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Thermoelectric Power Generation Using Waste-Heat Energy as an Alternative

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Article in Recent Patents on Electrical Engineering · January 2010

DOI: 10.2174/1874476110902010027

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 Recent Patents on Electrical Engineering 2009, 2, 27-39 27

Thermoelectric Power Generation Using Waste-Heat Energy as an

Alternative Green Technology
Basel I. Ismail*, Wael H. Ahmed**
*Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lakehead University, Canada, **Component Life Technology, Atomic Energy
of Canada Ltd., Canada

Received: August 1, 2008; Accepted: November 20, 2008; Revised: November 24, 2008
Abstract: In recent years, an increasing concern of environmental issues of emissions, in particular global warming and
the limitations of energy resources has resulted in extensive research into novel technologies of generating electrical
power. Thermoelectric power generators have emerged as a promising alternative green technology due to their distinct
advantages. Thermoelectric power generation offer a potential application in the direct conversion of waste-heat energy
into electrical power where it is unnecessary to consider the cost of the thermal energy input. The application of this
alternative green technology in converting waste-heat energy directly into electrical power can also improve the overall
efficiencies of energy conversion systems. In this paper, a background on the basic concepts of thermoelectric power
generation is presented and recent patents of thermoelectric power generation with their important and relevant
applications to waste-heat energy are reviewed and discussed.
Keywords: Thermoelectric power generation, waste-heat recovery, alternative green technology, direct energy conversion,
electrical power, thermoelectric materials.

1. INTRODUCTION deration and cost is not. Applications over the past decade
included industrial instruments, military, medical and
A thermoelectric power generator is a solid state device
aerospace [1, 5], and applications for portable or remote
that provides direct energy conversion from thermal energy
power generation [6]. However, in recent years, an increa-
(heat) due to a temperature gradient into electrical energy
sing concern of environmental issues of emissions, in
based on “Seebeck effect”. The thermoelectric power cycle, particular global warming has resulted in extensive research
with charge carriers (electrons) serving as the working fluid,
into nonconventional technologies of generating electrical
follows the fundamental laws of thermodynamics and
power and thermoelectric power generation has emerged as a
intimately resembles the power cycle of a conventional heat
promising alternative green technology. Vast quantities of
engine. Thermoelectric power generators offer several
waste heat are discharged into the earth’s environment much
distinct advantages over other technologies [1-4]:
of it at temperatures which are too low to recover using
• they are extremely reliable (typically exceed 100,000 conventional electrical power generators. Thermoelectric
hours of steady-state operation) and silent in operation power generation (also known as thermoelectricity) offers a
since they have no mechanical moving parts and require promising technology in the direct conversion of low-grade
considerably less maintenance; thermal energy, such as waste-heat energy, into electrical
power [7]. Probably the earliest application is the utilization
• they are simple, compact and safe;
of waste heat from a kerosene lamp to provide thermoelectric
• they have very small size and virtually weightless; power to power a wireless set. Thermoelectric generators
• they are capable of operating at elevated temperatures; have also been used to provide small amounts electrical
power to remote regions for example Northern Sweden, as an
• they are suited for small-scale and remote applications alternative to costly gasoline powered motor generators [8].
typical of rural power supply, where there is limited or In this waste heat powered thermoelectric technology, it is
no electricity; unnecessary to consider the cost of the thermal energy input,
• they are environmentally friendly; and consequently thermoelectric power generators’ low
conversion efficiency is not a critical drawback [1,8]. In fact,
• they are not position-dependent; and more recently, they can be used in many cases, such as those
• they are flexible power sources. used in cogeneration systems [9], to improve overall
efficiencies of energy conversion systems by converting
The major drawback of thermoelectric power generator is waste-heat energy into electrical power [3].
their relatively low conversion efficiency (typically ~5%
[5]). This has been a major cause in restricting their use in In general, the cost of a thermoelectric power generator
electrical power generation to specialized fields with essentially consists of the device cost and operating cost. The
extensive applications where reliability is a major consi- operating cost is governed d by the generator’s conversion
efficiency, while the device cost is determined by the cost of
its construction to produce the desired electrical power
*Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Mechanical output [1]. Since the conversion efficiency of a module is
Engineering, Lakehead University, Canada; Tel: +1(807) 766 7100;
Fax: +1(807) 343 8928; E-mail: [email protected] comparatively low, thermoelectric generation using waste

1874-4761/09 $100.00+.00 © 2009 Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.

