Appreciate the basics of fiber optics

DEFINITION OF FIBER OPTICS

Fiber optics is the branch of optical technology concerned with the transmission of radiant power
(light energy) through fibers.

History and evolution of fiber optics-

The reason that only human beings, among the other species that exist on earth,
created civilization is the ability of speech and communication. So, any form of
cominunication was always among the primary objectives of our kind. The objective of any communication system
is the ansfer of information from one point to another. Therefore, a media is always used while communicating,
which decide the type of communication system. The communication using light is a very old process. The first
written evidence is at the end of the sixth century BC Aeschylusâ ™ Oresteia where he mentioned passing the news
on of Troys downfall by fire
signals via a long chain of relay stations from Asia Minor to Argos. Three centuries after another Greek, Polybius
described an arrangement by which the whole Greek alphabets could be transmitted by fire signals using a two-digit,
five level code. This was the first optical communication link that
allowed the transmission of messages not previously agreed upon. In 1790s, Claude Chappe's optical telegraph
allowed the transmission of signal over the 423 Km distance from Paris to Suasbourg within a time of six minutes.
Later, optical telegraphy was replaced by electrical telegraphy
which allowed a faster signal transmission. In 1870, John Tyndall demonstrated the principle of guiding light
through internal reflections. In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell invented Photophone which used unguided light to
carry speech.A major breakthrough leading to high capacity optical communication was achieved with the invention
of LASER in 1960. The LASER acted as a narrow-band source of optical radiation suitable for use as a carmier of
information. In 1966, Charles K. Kao at standard Telecommunications Laboratories, England fabricated a low loss
glass fibre, giving a loss of 1000 dB/Km or so. Such a fibre could transmit light for a short distance only. But Kao
suggested that purer glass materials would permit the use of fibre for longer transmission lengths. Kao had shown
that it would be
possible to transmit light signals over long distance using glass fibre and modulated infra-red light.
In 1970, coming glass works, U.S.A. developed a low loss fibre giving a loss of 20 dB/Km. This was the second
major breakthrough to make optical communication a practical reality. By 1972, losses were reduced to 4 dB/Km.
Today, the best fibres have a loss of < 0.2 dB/Km.

HISTORY OF FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY

The earliest attempts to communicate via light undoubtedly go back thousands of

years. Early long distance communication techniques, such as "smoke signals",
developed by native North Americans and the Chinese were, in fact, optical
communication links. A larger scale version of this optical communication technique
was the "optical telegraph" developed by Claude Chappe and deployed in France in the
late 18th century. However, the development of fiber optic communication awaited the
discovery of TIR (Total Internal Reflection) and a host of additional electronic and
optical innovations.

In 1854, John Tyndall, using a jet of water that flowed from one container to
another and a beam of light, demonstrated that light used internal reflection to follow a
specific path. As water poured out through the spout of the first container, Tyndall
directed a beam of sunlight at the path of the water. The light, as seen by the audience,
followed a zigzag path inside the curved path of the water. This simple experiment,
illustrated in Figure 1-7, marked the first research into the guided transmission of
light.

Early TIR (Total Internal Reflection) Demonstration

People have used light to transmit information for hundreds of years. However, it
was not until the 1960s, with the invention of the laser that widespread interest in optical
(light) systems for data communications began. The invention of the laser prompted
researchers to study the potential of fiber optics for data communications, sensing, and
other applications. Laser systems could send a much larger amount of data than
telephone, microwave, and other electrical systems. The first experiment with the laser
involved letting the laser beam transmit freely through the air. Researchers also
conducted experiments letting the laser beam transmit through different types of
waveguides. Glass fibers, gas-filled pipes, and tubes with focusing lenses are examples
of optical waveguides.

Charles Kao and Charles Hockham, working at the Standard Telecommunication

Laboratory in England in 1966, published a landmark paper proposing that optical fiber
might be a suitable transmission medium if its attenuation could be kept under 20
decibels per kilometer (dB/km). At the time of this proposal, optical fibers exhibited
losses of 1,000 dB/ km or more. Even at a loss of only 20 dB/km, 99% of the light would
still be lost over only 3,300 feet. In other words, only 1/100th of the optical power that
was transmitted reached the receiver. But, even with this loss, the power was enough to
drive the receiver.

A decibel is a ratio of output power compared to the input power or

mathematically, dB = 10 log (output/input). The decibel is the unit of measurement used
in optics to describe loss or attenuation. Loss is the difference in power between the
transmitter and the receiver measured in dB.

The problem was developing a process in glass manufacturing to achieve the 20

dB threshold. Intuitively, researchers postulated that the current, higher optical losses
were the result of impurities in the glass and not the glass itself. An optical loss of 20
dB/km was within the capability of the electronics and optoelectronic components of the
day.

Intrigued by Drs. Kao and Hockham’s proposal, glass researchers began to work
on the problem of purifying glass. In 1970, Drs. Robert Maurer, Donald Keck, and Peter
Schultz of Corning Glass Works succeeded in developing a glass fiber that exhibited
attenuation at less than 20 dB/km, the threshold for making fiber optics a viable
technology. It was the purest glass ever made.

There are two basic types of optical fibers, multimode fibers and single mode
fibers. Chapter 2 discusses the differences between the fiber types. In 1972, Corning
made a high silica-core multimode optical fiber with 4dB/km minimum loss. Currently,
multimode fibers can have losses as low as 0.5 dB/km at wavelengths around 1300 nm.
Single mode fibers are available with losses lower than 0.25 dB/km at wavelengths
around 1500 nm.

The early work on fiber optic light sources and detectors was slow and often had
to borrow technology developed for other reasons. For example, the first fiber optic light
sources were derived from visible indicator LED's. As demand grew, light sources were
developed for fiber optics that offered higher switching speed, more appropriate
wavelengths, and higher output power.
 Fiber optics developed over the years in a series of generations that can be closely
tied to wavelength. Figure 1-8 shows three curves. The top, dashed, curve corresponds to
early 1980’s fiber, the middle, dotted, curve corresponds to late 1980’s fiber, and the
bottom, solid, curve corresponds to modern optical fiber. The earliest fiber optic systems
were developed at an operating wavelength of about 850 nm. This wavelength
corresponds to the so-called “first window” in a silica-based optical fiber. This window
refers to a wavelength region that offers low optical loss. It sits between several large
absorption peaks caused primarily by moisture in the fiber and Rayleigh scattering.

