introduce the woman and her transformed
culture to Christianity, for example, by allowing the woman a meaningful place among the
agents of inculturation. (cf. Umoren, U.E. 1992)

Acculturation is another big term. It is the "cultural modification of an individual, group, or

people by adapting to or borrowing traits from another culture". It is also explained as the
merging of cultures as a result of prolonged contact". Immigrants to the United States of
America become acculturated to American life. Refugees and indigenous peoples (IP)
likewise adapt to the culture of the dominant majority.

There are cultural practices that should be stopped because of the painful harm they do. The
practice of human sacrifice has somehow been stopped. But the circumcision of women still
goes on in some parts of the world, like Africa. Some approaches have been successful, like
what one NGO tried to introduce in Africa. It is called a buying in. To gradually stop the
circumcision of women, the approach was to buy in, like introducing into the place good
health facilities and other forms of assistance to alleviate their economic hardships in return
to their stopping the practice.

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I.VII Cultural Relativism

After studying the meaning of culture, how it is learned and how it shapes moral behavior,
let us focus on cultural relativism, its meaning and its strengths and weaknesses.

What is cultural relativism? First, relativism says "what is true for you is true for you, and
what is true for me is true for me." Analogously, cultural relativism would say, "what you
believe, value or practice depends on your culture while what I believe, value and practice,
depends on my culture." In other words, cultural relativism is "the idea that a person's
beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that person's own culture,
rather than be judged against the criteria of another." Stated in another way: Cultural
relativism is the view that moral or ethical systems, which vary from culture to culture, are
all equally valid and no one system is really "better" than any other. This is based on the
idea that there is no ultimate standard of good or evil, so every judgment about right and
wrong is a product of society. Therefore, any opinion on morality or ethics is subject to the
cultural perspective of each person. Ultimately, this means that no moral or ethical system
can be considered the "best," or "worst," and no particular moral or ethical position can
actually be considered "right" or "wrong." (https://www.allaboutphilosophy. org/cultural-
relativism.htm)

In the context of cultural relativism, the manner by which the African. woman is treated in
comparison to that of the African man should not be judged against other culture's
standards. This should be judged in the context of African culture, not in the context of
Christian culture.

Cultural Relativism vs Cultural Perspective

However, what the cultural relativist fails to see is the difference between cultural
perspective and cultural relativism. A perspective is a standpoint or viewpoint of
something. For instance, there are as many perspectives of a building, a house, as there are
standpoints. You try to appreciate the design of a house considering its various perspective,
but you never judge the design based on only one perspective. Trying to understand one's
culture, having a perspective of one's culture, is needed to understand people. But it does
not follow that morality must be based only on said culture:

.... the problem with moving from cultural perspective to cultural relativism is the erosion of
reason that it causes. Rather than simply www.allaboutphilosophy saying,
"we need to understand the morals of other cultures," it says, "we cannot judge the morals
of other cultures," regardless of the reasons for their actions. There is no longer any
perspective, and it becomes literally impossible to argue that anything a culture does is right
or wrong. If we hold on to strict cultural relativism, it is not possible to say that human
sacrifice is "wrong," or that respect for the elderly is "right." After all, those are products of

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the culture. This takes any talk of morality right over the cliff, and into meaningless
gibberish. (Mckinnon, et al., 2015)

Likewise, logical analysis of cultural relativism yields contradictory implications:

Relativism in general breaks down when examined from a purely logical perspective. The
basic premise is that "truth is relative." If every truth statement is valid, then the statement
"some truths are absolute" must be valid. The statement "there are no absolute truths" is
accurate, according to relativism -- but it is an absolute truth itself. These contradict the
very concept of relativism, meaning that absolute relativism is self-contradictory and
impossible.

Stated in another way:

Tolerance is certainly a virtue... If morality is simply relative to each culture then if the
culture does not have a principle of tolerance, its members have no obligation to be
tolerant... from a relativistic point of view, there is no more reason to be tolerant than to be
intolerant and neither stance is objectively morally better than the other.