28 Recent Patents on Electrical Engineering, 2009, Vol. 2, No. 1 Ismail and Ahmed

heat energy is an ideal application. In this case, the operating

cost is negligible compared to the module cost because the
energy input (fuel) cost is cheap or free. Therefore, an
important objective in thermoelectric power generation using
waste heat energy is to reduce the cost-per-watt of the
devices. Moreover, cost-per-watt can be reduced by
optimising the device geometry, improving the manufacture
quality and simply by operating the device at a larger
temperature difference [1]. In addition, in designing high-
performance thermoelectric power generators, the impro-
vement of thermoelectric properties of materials and system
optimization have attracted the attention of many research
activities [10]. Their performance and economic compe-
tiveness appear to depend on successful development of
more advanced thermoelectric materials and thermoelectric
power module designs.
In this paper, a background on the basic concepts of the
thermoelectric power generation is presented through the
applications implemented in the recent patents of ther-
moelectric power generation relevant to waste-heat energy.
2. BASIC THEORY OF A THERMOELECTRIC
POWER GENERATOR
The basic theory and operation of thermoelectric based
systems have been developed for many years. Thermo-
electric power generation is based on a phenomenon called
“Seebeck effect” discovered by Thomas Seebeck in 1821 [1].
When a temperature difference is established between the Fig. (1). Schematic diagram showing the basic concept of a simple
hot and cold junctions of two dissimilar materials (metals or thermoelectric power generator operating based on Seebeck effect.
semiconductors) a voltage is generated, i.e., Seebeck voltage.
In fact, this phenomenon is applied to thermocouples that are electrons and holes operate as both charge carriers and
extensively used for temperature measurements. Based on energy carriers. There are very few modules without ceramic
this Seebeck effect, thermoelectric devices can act as plates, which could eliminate the thermal resistance asso-
electrical power generators. A schematic diagram of a simple ciated with the ceramic plates, but might lead to mechanical
thermoelectric power generator operating based on Seebeck fragility of the module. The ceramic plates are commonly
effect is shown in Fig. (1). As shown in Fig. (1), heat is made from alumina (Al2O3), but when large lateral heat
transferred at a rate of Q
H from a high-temperature heat transfer is required, materials with higher thermal
source maintained at TH to the hot junction, and it is conductivity (e.g. beryllia and aluminum nitride) are desired.
rejected at a rate of Q
L to a low-temperature sink maintained The semiconductor thermoelements (e.g. silicon-germanium
at TL from the cold junction. Based on Seebeck effect, the SiGe, lead-telluride PbTe based alloys) that are sandwiched
heat supplied at the hot junction causes an electric current to between the ceramic plates are connected thermally in
flow in the circuit and electrical power is produced. Using parallel and electrically in series to form a thermoelectric
the first-law of thermodynamics (energy conservation device (module). More than one pair of semiconductors are
principle) the difference between Q
H and Q
L is the normally assembled together to form a thermoelectric
electrical power output W
e . It should be noted that this module and within the module a pair of thermoelements is
power cycle intimately resembles the power cycle of a heat called a thermocouple [1]. The junctions connecting the
engine (Carnot engine), thus in this respect a thermoelectric thermoelements between the hot and cold plates are
power generator can be considered as a unique heat engine interconnected using highly conducting metal (e.g. copper)
[11]. strips as shown in Fig. (2).
3. COMPOSITION AND SPECIFICATIONS OF A The sizes of conventional thermoelectric devices vary
THERMOELECTRIC POWER GENERATOR from 3 mm2 by 4 mm thick to 75 mm2 by 5 mm thick. Most
Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram illustrating compo- of thermoelectric modules are not larger than 50 mm in
nents and arrangement of a conventional single-stage length due to mechanical consideration. The height of single-
thermoelectric power generator. As shown in Fig. (2), it is stage thermoelectric modules ranges from 1 to 5 mm. The
composed of two ceramic plates (substrates) that serve as a modules contain from 3 to 127 thermocouples [1]. There are
foundation, providing mechanical integrity, and electrical multistage thermoelectric devices designed to meet
insulation for n-type (heavily doped to create excess requirements for large temperature differentials. Multi-stage
electrons) and p-type (heavily doped to create excess holes) thermoelectric modules can be up to 20 mm in height,
semiconductor thermoelements. In thermoelectric materials, depending on the number of stages. Photographs of single-
Patents on Thermoelectric Power Generation Recent Patents on Electrical Engineering, 2009, Vol. 2, No. 1 29

Fig. (2). Schematic diagram showing components and arrangement of a typical single-stage thermoelectric power generator.

and multi-stage thermoelectric modules are shown in Fig. (3) specifications, such as module geometry (i.e. cross-sectional
[12,13]. area and thermoelement length), thermoelectric materials and
contact properties. For example, Figs. (4a & b) show the
maximum power output as a function of temperature
difference for modules which possess different geometry as
listed in Table 1 [5]. It can be seen from Figs. (4a & b) that
the maximum power output increases parabolically with an
increase in temperature difference. For a given temperature
difference, there is a significant variation in maximum power
output for different modules due to variation in thermo-
electric materials, module geometry and contact properties.
However, as shown in Fig. (3a), the maximum power output
follows a clear trend and increases with a decrease in
thermoelement length for a given module cross-sectional
(a)
area.
4. PERFROMANCE OF THERMOELECTRIC
POWER GENERATORS
The performance of thermoelectric materials can be
expressed as [7]