The 850 nm region was initially attractive because the technology for light
emitters at this wavelength had already been perfected in visible indicator and infrared
(IR) LED's. Low-cost silicon detectors could also be used at the 850 nm wavelength. As
the technology progressed, the first window became less attractive because of its
relatively high 3 dB/km loss limit.

Most companies jumped to the “second window” at 1310 nm with lower

attenuation of about 0.5 dB/km. In late 1977, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT)
developed the “third window” at 1550 nm. It offered the theoretical minimum optical loss
for silica-based fibers, about 0.2 dB/km.

Today, 850nm, 1310nm, and 1550nm systems are all manufactured and deployed
along with very low-end, short distance, systems using visible wavelengths near 660nm.
Each wavelength has its advantage. Longer wavelengths offer higher performance, but
always come with higher cost. The shortest link lengths can be handled with wavelengths
of 660nm or 850nm. The longest link lengths require 1625nm wavelength systems. This
fourth window was developed in 2007.

Advantages/disadvantages of fiber optics

ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

The optical fibre communication system have several advantages over other system as given:
 The information-carrying capacity of a fibre is very much greater than for microwave radio system.
 Attenuation in optical fibre is much lower than that of coaxial cable or twisted pair.
 Smaller in size and lighter in weight.
 Material used in fibres is silica glass or silicon dioxide, which is the most abundant on earth, so material cost
is lower than other system
 The system is unaffected with electromagnetic interference, electrical noise and crosstalk.

 There is not any physical electrical connection between sender and receiver, hence,
 there are rot possibilities of short circuit as in metal wires.

 The life of fibre is longer than corresponding copper wire,

 Fibre communication system is more reliable as it can better withstand environmental conditions.

 The cost per channel is lower than that of metal counterpart.

  .There is not necessity of additional equipment for protecting against grounding and voltage problems.

 Handling and installation costs of optical fibre system is very nominal.

 As fibre does not have resale value in market, hence there are less chances of theft as that of metal
counterpart.

 Flexibility in system upgradation because only by adding a few additional terminals and repeater
equipments, the capacity can be increased ar any time, once the cable is laid.

 As the fibre do not radiate energy, any nearby antenna or any other detector cannot detect it, hence
providing signal security,

 . Optical fibre system provide high resistance to chemical effects and temperature variations.

 Optical fibre cable are available in long lengths, hence there are less splice points.
 The reliability of optical components in optical fibre communication is much longer than their counterpart.

 Optical fibre cable have high tensile strengths, hence more flexible, compact and extremely rugged.

Due to all above stated advantages, optical fibre communication has become
now-a-days a non-obsolescence and universal medium that serve all communication needs.

APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Because of so many advantages enumerated above, now fibre optics has tremendous applications in every aspect of
life and several such applications are given below:

 Telecommunication field,
 Military/ Government applications.
 Space applications.
 Sensor applications.
 Broadband applications.
 Computer applications.
 For Undersea transmission cables.
 Industrial applications.
 Medical applications.
 Mining applications.
 Hot lines/dedicated circuits.
 Short span aerial application on existing open air alignment network.
 Classified (secure) communication and many more,

LIMITATIONS IN USING OPTICAL FIBRE CABLES

Although, the advantages stated earlier outweigh the limitations of optical fibres but in using optical fibre as a
medium of communication, there are some difficulties encountered as stated below:
  Difficulty in splicing or jointing of fibre and splicing is also time consuming method.
 Highly skilled staff would be required for maintenance.
 Only point to point working is possible on optical fibre.
 Rights of way required for laying optical fibre cable.
 Precise and cosdy instruments would be required.
 Costly if under-urlised.
 Accept unipolar codes only.

Advantages of Optical Fiber

Greater bandwidth & faster speed—Optical fiber cable supports extremely high bandwidth and speed. The large
amount of information that can be transmitted per unit of optical fiber cable is its most significant advantage.

Cheap—Long, continuous miles of optical fiber cable can be made cheaper than equivalent lengths of copper wire.
With numerous vendors swarm to compete for the market share, optical cable price would sure to drop.

Thinner and light-weighted—Optical fiber is thinner, and can be drawn to smaller diameters than copper wire. They
are of smaller size and light weight than a comparable copper wire cable, offering a better fit for places where space
is a concern.

Higher carrying capacity—Because optical fibers are much thinner than copper wires, more fibers can be bundled
into a given-diameter cable. This allows more phone lines to go over the same cable or more channels to come
through the cable into your cable TV box.

Less signal degradation—The loss of signal in optical fiber is less than that in copper wire.

Light signals—Unlike electrical signals transmitted in copper wires, light signals from one fiber do not interfere
with those of other fibers in the same fiber cable. This means clearer phone conversations or TV reception.

Long lifespan—Optical fibers usually have a longer life cycle for over 100 years.

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber

Low power—Light emitting sources are limited to low power. Although high power emitters are available to
improve power supply, it would add extra cost.
Fragility—Optical fiber is rather fragile and more vulnerable to damage compared to copper wires. You’d better not
to twist or bend fiber optic cables too tightly.
Distance—The distance between the transmitter and receiver should keep short or repeaters are needed to boost the
signal.
Fibre Optic Cable Uses (Applications of fiber optics)

Internet

Fibre optic cables are widely used in internet cables due to their ability to transmit large amounts of data at very high
speeds.

Computer Networking

Networking between computers in a single building is made easier and faster with fibre optic cables. This helps to
increase the productivity and efficiency of a business as the time is takes to transfer files and information is
decreased.

Telephone

Fibre optic communication allows you to connect faster and have clearer conversations both within and outside the
country.

BASIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

A basic communication system consisting of a transmitter, a receiver and an information channel is shown in figure.
The transmitter generates the messages and converts it into a form suitable for transmission over the information
channel. The information travels from the transmitter to the receiver over the information channel. There are
basically two types of information channels:
{a) Guided channels

{b} Unguided channels.