If... valid criticism supposes an objective or impartial standard, relativists cannot morally
criticize anyone outside their own culture. Adolf Hitler's genocidal actions, so long as they
are culturally accepted, are as morally legitimate as Mother Teresa's works of mercy. If
Conventional Relativism is accepted, racism, genocide of unpopular minorities, oppression
of the poor, slavery and even the advocacy of war for its own sake are as equally moral as
their opposites. And if a subculture decided that starting a nuclear war was somehow
morally acceptable, we could not morally cricize these people. (MacKinnon, et al., 2015)

I.VIII : The Filipino Character

After having learned that culture influences the human person as a moral agent of and after
having understood the meaning of culture relativism let us now examine the Filipino
character to determine which one does not help him/her grow in moral character.
You sent
The weaknesses of the Filipino character as cited in the Report follows:

1. Extreme family centeredness Excessive concern for family means using one's office and
power to promote family interests and thus factionalism patronage, political dynasties and
the protection of erring family members. It results in lack of concern for the common
good, and acts as a block to national consciousness.
2. Extreme personalism "Takes things personally," cannot separate objective task from
emotional involvement. Because of this the Filipino is uncomfortable with bureaucracy,
with rules and regulations and with standard procedures. He uses personal contacts and
gives preference to family and friends in hiring, services and even voting. Extreme

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personalism leads to the graft and corruption evident in Philippine society.
3. Lack of discipline - A casual attitude toward time and space, manifested in lack of
precision and compulsiveness, in poor time management and procrastination. Aversion to
following procedures strictly results in lack of standardization and quality control.
Impatience results in short cuts, palusot, ningas cogon. Lack of discipline often results in
inefficient work systems, the violation of rules and a casual work ethic lacking follow
through.
4. Passivity and lack of initiative - Waiting to be told what to do, reliance on others
(leaders and government), complacence, lack of a sense of urgency. There is high
tolerance for inefficiency, poor service, and even violations of one's basic rights. Too
patient and matiisin, too easily resigned to his fate, the Filipino is easily oppressed and
exploited.
5. Colonial mentality - Lack of patriotism, or of an active awareness, appreciation and love
of the Philippines and an actual preference for things foreign
6. Talangka mentality - Done by tsismis, intriga, unconstructive criticism... It is evident in
the personal ambition that is complete insensitive to the common good, e.g., the lack of a
sense of service among people in the government bureaucracy. This results in the
dampening of cooperative and community spirit and in the trampling upon other's rights.
7. Lack of self-analysis and self-reflection – The lack of analysis and emphasis form or
reinforcedThe tendency to be perficial and somewhat flighty. In the face of serious
personal and social problems, there is lack of analysis or reflection and instead
satisfaction with superficial explanations and solutions.
8. Emphasis on porma rather than substance... This lack of analysis and emphasis form is
reinforced by educational system that is more form than substance . . .

These weaknesses are rooted in many factors: home, social and economic environment;
culture and language; history; religion; educational system; mass media; leadership and
role models. Change is possible, however, and the following goals are proposed to develop
in the Filipino: (1) a sense of patriotism and national pride: (2) a sense of the common good;
(3) a sense of integrity and accountability, (4) the values and habits of discipline and hard
work; (5) the value and habits of self-reflection and analysis; the internalization of spiritual
values and the emphasis on essence rather than on form. (Shahani, Leticia. (1988). A Moral
Recovery Program: Building a People, Building a Nation.)

In the same report in 1988, Senator Leticia Shahani said, The strengths of the Filipino
character are: 1) pakikipagkapwa-tao, 2) family orientation, 3) joy and humor, 4) flexibility,
adaptability and creativity, 5) hard work and industry, 6) faith and religiosity and 7) ability
to survive.

There is so much good in the Filipino but so much needs to be changed, too. Many of our
strengths as a people are also sources of our weaknesses. Shahani's report explains that
"family orientation becomes in-group orientation that prevents us from reaching out beyond
the family to the large community and the nation." For the Filipino, charity begins at home

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and at the same time ends there.

Values Education in Schools Senator Shahani's Report was given in 1988. But its findings
as
reported may still be true today. If the Department of Education has to be true to its vision
to help develop... "Filipinos who passionately love their country and whose values and
competencies enable them to realize their full potential and contribute meaningfully to
building the nation" and to its core values - maka-Diyos, maka-tao, makakalikasan and
makabansa - it is an uphill battle for Philippine schools to realize these considering the
weaknesses of the Filipino character: 1) extreme family centeredness, 2) extreme
personalism, 3) lack of discipline, 4) passivity and lack of initiative, 5) colonial mentality,
6) kanya-kanya syndrome, talangka mentality, 7) lack of self-analysis and self-reflection
and 8 emphasis on porma rather than substance.