Z =
2 / kR , (1)
where Z is the thermoelectric material figure-of-merit ,
is
the Seebeck coefficient given by
(b) V
 =
, (2)
Fig. (3). Photographs of (a) single-stage, and (b) three-stage T
thermoelectric modules (typical pyramid shape) [12, 13].
R is the electric resistivity (inverse of electric
conductivity) and k is the total thermal conductivity. This
The power output for most of the commercially-available
thermoelectric power generators ranges from microwatts to figure-of-merit may be made dimensionless by multiplying
multi-kilowatts [1, 8]. For example, a standard thermo- by T (average absolute temperature of hot and cold plates
electric device consists of 71 thermocouples with the size of of the thermoelectric module, K), i.e.,
75 mm2 can deliver electrical power of approximately 19 W
[1]. The maximum output power from a thermoelectric ZT =
2T / kR (3)
power generator typically varies depending on temperature
and
difference between hot and cold plates and module
30 Recent Patents on Electrical Engineering, 2009, Vol. 2, No. 1 Ismail and Ahmed

Table 1. Thermocouple Number (N), Cross-Sectional Area (A)

and Thermoelement Length (l) of Several
Commercially Available Modules [5]

W


=
e (5)
QH
Limited by the second-law of thermodynamics, the ideal
(absolute maximum) efficiency of a thermoelectric power
(a) generator operating as a reversible heat engine is Carnot
efficiency, given by [11]
T
Carnot = 1
L (6)
TH
The maximum conversion efficiency of an irreversible
thermoelectric power generator can be estimated using [14]
 1 + ZT
1 
 = Carnot   (7)
 1 + ZT + TL / TH 
The value of the figure-of-merit is usually proportional to
the conversion efficiency. The dimensionless term ZT is
therefore a very convenient figure for comparing the potential
conversion efficiency of modules using different thermo-
electric materials. The conversion efficiency as a function of
operating temperature difference and for a range of values of
the thermoelectric material’s figure-of-merit is shown in Fig.
(5). It is evident that an increase in
T provides a corres-
ponding increase in available heat for conversion as dictated
Fig. (4). Maximum power output as a function of temperature
by the Carnot efficiency, so large
T ’s are advantageous
differences. (a) Modules denoted I possess 127 thermocouples; (b) [7]. For example, a thermoelectric material with an average
Modules denoted II possess 31 thermocouples and modules denoted figure-of-merit of 3x10-3 K-1 would have a conversion
III possess 50 thermocouples (more specifications are given in efficiency of approximately 23% when operated over a
Table 1) [5]. temperature difference of 600K.
5. THERMOELECTRCI MATERIALS FOR POWER
GENERATORS
T + TL
T = H . (4) Among the vast number of materials known to date, only
2 a relatively few are identified as thermoelectric materials. As
reported by Rowe [7], thermoelectric materials can be
The term
2 / R is referred to as the electrical power categorized into established (conventional) and new (novel)
factor. In general, a thermoelectric power generator exhibits materials, which will be discussed in the next sections.
low efficiency due to the relatively small dimensionless Today's most thermoelectric materials, such as Bismuth
figure-of-merit ( ZT
1 ) of currently available thermo- Telluride (Bi2Te3)-based alloys and PbTe-based alloys, have
electric materials. The conversion efficiency of a a ZT value of around unity (at room temperature for Bi2Te3
thermoelectric power generator defined as the ratio of power and 500-700K for PbTe). However, at a ZT of 2-3 range,
delivered to the heat input at the hot junction of the thermoelectric power generators would become competitive
thermoelectric device, is given by [7] with other power generation systems [1,15]. The figure-of-
merit Z of a number of thermoelectric materials together
Patents on Thermoelectric Power Generation Recent Patents on Electrical Engineering, 2009, Vol. 2, No. 1 31

Fig. (5). Conversion efficiency as a function of temperature and module material figure-of-merit [7].