Figure - Basic communication system

Atmosphere is an unguided type of channel over which waves can propagate. Unguided channels have the advantage
of having better directional resolution with smaller transmitter and receiver apertures; require no communication
license and exploiting unused part of electromagnetic spectrum. But disadvantages are many like atmospheric
effects, high noise at receiver, low efficiency, requirement of accurate and precise tracking etc. Guided channels are
those which guide the electromagnetic waves through them. Two wire lines, coaxial cable and wave guide are the
examples of guided information channel. Guided channels have the advantage of privacy, no weather dependence,
and low attenuation. Low dispersion, flexibility and the ability to convey messages within, under and around
physical structures. Channels can also be classified as point-to-point channels and broadcast channels. Point-to-point
channels provide a physical medium for the transmission of signals from one point to another point, e.g., wire lines,
microwave links and optical fibers. Wire lines operate by guided electromagnetic waves and are used for local
telephone transmission. In microwave link, the transmitted signals is radiated as an electromagnetic wave in free
space and are used in long-distance telephone transmission. While an optical fibre is low-loss, well controlled,
guided medium in which the signal is transmitted in the form of light. On the other hand, in the broadcast channels,
several receiving stations can be reached simultaneously from a signal transmitter,
e.g., satellite in geo-stationary orbit which covers about one-third of the earth's surface, Receiver receives the
message from the information channel and converts it into a understandable form. However, it should be
remembered that in any medium used for transmission, the signal is distorted, attenuated, suffers loss and degraded
due to atmospheric effects and random signals. So, in any communication system there is a maximum permitted
distance between transmitter and receiver beyond which the system effectively ceases to give intelligible
communication. Therefore, for long distance applications, repeaters or amplifiers are installed at intervals to remove
signal distortion and to amplify the signal level before transmission is continued down the link.

3. ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

The signals that pass along physical wires and wireless media can be classified as either analog or digital. The
analog signal is signal which varies smoothly and continuously with time that is analog signals carry data as
continuous waves. Analog signals are defined for every value of time and they take on continuous values in a given
time interval. Hence, analog messages are characterized by data whose values vary over a continuous range. One
example of such as analog signal is shown in Figure . Analog signal derives its name from the fact that such a signal
is analogous to the

Figure- An analog signal

physical signal that it represents. Any analogue is a system of representing real-world quantities by a mechanical
positon or electrical voltage that models the quantities. The vast majority of signals in the world around us are
analog, eg, the human voice consists of numerous complex
inflections that are combinations of sound waves. Also all signals that travel over the older telephone lines were in
analog form. The digital signal is a signal represented by a sequence of numbers, each number representing
the signal magnitude at an instant of dme. Digital signals carry data as ON/OFF or HIGH/LOW
electrical signals. Digital messages are constructed with a finite number of symbols. As digital
signal is represented only by digits, hence, we can use any number system to represent a digital
signal. However, we generally use binary number system to represent a digital signal. Thus, the
1-bit of a data can be represented as an ON (HIGH) signal and 0-bit as an OFF (LOW) signal for
digital transmission of both data and voice, Correspondingly, the digital signals in a binary systems
have only two voltage levels ie, low and high. Figure 1.3 shows such an digital signal in which
the waveform is a pulse train with ov representing logic 0 and +5 V representing logic 1.
Figure - A Digital signal

TYPE OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Depending upon the message signal whether analog or digital signal, communication may be
classified as:
{a) Analog communication

(b) Digital communication.

In analog communication, the message or information signal which is to be transmitted is analog in nature. Whereas
in digital communication, the message signal to be transmitted is digital in nature. In analog communication, the
analog message signal modulates some high carrier frequency inside the transmitter to produce modulated signal and
this modulated signal is transmuted through the transmission channel. At the receiver, this modulated signal is
received and processed to recover the original message signal. Figure shows block diagram of an analog
communication system. AM, FM radio transmission and TV transmission are examples of analog communication.

Figure -Analog communication system

Figure shows the block diagram of a digital communication system. The overall purpose of the system is to transmit
the message or sequence of symbols coming out of a source to the destination as accurate as possible.
Communication channel connects the source to the

Figure - Digital communication system

destination point. The channel accepts the electromagnetic signals and its output is distorted due to non-ideal nature
of the communication channel. Also the message or information bearing signal is corrupted by noise from both man-
made and natural causes. Thus, the distortion and the noise introduce the errors in the information being transmitted
and limit the rate are which information can be transmitted from the source to the destination. Source may be analog
information source or digital information source. Analog information source generate continuous time and amplitude
varying message, for example, voice generated by microphone. In nature maximum signal generated by various
sources are analog signals. Digital information source generates message of discrete nature that has only a finite set
of symbols as possible output, for example, the numerical output of a computer, the symbols produced by the source
are given to the source encoder. The purpose of source encoder is to convert these symbols into digital form. After
converting the message or information signal in the form of binary sequence by the source encoder, the signal is
transmitted through the channel. The channel adds noise and interference, thereby, introducing errors in the binary
sequence received at the receiver end. So, the errors are also introduced in the symbols generated from these binary
code words. Thus, channel coding is done 10 avoid these types of errors. Actually, the channel encoder adds some
redundant bits to the input sequence. These redundant bits carry no information, rather, they are used by the channel
decoder to detect and correct errors if any. This means that the channel encoder and decoder serve to increase the
reliability of a received signal. For digital modulating signal (i.c.. binary code words) the digital modulating
techniques are used and why modulators and demodulators are used will be discussed in chapter. The carrier signal
used by digital modulator is always continuous sinusoidal wave of high frequency In fact, digital modulator map the
input binary sequence to the analog signal waveforms. Now, the connection between transmitter and receiver is
established through a communication channel which may be guided or unguided. Are the receiver end, the digital
demodulator converts the input modulated signal into the sequence of binary hits. Then the channel decoder detects
or corrects errors, if any as already discussed. The source decoder converts the binary output of the channel decoder
into a symbol sequence, that is, source decoder perform the reverse operation to that of the source encoder. After
performing this operation, the symbol sequence is transmitted to the destination.

GENERAL OPTICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

A basic fiber-optic link is shown in figure. And it consists of transmitter, receiver and optical fiber acting as a
transmitting medium. The transmitter convert electrical signal to the optical signals which is transmitted through the
fiber. The basic elements that may be found in transmitters are as follows:

1. Electronic interfaces

2. Electronic processing circuits

3. Drive circuitry

4. Light source LED/LASER

5. Optical Interface

6. Output sensing and stabilization

7. Temperature sensing and control.

The transmission medium consists of an optical fibre cable over which information either voice, data or video is
transmitted through a glass or plastic fibre in the form of light. However, two most important technical parameters
must be taken into account for transmission medium that are its information-carrying capacity and the maximum
unrepeatered distance over which the signal can be sent. The receiver receives the optical signals from the fibre and
converts the same to its electrical equivalent. The basic elements that may be found in optical receiver are as
follows:

1. Detector

2. Amplifiers

3. Decision circuits

4. Regenerator.

Detectors used in fibre optical communication are semiconductor photodiodes or photo detectors which converts the
received optical signal into electrical form. The received