I.VIII The Filipino Character

So that it will not be "more form than substance" as described in Senator Shahani's Report,
Philippine schools have to intensify values education in the curriculum which in essence is
moral education. In fact, in response to this Report, Values Education now Edukasyon sa
Pagpapakatao in the K to 12 Curriculum was introduced as a separate subject in the basic
education curriculum under the Values Education Framework program of Dr. Lourdes
Quisumbing, then Department of Education, Culture and Sports Secretary in 1988-1990.
The Values Education Framework was conceptualized in 1987. Education Curriculum
(Grade 1-6, and First-Fourth Year High School) 2002, the Basic integrated values in the
major learning areas or subjects. Beginning with the K to 12 Curriculum in 2013, Values
Education was renamed Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao (EsP) for Grades 1-10. In the Senior
High Curriculum (Grades 11-12), there is no course with the title, Values Education or
Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao but core courses such as Introduction to the Philosophy of the
Human Person and Personal Development, are in essence Values Education subjects and
Moral Education subjects themselves.

To help every Filipino child grow morally and ethically, he/she must be helped acquire the
strengths of the Filipino character at the same time, he/she must be made to realize that
his/her strengths also become his/her source of weaknesses.

Other studies on Filipino Moral Character

There had been studies of the Filipino moral life, the more popular of which were those Fr.
Jaime Bulatao, Fr. Leonardo Mercado, Fr. Francis Senden, and Fr. Vitaliano Gorospe. Fr.
Bulatao's research identified the "kami" mentality of Filipinos. In "kami" (a Filipino term
which means "us") he says, "I identify with my family and relatives... We are opposed to all
who are not kami." Fr. Vitaliano Gorospe, SJ referred to this way of thinking as "group-
centeredness" or "group thinking" characterized as follows:

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One norm of morality in the Philippines is based on "group centeredness" or "group-
thinking." One's in-group determines for the individual what is right or wrong. The
individual who has not yet attained moral independence and maturity will ask: "What will
my family, or my relatives and friends, or my barkada think or say?" "What will others say"
usually determines Filipino moral behavior; it is "conscience from the outside. "For
instance, parents tell their daughter who is being courted: "Iha, please entertain your
boyfriend at home. Do not go outside. What will the neighbors say? Nakakahiya naman.
"Shame or hiya makes the parents and the girl conform to the social expectations of the
neighbors lest they become the object of tsismis or gossip.
Here again there is a conflict between the individual and social morality, between internal
and external morality. The norm of morality should be internalized so that the mature
individual should form his own moral "conscience from the inside." (Gorospe, 1977)

The "group thinking" cited by Fr. Gorospe is called "sakop mentality by others like Fr.
Leonardo Mercado. (1977) The sakop may refer to "person's relatives, peers, classmates,
townmates, officemates, etc." This thinking or mentality explains the "pakikisama" in both
positive and negative sense; it explains the barkada attitude, euphemism, the laughter of
affirmation of gutter language; it explains subservience to an illegal or immoral order.
Hence, Dr. Brenda B. Corpuz (1986) observed in her article published in the St. Louis
University Research Journal:

One can estimate the consequences of this sakop mentality by imagining how it works in
decision making. Since sakop welfare is the ultimate value, then a lot of principles may be
sacrificed for the sake of it. One can kill and hide the body of the crime by reason of being
part of the sakop. One can tell a lot of lies for the sake of the sakop. One can pick some
vegetable from his neighbor's backyard and is... not bothered by a sense of guilt because
one does not steal from a member of the sakop. The sakop determines for the individual
what is right or wrong.

Impact of Culture on Morality

Speaking of the significant impact of culture on the morality of people, let us think of the
Japanese "shame culture." "Guilt cultures emphasize punishment and forgiveness as ways
of restoring the moral order; shame cultures stress self-denial and humility as ways of
restoring the social order." What keeps Japanese from acting contrary to moral standards is
the fear of being put to shame. At most they would do when put to shame is hara-kiri,
(suicide). Contrast this to the "guilt culture" in the Philippines. When a Filipino commits an
immoral act, he would of course feel guilty, but after confessing his sin, he may feel as if he
is back to the normal thing and can sin again.

Can it be said that a society that easily resorts to mob rule, mob mentality, where only a few
have the guts to stand up and insist on what conscience dictates, is in need of moral

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development? Filipino homes and schools have to do something, to teach the moral
development they want or hope to see.