Fig. (6). Figure-of-merit of a number of thermoelectric materials and their potential applications [7].

with potential power generating applications relevant to 5.1. Conventional Thermoelectric Materials
waste heat energy is shown in Fig. (6) [7]. Effective thermo-
electric materials should have a low thermal conductivity but Rowe [7] reported that established thermoelectric mate-
a high electrical conductivity. A large amount of research in rials (those which are employed in commercial applications)
thermoelectric materials has focused on increasing the can be conveniently divided into three groupings based on
Seebeck coefficient and reducing the thermal conductivity, the temperature range of operation, as shown in Fig. (6).
especially by manipulating the nanostructure of the thermo- Alloys based on Bismuth (Bi) in combinations with
electric materials. Because the thermal and electrical Antimony (An), Tellurium (Te) or Selenium (Se) are referred
conductivity correlate with the charge carriers, new means to as low temperature materials and can be used at tempe-
must be introduced in order to conciliate the contradiction ratures up to around 450K. The intermediate temperature
between high electrical conductivity and low thermal range - up to around 850K is the regime of materials based
conductivity as indicated by Weiling and Shantung [15]. on alloys of Lead (Pb) while thermoelements employed at
the highest temperatures are fabricated from SiGe alloys and
operate up to 1300K. Although the above mentioned
materials still remain the cornerstone for commercial and
32 Recent Patents on Electrical Engineering, 2009, Vol. 2, No. 1 Ismail and Ahmed

practical applications in thermoelectric power generation, Yadav et al. [3] proposed and demonstrated the use of
significant advances have been made in synthesising new flexible and cost-effective thermoelectric power generator
materials and fabricating material structures with improved based on thin film thermoelectric on flexible fiber substrates
thermoelectric performance. Efforts have focused primarily as shown in Fig. (7). They concluded that their innovation
on improving the material’s figure-of-merit, and hence the can be effectively applied in making flexible thermoelectric
conversion efficiency, by reducing the lattice thermal power generators for waste heat recovery applications. In [3]
conductivity [7]. it was also suggested that utilizing thicker semiconductor
films evaporated onto hollow, low thermal conductivity
5.2. Novel Thermoelectric Materials And Module substrates represents an opportunity to further increase power
Configurations
extraction efficiency from heat sources having a variety of
It was recently reported in [5] that a material which is a shapes.
promising candidate to fill the temperature range in the ZT
pectrum between those based on Bi2Te3 and PbTe is the
semiconductor compound ß-Zn4Sb3. This material possesses
an exceptionally low thermal conductivity and exhibits a
maximum ZT of 1.3 at a temperature of 670K. This material
is also relatively inexpensive and stable up to this
temperature in a vacuum [5].
Attempts are also being made to improve the compe-
titiveness of thermoelectrics in directions other than by
improving the figure-of-merit. In particular, efforts have
focused on increasing the electrical power factor, decreasing
cost and developing environmentally friendly materials. In
addition, when the fuel cost is low or essentially free, as in
waste heat recovery, then the cost per watt is mainly
determined by the power per unit area and the operating
period [5]. For example, considering the electrical power
factor as the dominant parameter, it has initiated a search for
materials with high power factors rather than conversion Fig. (7). (a) Schematic diagram of a striped thin film thermoelectric
efficiency. Considerable success has been enjoyed in synthe- fiber made with thermal evaporation of nickel and silver; (b)
sising materials, particularly attractive for waste heat schematic of fiber with thin film deposited on one side; and (c)
recovery. For example, it is reported in [16] that the rare schematic of experimental setup for applying a temperature
earth compounds YbAl3, although possessing a relatively difference and measuring the induced open circuit voltage [3].
low figure-of-merit, has a power factor at least double that of
any other reported in the literature, which operates over the Min and Rowe [17] have also recently developed a novel
temperature range of a waste heat source. When compared to tube-shape thermoelectric module for power generation. It is
YbAl3, MgSn has almost the same performance but costs fabricated from four ring-shaped thermoelements and its
less than 25% [7]. performance in electrical power generation is evaluated by
measuring the power output as a function of temperature
Another recent direction to improve the competitiveness
gradient across the device. Fig. (8) shows a schematic of the
of thermoelectric materials, other than by improving the
figure-of-merit, is by developing novel thermoelectric novel thermoelectric module developed by [17]. It consists
of two coaxial tubes: the inner tube is a thermoelectric
module shapes. As discussed previously, thermoelectric
assembly with heat source flowing in the center and the outer
modules have typically plate-like shapes Fig. (3) and
tube is an ordinary tube to hold the cooling fluid flowing
fabricated from bulk semiconductors such as Bi2Te3 and
between the inner and outer tubes. It was concluded by [17]
PbTe, making them rigid and unsuitable for covering
that a tube-shape thermoelectric module could achieve
relatively large surfaces that are curved or non-flat (e.g.
circular tubes) used in waste heat recovery applications. similar performance to that of a conventional plate-like
module, and has an advantage in waste heat recovery
Also, this conventional configuration is suitable for appli-
applications where heat flows in a radial direction.
cations where the flow of heat is perpendicular to the cera-
mic plates. However, when heat flows in radial directions, 6. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS & NOVEL
the attachment of plate-shape modules around a cylindrical APPLICATIONS
heat source is often complicated. It becomes increasingly
difficult, if not impossible, when the diameter of the Enormous quantities of waste heat generated from
cylindrical heat source decreases to less than 1 cm [17]. In various sources are continuously discharged into the earth’s
addition, in order to improve thermal contact to heat sources environment much of it at temperatures which are too low to
of arbitrary geometry, it is desirable to fabricate thermo- recover using conventional electrical power generators.
electric modules which can conform easily to a surface. Thermoelectric power generation, which presents itself as a
promising alternative green technology, has been success-
Therefore, recent research has been focused on fully used to produce electrical power in a range of scales
developing novel flexible- and cylindrical-based shapes of directly from various sources of waste-heat energy. This will
thermoelectric power generators. For example, very recently, be discussed in the next sections.
Patents on Thermoelectric Power Generation Recent Patents on Electrical Engineering, 2009, Vol. 2, No. 1 33