Figure- Basic fibre-optic fink

Figure -Information transmission sequence.

optical power depends upon power transmitted and the attenuation in the channel. It is desirable that efficiencies of
energy conversion process at the transmitter and detectors should be as high as possible, Figure shows the sequence
how the information flows through the fibre and is given below:

1. Information is suitably encoded into electrical form.

2. Electrical signals are converted into light signals by light source.
3. Light signals travel down the fibre.

4. Detector changes the light signals into electrical form.

5. Amplifier or equalizer or filter provide gain as well as linear signal processing and reduction in noise bandwidth.

6. Finally, electrical signals are decoded to give the original information.

Fiber Optics Terminology

Commonly used fiber optics terms and their definitions

 Analog – Pertaining to a class of devices or circuits in which the inputs and/or outputs can be one of infinitely
many values
 Attenuation – Loss of signal intensity as the signal propagates through a medium.
 Bare fiber – A fiber consisting of only the core and cladding. Without a jacket, bare fiber is more vulnerable to
damage from handling and other forces.
 Cable – A fiber complete with core, cladding, and protective jacket, and possibly additional protective layers.
 Core – The central region of an optical fiber through which light is transmitted. It has a higher refractive index
than the cladding that surrounds it.
 Cladding – The material surrounding the core of an optical fiber. It has a lower refractive index than the core
to prevent light from refracting through it, keeping it inside the core.
 Digital – Pertaining to a class of devices or circuits in which the output varies in discrete steps, such as pulses
or “on” and “off” states.
 Duplex – Two-way communication, where both sides can transmit and receive information. A duplex fiber
optic cable contains two parallel fibers, carrying information in opposite directions.
 Fiber – A thin filament of glass or plastic consisting of a core and cladding.
 Graded Index – Refractive index profile where the fiber’s core’s refractive index varies with radial distance
from the core’s center. Light is guided by the fiber’s gradient refractive index rather than reflected at the
interface between the core and cladding. This allows a bandwidth up to three time that of step index POF.

 Jacket – The outermost layer of a fiber optic cable which protects the fiber from damage. Jackets are typically
made of plastic, but other materials may be used.
 Mode – A single ray of light that is transmitted through a medium.
 Numerical Aperture – The sine of the fiber’s critical angle. Fiber with a larger numerical aperture requires less
precision to splice and align than fiber with a smaller numerical aperture.
 Prefluorinated Fiber – A type of graded index plastic optical fiber (GI-POF) capable of high-speed data
transmission, and is simple to install and terminate.
  Simplex – One-way communication, where one side transmits information, and the other side receives it.
Simplex fiber optic cable contains a single fiber, which carries information in one direction.
 Step Index – A refractive index profile where the fiber core’s refractive index is constant across the cross-
section of its core. Refractive index profile in a step-index profile fiber. Source:

 Termination – Process of cutting, finishing, and securing a connector onto the end of a fiber or cable with
minimal attenuation. This is normally accomplished using a razor cutter, polishing paper, or a hot plate to melt
the end of the fiber.

2.Understand the concept of light propagation

Light Definition
Light, also known as visible light, is electromagnetic radiation that falls within the portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum that the human eye can perceive. Visible light is typically defined as having wavelengths in the 400–700
nm range, which lies between infrared (which has longer wavelengths) and ultraviolet (which has shorter
wavelengths) (with shorter wavelengths).

Basic Properties of Light

 Light radiation travels at a speed of approximately 299 792 458 metres per second (m/s) in a vacuum (a
container with no air). This is referred to as the speed of light.
The speed of light is the same for all electromagnetic waves.
The wavelengths and frequencies of electromagnetic waves distinguish them from one another (wavelength
is inversely related to frequency).
с=f
c = speed of light =3108 in a vacuum = 300,000 km/s = 186,000 miles/s
 The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuous representation of all electromagnetic waves organized by
frequency and wavelength. Visible light constitutes only a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
  The intensity or brightness of light decreases as the square of the distance from the source increases (inverse
square law).

 Ray Model of Light-

To predict the path that waves will take, they are frequently approximated as rays. The ray model of light
assumes that light moves in a straight line in a vacuum or uniform medium. A ray is a straight line that
depicts the path of a very narrow light beam. Ray diagrams are diagrams that show the path of light rays.
Despite ignoring the wave nature of light, ray diagrams are useful in describing how light behaves at
boundaries (reflection or refraction) and are frequently used to locate the image formed by a mirror or a lens.
 The Behaviour of Light at a Boundary-
When a light ray (or any wave) incident on a medium, one of three things can happen. Light can be absorbed
by the new medium and converted into internal energy and/or heat, transmitted through the new medium, or
reflected into the original medium. In reality, a combination of the three fates is more likely.

The Three Possible Results of Light Energy when it interacts with Matter/Substances:

1. Reflected-
Light reflection returns energy to the same medium from which it originated.

2. Transmitted Through-
Light can pass through the new material with varying degrees of interaction with the molecules of the
substance.

3. Absorbed-
The light energy can be completely absorbed by the substance's molecules and converted to heat.
 We Can Classify Substances Based on How Light Interacts With Their Molecules.
1. Light cannot pass through opaque objects because they absorb and/or reflect all light.
2. Transparent objects allow light to travel in straight lines through them. Objects can be transparent to
certain colours or frequencies of light while being opaque to others. Normal glass is transparent to
visible light but opaque to UV and IR light.
3. As light passes through translucent substances or objects, it scatters in all directions. Visible light can
pass through our atmosphere.

Propagation of Light
The process by which an electromagnetic wave transfers energy from one point to another is referred to as light
propagation. When light passes between boundaries from one medium to another, three major processes occur;
Transmission, Reflection and Refraction.
Polarisation of Light Definition:
Polarization of transverse waves is possible.
The alignment of a transverse wave along a single plane is known as linear polarisation. Light can be linearly
polarised by using polarising film or filters to allow only waves vibrating along the axis of the filter to pass through.
Light's linear polarisation provides experimental evidence that light is a transverse wave. Polarized light can be
created by nature through reflection or scattering. The glaring light emitted by roads and bodies of water is
horizontally polarised due to reflection.
Polarizing sunglasses eliminate glare by vertically orienting the transmission axis. Polarized light and polarising
lenses are used in a variety of situations, such as creating a 3-D image from a specially created flat image, analysing
metallic and plastic materials for stress points and weak spots in structures, eliminating glare from water or other
vehicles while boating, fishing, or driving, and creating colour in films that either reflects or transmit light.