I.IX : Universal Values

After a lesson on cultural relativism and after a discussion on the Filipino Strengths and
weaknesses, let us find out if there are universal values and wisdom.
Despite the claims of Cultural relativism, the concept on the reality of universal values,
persist Are theses Universal value? Plato talked about the values or virtues of temperance,
courage and wisdom. Jesus Christ preached the value of love from which springs patience,
kindness, goodwill, forgiveness, and compassion. Confucius taught righteousness, human-
heartedness, filial piety. Are not these universal values, that is, they remain values at all
times and in all places? Yes, Plato would say, they exist apart form the concrete world. On
the other hand, Aristotle would say that they exist embodied in the concrete individual as
common or essential characteristic. St. Thomas agreed with them, but the universals do not
exist apart from the individual; they exist as universal features individuated, instantiated in
the individuals. In other words, the universals are abstracted common features from
individuals. For example, the universal characteristics of man are that he is a "rational,
sentient, living, body" are abstracted as characteristics common to all persons. A human
person differs from a stone because he/she is alive. He/she differs from living things like
plants because he/she is sentient, and differs from sentient things like animals because
he/she is rational. This universal character of a human person exists in the mind as idea.
Universals are immaterial and immutable, beyond (transcendent) space and time, or spatio-
temporal conditions. In the words of Van Peursen, they are termed as "logical structures"
underlying the material world and making the world possible.
The same thing is true with moral standards and values. The values of honesty and respect
for human life are characteristics individuated in all people who respect, do not harm, injure
or kill, human beings. All the standards and values implied in the Ten Commandments can
be reduced to the value or rule of love. This is because no one can wish or will the opposite,
hatred, killing, stealing, to be universal. Values are universalized because they can only be
wished to be the values of all. For instance, one cannot wish that killing be obligatory
because it is like wishing anyone to come and kill you.

Using Kant's criteria, can these identified "universal values" be willed as universal. Can one
will these values be the values of all? Certainly, the answer is in the affirmative.

Related to the empirical findings on the universal values, Dr. Kent M. Keith (2003) came up
with a list of fundamental, or universal moral principles that can be found throughout the
world. These are grouped into negative and positive statements as follows:

DO NO HARM. Do not do to others what you would not like them to do to you. Do not lie.
Do not steal. Do not cheat. Do not falsely accuse others. Do not commit adultery. Do not
commit incest. Do not physically or verbally abuse others. Do not murder. Do not destroy
the natural environment upon which all life depends.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
Province of Laguna
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
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DO GOOD. Do to others what you would like them to do to you. Be honest and fair. Be
generous. Be faithful to your family and friends. Take care of your children when they are
young. Take care of your parents when they are old. Take care of those who cannot take
care of themselves. Be kind to strangers. Respect all life. Protect the natural environment
upon which all life depends.

Engaging Activity 1

1. Using a graphic organizer, distinguish between moral standards and non-

moral standards.
2. Does belief in God strengthen a person to be moral? Explain your
answer.

Engaging Activity 2
Listen to the song “My Way” by Frank Sinatra and answer the following questions.

1. What’s your favorite line from the song? Why is it your favorite?
2. Does the song suggest choice or freedom? Why?
3. If a beast like a dog could sing the same song, could the dog be honestly
singing what the song express? Why?

ETHICS – J.UNIFORME
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Laguna State Polytechnic University
Province of Laguna
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Performance Tasks

Performance Task

A. Compose a cinquain about Filipino character, his/her strenths and weaknesses.

A cinquain has 5 lines.
 The first line is one word, the title of the poem.
 The second line contains two adjectives.
 The third line has three words ending in “ing.”
 The fourth line has four or more words that make a complete sentence.
 The fifth line is one word, a synonym of the first line.
Here is an example.
Pinoy
Warm, Friendly
Chatting, laughing, drinking
He is a faithful friend
Buddy.
B. Strengths sometimes also become weaknesses. Do you agree? Explain your answer and illustrate with
an example.

ETHICS – J.UNIFORME
 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Province of Laguna
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Level I Institutionally Accredited
Understanding Directed Assess

Learning Resources

Part 5. References
a. Ruben A. Corpuz, Brenda b. Corpuz (2020), ETHICS, Lorimar Publishing Inc.
b. Bulaong, Oscar. B., M.J. T. Calano, A.M. Lagliva, M. N.E. Mariano, J.D. Z. Principe (2018).
Ethics: Foundations of Moral Valuation. REX Book Store, Quezon City, Philippines
c. Mackinnon, Barabara & Andrew Fiala. (2015). Ethics: Theory and Contemporary Issues,
Concise. Eight Edition, Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning
d. Reyes, Ramon C. (2003). The Relation between Ethics and Religious Belief: The Moral
Dimension: Essays in Honor Ramon Castillo Reyes: Office of Research & Publications,
Ateneo De Manila University, Quezon City, Philippines
e. Singer, Peter. (2016). One World Now: The Ethics of Globalization. New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press

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