(a)

Fig. (8). Schematic diagram of thermoelectric modules. (a) Conven-

Fig. (9). Photograph of the miniature thermoelectric generator [18].
tional thermoelectric module with a plate-like configuration. (b) A
novel thermoelectric module consisting of two coaxial tubes [17].
includes a heat-conducting substrate (composed, e.g., of
diamond or another high thermal conductivity material)
6.1. Micro-Scale Waste Heat Applications
disposed in thermal contact with a high temperature region.
Growing applications like autonomous micro-systems or During operation of this device, heat flows from the high
wearable electronics urgently look for micro-scale power region into the heat-conducting substrate, from which the
generators. One possibility is to convert waste heat into heat flows into the electrical power generator. In this patent,
electrical power with a micro thermoelectric power a Bi2Te3 alloy-based film thermoelectric material is placed in
generator. Micro thermoelectric power generators can be thermal contact with the heat-conducting substrate. The low
fabricated using integrated circuit technology [8]. For temperature region is located on the other side of the
example, in [18], alternate n- and p-type thermoelements are thermoelectric module opposite that of the high temperature
ion implanted into an undoped silicon substrate. A region. In this innovation, the thermal gradient across the
photograph of the miniature thermoelectric generator device generates electrical power and drives an electrical
developed by [18] is shown in Fig. (9) [18]. Metalisation of component. A schematic diagram illustrating the concept of
thermoelement connecting strips and output contacts enables this patent is shown in Fig. (10) [20].
several hundred thermocouples to be connected electrically
More recently, Glatz et al. [21] presented a novel
in series and occupy an area approximately 25 mm2. The
polymer based wafer level fabrication process for micro
miniature generator in [18] was designed specifically to
provide sufficient electrical power to operate an electronic thermoelectric power generators for the application on non-
chip in a domestic gas-monitoring system. In excess of 1.5 planar surfaces. The power generators are fabricated by
volts could be produced when a temperature difference of a subsequent electrochemical deposition of Cu and Ni in a
few tens of degrees was established across the module. In 190- μ m thick flexible polymer mold formed by photoli-
this case, any available waste heat source, such as the surface thographic patterning of SU-8. In this invention, the
of a hot water pipe would provide sufficient heat flux to generators were first tested and characterized and the
thermoelectrically generate the required chip-voltage [8]. In thermoelectric module generated an electrical power of 12.0
[19], waste human body heat is used to power a thermo- + 1.1 nW/cm2 for a
T of 0.12K at the micro thermoelectric
electric ‘watch battery’. In this application, thermocouples generator interface. This is equivalent to a thermoelectric
were prepared by depositing germanium and indium efficiency factor of 0.83 μW K-2 cm-2. It was concluded by
antimonide on either side of a 1 mm thick insulator which
served as a simulated watch strap. It was estimated that 2875 [21] that the thermocouple length should be in the range of
thermoelements connected in series would be required to 80-150 μ m when the best thermoelectric bulk material
obtain the 2V required to operate the watch. (Bi2Te3) is used and realistic interface condition are
assumed. A schematic diagram of this invention is shown in
Recently, a patent of a micro-scale thermoelectric device
Fig. (11) [21].
for generating power from waste heat to operate an
electronic component is presented in [20]. The device
34 Recent Patents on Electrical Engineering, 2009, Vol. 2, No. 1 Ismail and Ahmed

Fig. (10). Schematic diagram illustrating the patent of micro thermoelectric power generator that can be used to convert waste heat into
electrical power to drive an electronic chip [20].