Optical Nature of Light

Ray Optics-
Reflection of light: The turning back of an electromagnetic wave at the surface of a substance is referred to as
reflection. According to the Law of Reflection, the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Angles are
typically measured with respect to the normal. At the point of incidence, the normal is a line drawn perpendicular to
the surface.

Types of Reflection-
The size of the irregularities on the surface in relation to the wavelength of the light incident on the surface
determines whether rays are reflected in a regular or irregular pattern.
1. When light strikes a "smooth" surface, the rays are reflected parallel to each other, resulting in specular
(regular) reflection.
2. When light strikes a "rough" surface, the rays are reflected in a variety of directions, resulting in diffuse
reflection.

Laws of Reflection-
1. First Law: According to the first law of reflection; when a ray of light strikes a mirror and gets reflected back
then the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
I=R
Where,
I: Angle of incidence
R: Angle of reflection
2. Second Law: According to the second law of reflection the incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal lie on
the same plane on the surface of reflection.
Refraction of Light:
Refraction of light is the phenomenon of bending a wave when it enters a medium with a different speed. When light
passes from a fast medium to a slow medium, the light ray bends toward the normal to the boundary between the
two media. Snell's Law describes the amount of bending as a function of the indices of refraction of the two media.
The Amount of Bending is Determined by Two Factors:
1. Change in Speed – If a substance causes light to refract (bend) more, it will refract (bend) more.
2. The Angle of the Incident Ray – the amount of refraction will be more noticeable if the light enters the
substance at a greater angle. If, on the other hand, the light enters the new substance from the side (at 90° to
the surface), it will slow down but not change direction.

Index of Refraction-
The index of refraction (refractive index) is defined as the difference between the speed of light in a vacuum and the
speed of light in the medium.
n = cv
n=Indexofrefraction
c=velocity of light in vacuum
v= velocity of light in the medium

The Refractive Index of Some Transparent Substances are-

Speed of Light in
Refractive The Angle of Refraction If Incident Ray Enters Substance
Substance Substance
Index at 20º
(x 1,000,000 M/s)

Air 1.00 300 20

Water 1.33 226 14.9

Glass 1.5 200 13.2

Diamond 2.4 125 8.2

 Light slows down when it enters a substance with a higher refractive index (for example, from air into glass).
The light bends in the direction of the normal line.
 When light enters a substance with a lower refractive index (such as water into the air), it accelerates. The
light deviates from the straight line.
Light will slow down and change direction more as it enters the substance with a higher refractive index.

Snell’s Law
Snell's Law describes the relationship between the indices of refraction ‘n’ of two media and the propagation
directions in terms of angles to the normal. Fermat's Principle or the Fresnel Equations can be used to derive Snell's
law.

n1/n2= Sinθ2/Sinθ1

Application of Light Waves

Light is used in various industries such as medical, automobile, manufacturing and scientific research. It is mainly
used in telescopic equipment used for research purposes.

Uses of Light-
 Cleaning robots detect obstacles.
 Atmospheric observations are made using laser beams
 Early detection of cancer and dementia.
 Multifunction sensors for smartphones.
 Exploring the interior of objects without destruction
 Product manufacturing.
 Eyesight correction

The electromagnetic spectrum is shown in figure.

The bands listed at the bottom of figure 1.8 are according to ITU recommendations and are based on the
frequencies. Here, the abbreviations used for different bands are:
 Figure. Electromagnetic spectrum.

 UHF Ultra high frequency band


 SHF Super high frequency band

 EHF Extremely high frequency band
 THF Tremendously high frequency band
 IHF Incredibly high frequency band
 AHF Astonishingly high frequency band
 PHF Prodigiously high frequency band.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA USED BY DIFFERENT BANDS OF

 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
 Ultravialet 1015 to 1016 Optical fibres and laser beams
 Visible 1014 to 1015 Optical fibres and laser beams
 UHF 108 to 109 Coaxial cable
7 to 8
 VHF 10 10 Coaxial cable
 HF 106 to 107 Coaxial cable
 MF 105 to 106 Coaxial cable, twisted pair
 LF 104 to 105 Twisted pair
 VLF 103 to 104 Wire pairs

TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT RAYS


 When a beam of light paszes from one medium to another medium, it is found that light does not travel in the
same direction as in the first medium but it deviates from its original path except when the incident ray
strikes the surface of the separation of media normally. This bending of light is phenomenon of refraction.
 The refracted ray bends towards or away from the normal at the point of incidence accordingly as the second
medium is optically denser or rarer than the first
 Medium,
 If a beam of light travels from the denser medium to the rarer medium that is from a medium having
higher refractive index to medium having lower refractive index, then light bends away from normal as
shown in figure 1. Otherwise light bends towards the normal if beam of light moving from rarer to the denser
medium. As the angle of incidence 8 is increased as shown in figure 2, then there a stage comes when the
angle of refraction 8, becomes 90" and that angle
 of incidence 8, is called critical angle 6._. If after this, angle of incidence 8, is increased than critical angle 8,
light is reflected back in the same medium i.e., denser medium as shown in figure 3 .




 1 2 3

 Figure 1,2,3

 In reference to figure shown, n, is refractive index of the first medium, n, is the refractive index of the second
medium. It is assumed that n.

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF SOME MATERIALS


 The absolute refractive index of any medium is given by:
 N= Velocity of light in free-space/
 Velocity of light in medium

 Value of refractive index is always either equal to unity or greater than unity as velocity of light in the
medium is always less than velocity of light in free-space.


 Material Refractive Index
 Free-space (air) 1.0003
 Vacuum 1.0
 Water 1.33
 Glass 1.5
 Diamond 2.0
 Silicon 3.4
 Gallium arsenide 3.6

PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

The exact nature of light is not fully understood, although people have been
studying the subject for many centuries. In the 1700s and before, experiments seemed to
indicate that light was composed of particles. In the early 1800s, a physicist Thomas
Young showed that light exhibited wave characteristics. Further experiments by other
physicists culminated in James Clerk (pronounced Clark) Maxwell collecting the four
fundamental equations that completely describe the behavior of the electromagnetic
fields. James Maxwell deduced that light was simply a component of the electromagnetic
spectrum. This seems to firmly establish that light is a wave. Yet, in the early 1900s, the
interaction of light with semiconductor materials, called the photoelectric effect, could
not be explained with electromagnetic wave theory. The advent of quantum physics
successfully explained the photoelectric effect in terms of fundamental particles of
energy called quanta. Quanta are known as photons when referring to light energy.

Today, when studying light that consists of many photons, as in propagation, that
light behaves as a continuum—an electromagnetic wave. On the other hand, when
studying the interaction of light with semiconductors, as in sources and detectors, the
quantum physics approach is taken. The wave versus particle dilemma can be addressed
in a more formal way, but that is beyond the scope of this text. It suffices to say that
much has been reconciled between the two using quantum physics. In this manual, we
use both the electromagnetic wave and photon concepts, each in the places where it best
matches the phenomenon we are studying.

The electromagnetic energy of light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Light

and similar forms of radiation are made up of moving electric and magnetic forces. A
simple example of motion similar to these radiation waves can be made by dropping a
pebble into a pool of water, see figure 2-1. In this example, the water is not actually being
moved by the outward motion of the wave, but rather by the up-and-down motion of the
water. The up-and-down motion is transverse, or at right angles, to the outward motion of
the waves. This type of wave motion is called transverse-wave motion. The transverse
waves spread out in expanding circles until they reach the edge of the pool, in much the
same manner as the transverse waves of light spread from the sun. However, the waves
in the pool are very slow and clumsy in comparison with light, which travels
approximately 186,000 miles per second.

Figure 2-1. - Transverse wave

Light radiates from its source in all directions until it is absorbed or diverted by
some substance, see figure 2-2. The lines drawn from the light source (a light bulb in this
instance) to any point on one of the transverse waves indicate the direction that the wave
fronts are moving. These lines are called light rays.

Figure 2-2. - Light rays and wave fronts from a nearby light source

Although single rays of light typically do not exist, light rays shown in
illustrations are a convenient method used to show the direction in which light is
traveling at any point. A ray of light can be illustrated as a straight line.
 PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

When light waves, which travel in straight lines, encounter any substance, they
are either reflected, absorbed, transmitted, or refracted. This is illustrated in figure 2-3.
Those substances that transmit almost all the light waves falling upon them are said to be
transparent. A transparent substance is one through which you can see clearly. Clear
glass is transparent because it transmits light rays without diffusing them (view A of
figure 2-4). There is no substance known that is perfectly transparent, but many
substances are nearly so. Substances through which some light rays can pass, but through
which objects cannot be seen clearly because the rays are diffused, are called translucent
(view B of figure 2-4). The frosted glass of a light bulb and a piece of oiled paper are
examples of translucent materials. Those substances that are unable to transmit any light
rays are called opaque (view C of figure 2-4). Opaque substances either reflect or absorb
all the light rays that fall upon them.

Figure 2-3. - Light waves reflected, absorbed, and transmitted

 Figure 2-4. - Substances: A. Transparent; B. Translucent; and C. Opaque

All substances that are not light sources are visible only because they reflect all or
some part of the light reaching them from some luminous source. Examples of luminous
sources include the sun, a gas flame, and an electric light filament, because they are
sources of light energy. If light is neither transmitted nor reflected, it is absorbed or taken
up by the medium. When light strikes a substance, some absorption and some reflection
always take place. No substance completely transmits, reflects, or absorbs all the light
rays that reach its surface.
 REFLECTION OF LIGHT

Reflected waves are simply those waves that are neither transmitted nor
absorbed, but are reflected from the surface of the medium they encounter. When a wave
approaches a reflecting surface, such as a mirror, the wave that strikes the surface is
called the incident wave, and the one that bounces back is called the reflected wave, see
figure 2-5. An imaginary line perpendicular to the point at which the incident wave
strikes the reflecting surface is called the normal, or the perpendicular. The angle
between the incident wave and the normal is called the angle of incidence. The angle
between the reflected wave and the normal is called the angle of reflection.

Figure 2-5. - Reflection of a wave

If the surface of the medium contacted by the incident wave is smooth and
polished, each reflected wave will be reflected back at the same angle as the incident
wave. The path of the wave reflected from the surface forms an angle equal to the one
formed by its path in reaching the medium. This conforms to the law of reflection which
states: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

The amount of incident-wave energy that is reflected from a surface depends on

the nature of the surface and the angle at which the wave strikes the surface. The amount
of wave energy reflected increases as the angle of incidence increases. The reflection of
energy is the greatest when the wave is nearly parallel to the reflecting surface. When the
incidence wave is perpendicular to the surface, more of the energy is transmitted into the
substance and reflection of energy is at its least. At any incident angle, a mirror reflects
almost all of the wave energy, while a dull, black surface reflects very little.

Light waves obey the law of reflection. Light travels in a straight line through a
substance of uniform density. For example, you can see the straight path of light rays
admitted through a narrow slit into a darkened room. The straight path of the beam is
made visible by illuminated dust particles suspended in the air. If the light is made to fall
onto the surface of a mirror or other reflecting surface, however, the direction of the
beam changes sharply. The light can be reflected in almost any direction, depending on
the angle with which the mirror is held.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT

When a light wave passes from one medium into a medium having a different
velocity of propagation (the speed waves can travel through a medium), a change in the
direction of the wave will occur. This change of direction as the wave enters the second
medium is called refraction. As in the discussion of reflection, the wave striking the
boundary (surface) is called the incident wave, and the imaginary line perpendicular to
the boundary is called the normal. The angle between the incident wave and the normal
is called the angle of incidence. As the wave passes through the boundary, it is bent
either toward or away from the normal. The angle between the normal and the path of the
wave through the second medium is the angle of refraction.

A light wave passing through a block of glass is shown in figure 2-6. The wave
moves from point A to point B at a constant speed. This is the incident wave. As the
wave penetrates the glass boundary at point B, the velocity of the wave is slowed down.
This causes the wave to bend toward the normal. The wave then takes the path from point
B to point C through the glass and becomes both the refracted wave from the top surface
and the incident wave to the lower surface. As the wave passes from the glass to the air
(the second boundary), it is again refracted, this time away from the normal, and takes
the path from point C to point D. After passing through the last boundary, the velocity
increases to the original velocity of the wave. As illustrated, refracted waves can bend
toward or away from the normal. This bending depends on the velocity of the wave
through different mediums. The broken line between points B and E is the path that the
wave would travel if the two mediums (air and glass) had the same density.
 Figure 2-6. - Refraction of a wave

Another interesting condition can be shown using figure 2-6. If the wave passes
from a less dense to a denser medium, it is bent toward the normal, and the angle of
refraction (r) is less than the angle of incidence (i). Likewise, if the wave passes from a
denser to a less dense medium, it is bent away from the normal, and the angle of
refraction (r1) is greater than the angle of incidence (i1).