application were considered: a high Z value; stability, and

resistance to oxidation, sublimation, and evaporation;
effective contact properties; non-toxicity; low component
cost; and simplicity of design. When considering a waste-
heat ‘Parasitic’ application, the primary criterion is a high
power factor. Optimization requires a high power factor even
at the expense of somewhat reducing Z. In this case, and
given that the maximum temperature available on the stove
Fig. (11). Schematic diagram illustrating the patent of micro surface is approximately 550 K, the modules options
thermoelectric power generator that can be used to convert waste reported by [22] for their design of the waste heat powered
heat into electrical power to drive an electronic chip [21]. thermoelectric generator, include:
• FeSi2. This has excellent stability at high temperatures
and may be used in open flames. The power output is,
6.2. Macro-Scale Waste Heat Applications however, too low to make this an interesting preposition.
6.2.1 Domestic Waste Heat Applications • PbTe. But this offers no advantage in this temperature-
limited regime. In fact, in this range Bi2Te3 has an
Rowe [7] reported that a waste heat-based thermoelectric
advantage in both power factor and Z as well.
power generator is used in a domestic central heating system
with the modules located between the heat source and the • Use densely packed large area modules based on Bi2Te3.
water jacket. In this application, the heat output provided by These may suffer somewhat from contact inadequacy
the gas/oil burner passes through the generator before leading to some power loss and could use some re-
reaching the central heating hot-water exchanger. The design for more power. They are limited to a maximum
generator converts about 5% of the input heat to electrical temperature of approximately 500-530K leading to a
power, the remainder of 95% transfers to the hot water heat loss of some available heat. They appear costly per
exchanger for its intended use in heating the radiator system. module at first.
It was concluded that two modules based on PbTe • Use so-called high-temperature Bi2Te3 Peltier modules
technology when operated at hot and cold side temperatures in power generation mode. These suffer from optimi-
of 550oC and 50oC, respectively, would generate the 50W zation inappropriate for power generation. Additionally,
required to power the circulating pump [7]. being limited to a maximum hot temperature of
Waste heat energy can also be utilized proportionally approximately 450K requires significant attenuation and
from 20-50 kW wood- or diesel-heated stoves [22], espe- heat availability loss. While here the advantage in power
cially, during the winter months in rural regions where factor over PbTe material is reduced (due to atten-
electric power supply is unreliable or intermittent, to power uation), it still exists.
thermoelectric generators. For example, in [22], a thermo- In their [22] invention, a simplified model of the
electric power generator to produce electricity from stove- generator was modeled using a 2-dimensional heat transfer
top surface temperatures of 100-300oC was designed and program. Fig. (12) [22] shows a half-section of the generator
evaluated. In this application, two commercially available model. The program assigns appropriate thermal conduc-
thermoelectric modules were considered and 100W of tivities to each material section as well as a convective heat
electrical power output was targeted for a minimum domes- transfer boundary condition to the top side. In their [22]
tic use. In this invention, the following general criteria for
selecting thermoelectric modules for domestic waste heat
Patents on Thermoelectric Power Generation Recent Patents on Electrical Engineering, 2009, Vol. 2, No. 1 35