An example of refraction is the apparent bending of a spoon when it is immersed

in a cup of water. The bending seems to take place at the surface of the water, or exactly
at the point where there is a change of density. Obviously, the spoon does not bend from
the pressure of the water. The light forming the image of the spoon is bent as it passes
from the water (a medium of high density) to the air (a medium of comparatively low
density).

Without refraction, light waves would pass in straight lines through transparent
substances without any change of direction. Figure 2-6 shows that rays striking the glass
at any angle other than perpendicular are refracted. However, perpendicular rays, which
enter the glass normal to the surface, continue through the glass and into the air in a
straight line—no refraction takes place.
 DIFFUSSION OF LIGHT

When light is reflected from a mirror, the angle of reflection equals the angle of
incidence. When light is reflected from a piece of plain white paper; however, the
reflected beam is scattered, or diffused, as shown in figure 2-7. Because the surface of
the paper is not smooth, the reflected light is broken up into many light beams that are
reflected in all directions.

Figure 2-7. - Diffusion of light

ABSORPTION OF LIGHT

You have just seen that a light beam is reflected and diffused when it falls onto
a piece of white paper. If the light beam falls onto a piece of black paper, the black
paper absorbs most of the light rays and very little light is reflected from the paper. If
the surface upon which the light beam falls is perfectly black, there is no reflection; that
is, the light is totally absorbed. No matter what kind of surface light falls upon, some of
the light is absorbed. Figure 2-7a.
 Figure 2-7a. - Absorption of light

TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT THROUGH OPTICAL FIBERS

The transmission of light along optical fibers depends not only on the nature of
light, but also on the structure of the optical fiber. Two methods are used to describe how
light is transmitted along the optical fiber. The first method, ray theory, uses the concepts
of light reflection and refraction. The second method, mode theory, treats light as
electromagnetic waves. You must first understand the basic optical properties of the
materials used to make optical fibers. These properties affect how light is transmitted
through the fiber.

BASIC OPTICAL-MATERIAL PROPERTIES

The basic optical property of a material, relevant to optical fibers, is the index
of refraction. The index of refraction (n) measures the speed of light in an optical
medium. The index of refraction of a material is the ratio of the speed of light in a
vacuum to the speed of light in the material itself. The speed of light (c) in free space
(vacuum) is 3
 108 meters per second (m/s). The speed of light is the frequency (f) of light multiplied
by the wavelength of light (λ). When light enters the fiber material (an optically dense
medium), the light travels slower at a speed (v). Light will always travel slower in the
fiber material than in air. The index of refraction is given by:
 A light ray is reflected and refracted when it encounters the boundary between
two different transparent mediums. For example, figure 2-8 shows what happens to the
light ray when it encounters the interface between glass and air. The index of refraction
for glass (n1) is 1.50. The index of refraction for air (n2) is 1.00.

Figure 2-8. - Light reflection and refraction at a glass-air boundary

Let's assume the light ray or incident ray is traveling through the glass. When the
light ray encounters the glass-air boundary, there are two results. The first result is that
part of the ray is reflected back into the glass. The second result is that part of the ray is
refracted (bent) as it enters the air. The bending of the light at the glass-air interface is the
result of the difference between the indexes of refractions. Since n 1 is greater than n2,
the angle of refraction (-2) will be greater than the angle of incidence (-1). Snell's law of
refraction is used to describe the relationship between the incident and the refracted rays
at the boundary. Snell's Law is given by:

As the angle of incidence (-1) becomes larger, the angle of refraction (-2)
approaches 90 degrees. At this point, no refraction is possible. The light ray is totally
 reflected back into the glass medium. No light escapes into the air. This condition is
called total internal reflection. The angle at which total internal reflection occurs is called
the critical angle of incidence. The critical angle of incidence (-) is shown in figure 2-9.
At any angle of incidence (-1) greater than the critical angle, light is totally reflected back
into the glass medium. The critical angle of incidence is determined by using Snell's Law.
The critical angle is given by:

Figure 2-9. - Critical angle of incidence

The condition of total internal reflection is an ideal situation. However, in reality,

there is always some light energy that penetrates the boundary. This situation is explained
by the mode theory, or the electromagnetic wave theory, of light.
ACCEPTANCE ANGLE

Acceptance angle is defined as the maximum external incidence angle for which the light will propagate in the fibre,
For finding this, we will consider mathematical approach. Consider a ray of light enters the core n1, through the
launch zone with an angle of incidence ¢0, and leaves the interface at an angle ¢1, which is smaller than angle of
incidence. It is bent closer to the normal to the interface as shown in figure .
 Figure - Light ray launched into a fibre

In figure shown, n, is assumed the refractive index of launch zone through which the light ray enters the fibre end
face. This ray enters the core at its axis point Y and proceeds at refraction angle ¢1, from the axis. Then it is
reflected from the core wall at point X at internal incidence angle ¢0,. From Snell's law, incidence angle fi 1, is
related to the refraction angle ¢0, as:

n, sin ¢, = n, sin §,

oo triangle XYZ, by property of angle, the sum of all internal angles in any triangle is 180°,
we have

]
To propagate within the fibre, the intemal reflection angle ¢ must be greater than critical
angle ¢c..
As we know

Hence, the maximum value of external incidence angle for which the light will propagate in the fibre is found by
substituting equation into equation . Hence:
This acceptance angle is also given as the acceptance cone half-angle. The acceptance cone is formed by rotating the
acceptance angle about the fibre axis as shown in figure. This cone formed is also called the collection cone for a
fibre because any

Figure - Acceplance cone

light aimed at the fibre end within this cone will propagate to the far end. Light rays incident at angles outside the
cone will not propagate along the fibre but will attenuate rapidly. Larger acceptance angles make easier launching,

NUMERICAL APERTURE OF OPTICAL FIBRE (NA)

The numerical aperture of the fibre is used as a figure of merit and it is defined as the light gathering ability of the
fibre. It is also called the meridional acceptance angle of the fibre. The numerical aperture of the fibre is given as the
sine of the maximum acceptance angle and numerical aperture is usually measured with air in front of the fibre ie, n,
= 1.