A similar application is reported in [7]. In this

application, thermoelectric power generators were used to
generate small amounts of electrical power to remote regions
for example Northern Sweden, as an alternative to costly
gasoline powered engine generators. The generator uses heat
from a wood burning stove with the cold side cooled with a
12 volt, 2.2W fan. The generator produces around 10 watts.
6.2.2. Waste Heat From Exhaust Gases Generated From
Automobiles Applications
The utilization of waste heat energy from exhaust gases
in reciprocating internal combustion engines (e.g.
automobiles) is another novel application of electricity
generation using thermoelectric power generators. Although
a reciprocating piston engine converts the chemical energy
available in fossil fuels efficiently into mechanical work a
substantial amount of thermal energy is dissipated to the
environment through exhaust gas, radiation, cooling water
and lubricating oils. For example, in a gasoline powered
engine, approximately 30% of the primary gasoline fuel
Fig. (12). Model of single module generator test rig. Half the energy is dissipated as waste heat energy in the exhaust
generator is seen and the view is at slice through the edge of the rig gases; waste heat energy discharged in the exhaust gases
through the fixing screws. Dark parts represent insulation [22]. from a typical passenger car travelling at a regular speed is
20-30 kW [1]. A comprehensive theoretical study concluded
that a thermoelectric generator powered by exhaust heat
model, typical thermal conductivity values were used for the could meet the electrical requirements of a medium sized
materials such as aluminum, insulator, steel screws, Bi2Te3, automobile [8]. It was reported in [8] that among the
and Al2O3. Furthermore, the conductive coefficient used was established thermoelectric materials, those modules based on
typical of forced air convection. Fig. (13) [22] shows the PbTe technology were the most suitable for converting waste
temperature profile through a section of the generator from heat energy from automobiles into electrical power. Wide-
the hot plate to the fin base. As shown in Fig. (12) [22], the scale applications of thermoelectrics in the automobile
fixing screws present a significant heat leak path thus industry would lead to some reductions in fuel consumption,
causing cold side temperatures to be high (and a resultant and thus environmental global warming, but this technology
low
T ). It was concluded in [22] that in practise, the is not yet proven [1].
situation is not as bad as presented in Fig. (13) [22], since the
model is only two-dimensional and it does not show the Since 1914 the possibility of using thermoelectric power
situation deeper within the generator. generation to recover some of waste heat energy from
reciprocating engines has been explored and patented [23]. A
schematic diagram showing this patent of converting waste
heat into electrical power applied to an internal combustion
engine using a thermoelectric power generator is shown in
Fig. (14) [23]. In this invention, the exhaust gases in the pipe
provide the heat source to the thermoelectric power
generator, whereas the heat sink (cold side) is suggested to
be provided by circulation of cooling water.
More recently, Taguchi [24] invented an exhaust gas-
based thermoelectric power generator for an automobile
application. A schematic diagram showing this recent patent
applied to an automobile for converting waste heat available
in exhaust gases directly into electrical power using a
thermoelectric power generator is shown in Fig. (15) [24]. In
this patent, a pump supplies cooling water through each of
cooling water circulation paths. The cooling water circu-
lation path includes a cooling water pipe arranged along the
exhaust pipe to pass the cooling water. At stacks a plurality
Fig. (13). Temperature profile through center of single module of thermoelectric generation elements are attached to the
generator from hot side via module to fin base. Convective exhaust pipe and the cooling water pipe successively in a
coefficient h =100 W/m2K. (a) Aluminum screws and nuts with no direction from the upstream toward downstream of the
insulating gasket above it. (b) Steel screws and nuts with an exhaust gas. The cooling water pipe and the exhaust pipe
insulating gasket above it. (c) As in (b), but convective coefficient pass the cooling water and the exhaust gas, respectively, in
is 75 W/m2K [22]. opposite directions so that the downstream stack has an
36 Recent Patents on Electrical Engineering, 2009, Vol. 2, No. 1 Ismail and Ahmed

Fig. (14). Schematic diagram showing early invention of converting waste heat into electrical power applied to an internal combustion
engine using a thermoelectric power generator [23].

Fig. (15). Schematic diagram showing a recent patent applied to an automobile for converting waste heat directly into electrical power using
a thermoelectric power generator [24].

increased difference in temperature between the exhaust pipe environmental global warming. In particular, the replace-
and the cooling water pipe, and the stacks provide power ment of by-heat boiler and gas turbine by thermoelectric
outputs having a reduced difference, and hence an increased power generators makes it capable of largely reducing
total power output. This invention is proposed to provide capital cost, increasing stability, saving energy source, and
increased thermoelectric conversion efficiency without protecting environment. A photograph of a thermoelectric
complicated piping [24]. power generator used in natural gas field to directly produce
power for cathodic protection of the well and gas line is
6.2.3. Industrial Waste Heat Applications
shown in Fig. (16) [15]. In this application, the thermo-
Most of the recent research activities on applications of electric device used the temperature difference between hot
thermoelectric power generation have been directed towards and cold legs of a glycol natural gas dehydrator cycle [15].
utilisation of industrial waste heat [1]. Vast amounts of heat
Recently, Min and Rowe [7] reported that in 1994 a
are rejected from industry, manufacturing plants and power £1.8M research project sponsored by the Japanese New
utilities as gases or liquids at temperature which are too low
Energy and Technology Development Organization (NEDO)
to be used in conventional generating units (<450 K). In this
commenced in the School of Engineering at Cardiff Univer-
large-scale application, thermoelectric power generators
sity, UK with the objective to convert low temperature waste
offer a potential alternative of electricity generation powered
heat into electrical power. A series of WATT (Waste heat
by waste heat energy that would contribute to solving the
Alternative Thermoelectric Technology) prototype genera-
worldwide energy crisis, and the same time help reduce
Patents on Thermoelectric Power Generation Recent Patents on Electrical Engineering, 2009, Vol. 2, No. 1 37

produced electricity estimated at 33% and 40% of fuel input,

respectively. The useful waste heat from stack exhaust of
cogeneration systems was estimated at approximately 20%
for a gas turbine and 10% for the diesel cycle. The
corresponding net power generation is about 100 MW.
Very recently, an invention [26] which related to a
thermoelectric-based power generation system designed to
be clamped onto the outer wall of a steam pipe is presented.
This patent can include a number of assemblies mounted on
the sides of a pipe. Each assemble can include a hot block,
an array of thermoelectric modules, and a cold block system.
In this invention, the hot block can create a thermal channel
to the hot plates of the modules. The cold block can include
a heat pipe onto which fins are attached [26].
6.2.4. Waste Heat from Incineration of Solid Waste
Applications
Recently, the possibility of utilizing the heat from
incinerated municipal solid waste has also been considered.
For example, in Japan the solid waste per capita is around 1
kg per day and the amount of energy in equivalent oil is
Fig. (16). Photograph of a thermoelectric power generator produced estimated at 18 million kJ by the end of the 21st century. It
power for cathodic protection of the well and gas line, which used was reported by [7] that an on-site experiment using a 60W
the temperature difference between hot and cold legs of glycol thermoelectric module installed near the boiler section of an
natural gas dehydrator cycle [15]. incinerator plant, achieved an estimated conversion
efficiency of approximately 4.4%. The incinerator waste gas
temperature varied between 823K and 973K and with forced
tors have been constructed and identified as WATT-X where air-cooling on the cold side an estimated conversion
X denoted the power output in watts. Basically the generator efficiency of approximately 4.5% was achieved. An analysis
consists of an array of modules sandwiched between hot and of a conceptual large scale system burning 100 ton of solid
cold water-carrying channels. Some of the heat flux which is waste during a 16 hour day indicated that around 426 kW
established by the hot and cold temperature difference could be delivered [7]. In the waste heat from incineration
between the hot and cold water flows is directly converted applications, the thermoelectric modules are typically placed
into electrical power. When operated using hot water at a on walls of the furnace’s funnels. This construction can
temperature of approximately 90oC and cold flow at ambient eliminate the by-heat furnace, gas turbine and other
Watt-100 generates 100 watts at a power density approa- appending parts of steam recycle [15]. Figure 17 [15] shows
ching 80 kW/m3. In this application, the system was scalable a photograph of a thermoelectric power generator produced
enabling 1.5 kW of electrical power to be generated [7]. by the Japanese Energy Conservation Center, which used
Thermoelectric power generators have also been success- waste heat as energy source to generate an electric power
fully applied in recovering waste heat from steel manufac- density of 100 kW/m3.
turing plants. In this application, large amounts of cooling
water are typically discharged at constant temperatures of
around 90oC when used for cooling ingots in steel plants.
When operating in its continuous steel casting mode, the
furnace provides a steady-state source of convenient piped
water which can be readily converted by thermoelectric
power generators into electricity. It was reported by [7] that
total electrical power of around 8 MW would be produced
employing currently available modules fabricated using
Bi2Te3 thermoelectric modules technology.
Another application where thermoelectric power
generators using waste heat energy have potential use is in
industrial cogeneration systems [1,9,25]. For example,
Yodovard et al. [9] assessed the potential of waste heat
thermoelectric power generation for diesel cycle and gas
turbine cogeneration in the manufacturing industrial sector in
Thailand. The data from more than 27,000 factories from
different sectors, namely, chemical product, food processing, Fig. (17). Photograph of a thermoelectric power generator produced
oil refining, palm oil mills petrochemical, pulp and paper by the Japanese Energy Conservation Center, which used waste
rice mills, sugar mills, and textiles, were used. It is reported heat as energy source to generate an electric power density of 100
that gas turbine and diesel cycle cogeneration systems kW/m3 [15].
38 Recent Patents on Electrical Engineering, 2009, Vol. 2, No. 1 Ismail and Ahmed

7. CURRENT & FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS N = Number of thermocouples

Recently, an increasing concern of environmental issues Q
H = Heat transfer rate from high-temperature source
of emissions, in particular global warming and the (W)
constraints on energy sources has resulted in extensive Q
L = Heat transfer rate from low-temperature sink
research into innovative technologies of generating electrical (W)
power and thermoelectric power generation has emerged as a
promising alternative green technology. In addition, vast R = Electric resistivity ( )
quantities of waste heat are discharged into the earth’s TH = Temperature of heat source (K)
environment much of it at temperatures which are too low
(i.e. low-grade thermal energy) to recover using conven- TL = Temperature of heat sink (K)a
tional electrical power generators. Thermoelectric power T = Average temperature between hot and cold
generation offers a promising technology in the direct plates (K)
conversion of waste-heat energy, into electrical power. In
this paper, a background on the basic concepts of
T =
thermoelectric power generation is presented and recent V = Voltage (Volt)
W
e
patents of thermoelectric power generation with their
= Electrical power (W)
important and relevant applications to waste-heat energy are
reviewed and discussed. Currently, waste heat powered Z = Thermoelectric material figure-of-merit
thermoelectric generators are utilized in a number of useful (goodness factor) (K-1)
applications due to their distinct advantages. These appli-

= Seebeck coefficient
cations can be categorized as micro- and macro-scale
applications depending on the potential amount of heat-  = Thermoelectric module conversion efficiency
waste energy available for direct conversion into electrical
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