From expression (2.3)

A low NA indicates a small acceptance angle. Because of this, coupling to a low NA fibre is more difficult and less
efficient than coupling to a high NA fibre. Lenses can be used to reduce the beam spread and consequently, to
improve the coupling efficiency. Plot of equation is shown in figure.
 Figure NA vs. acceptance angie

There is a term, normalized difference A, used in the optical fibre which is defined as the ratio of difference between
the refractive indices of the core and cladding to the refractive index of the core ie,

from equation 1into equation 2 , we get:

As the difference between the refractive indices of the core and cladding is very small, so, A? is very-very small and
hence can be neglected. Hence, expression for NA becomes:

The numerical aperture is effectively dependent on the refractive indices of the core and cladding materials and is
not a function of the fibre dimensions.

Figure shows the plot of NA as a function of the ratio 1, As the ratio — increases,

NA also increases.
 Figure -Piot of NA as function of (2)

Diffraction and surface irregularities on the fibre walls tend to decollimate the transmined light and thus, reduce the
NA. Inadequate cladding between fibres can reduce the NA. Moreover, the calculated values of NA is normally
based on the refractive indices of the starting materials from which fibre is drawn and does not take into account any
changes in refractive index which may occur. So, only an actual measurement of the acceptance angle will provide a
true indication
of numerical aperture, Typically, fibres for long distance communications have numerical apertures from 0.1 to 0.3
and fibres for shorter paths have numerical aperture that are a bit higher, typically, 0.4 100.5.

Numerical Aperture of an Optical System

The numerical aperture of an optical system is defined as the product of the refractive index of the beam from which
the light input is received and the sine of the maximum ray angle against the axis, for which light can be transmitted
through the system based on purely geometric considerations (ray optics):

For the maximum incidence angle, it is demanded that the light can get through the whole system and not only
through an entrance aperture.

3. Describe the types of optical fiber

Structure of optical fiber

BASIC STRUCTURE OF AN OPTICAL FIBER

 The basic structure of an optical fiber consists of three parts; the core, the
cladding, and the coating or buffer. The basic structure of an optical fiber is shown in
figure 2-10. The core is a cylindrical rod of dielectric material. Dielectric material
conducts no electricity. Light propagates mainly along the core of the fiber. The core is
generally made of glass. The core is described as having a radius of (a) and an index of
refraction n1. The core is surrounded by a layer of material called the cladding. Even
though light will propagate along the fiber core without the layer of cladding material, the
cladding does perform some necessary functions.

Figure 2-10. - Basic structure of an optical fiber

The cladding layer is made of a dielectric material with an index of refraction n2.
The index of refraction of the cladding material is less than that of the core material. The
cladding is generally made of glass or plastic. The cladding performs the following
functions:

 Reduces loss of light from the core into the surrounding air
 Reduces scattering loss at the surface of the core
 Protects the fiber from absorbing surface contaminants
 Adds mechanical strength

For extra protection, the cladding is enclosed in an additional layer called the coating
or buffer. The coating or buffer is a layer of material used to protect an optical fiber from
physical damage. The material used for a buffer is a type of plastic. The buffer is elastic
in nature and prevents abrasions. The buffer also prevents the optical fiber from
scattering losses caused by microbends. Microbends occur when an optical fiber is
placed on a rough and distorted surface. Microbends are discussed later in this chapter.

PROPAGATION OF LIGHT ALONG A FIBER

The concept of light propagation, the transmission of light along an optical fiber,
can be described by two theories. According to the first theory, light is described as a
simple ray. This theory is the ray theory, or geometrical optics, approach. The advantage
of the ray approach is that you get a clearer picture of the propagation of light along a
fiber. The ray theory is used to approximate the light acceptance and guiding properties
of optical fibers. According to the second theory, light is described as an electromagnetic
wave. This theory is the mode theory, or wave representation, approach. The mode
theory describes the behavior of light within an optical fiber. The mode theory is useful
in describing the optical fiber properties of absorption, attenuation, and dispersion. These
fiber properties are discussed later in this chapter.

Ray Theory

Two types of rays can propagate along an optical fiber. The first type is called
meridional rays. Meridional rays are rays that pass through the axis of the optical fiber.
Meridional rays are used to illustrate the basic transmission properties of optical fibers.
The second type is called skew rays. Skew rays are rays that travel through an optical
fiber without passing through its axis.

MERIDIONAL RAYS.—Meridional rays can be classified as bound or unbound

rays. Bound rays remain in the core and propagate along the axis of the fiber. Bound rays
propagate through the fiber by total internal reflection. Unbound rays are refracted out of
the fiber core. Figure 2-11 shows a possible path taken by bound and unbound rays in a
step-index fiber. The core of the step-index fiber has an index of refraction n1. The
cladding of a step-index has an index of refraction n2 that is lower than n1. Figure 2-11
assumes the core-cladding interface is perfect. However, imperfections at the core-
cladding interface will cause part of the bound rays to be refracted out of the core into
the cladding. The light rays refracted into the cladding will eventually escape from the
fiber. In general, meridional rays follow the laws of reflection and refraction.

Figure 2-11. - Bound and unbound rays in a step-index fiber

It is known that bound rays propagate in fibers due to total internal reflection, but
how do these light rays enter the fiber? Rays that enter the fiber must intersect the core-
cladding interface at an angle greater than the critical angle (- c). Only those rays that
enter the fiber and strike the interface at these angles will propagate along the fiber.

How a light ray is launched into a fiber is shown in figure 2-12. The incident ray
I1 enters the fiber at the angle -a. I1 is refracted upon entering the fiber and is transmitted
to the core-cladding interface. The ray then strikes the core-cladding interface at the
critical angle (-c). I1 is totally reflected back into the core and continues to propagate
along the fiber. The incident ray I2 enters the fiber at an angle greater than -a. Again, I2
is refracted upon entering the fiber and is transmitted to the core-cladding interface. I2
strikes the core-cladding interface at an angle less than the critical angle ( -c). I2 is
refracted into the cladding and is eventually lost. The light ray incident on the fiber core
must be within the acceptance cone defined by the angle -a shown in figure 2-13. Angle -
a is defined as the acceptance angle. The acceptance angle (-a) is the maximum angle to
the
axis of the fiber that light entering the fiber is propagated. The value of the angle of
acceptance (-a) depends on fiber properties and transmission conditions.

Figure 2-12. - How a light ray enters an optical fiber

Figure 2-12 Fiber acceptance angle

The acceptance angle is related to the refractive indices of the core, cladding, and
medium surrounding the fiber. This relationship is called the numerical aperture of the
fiber. The numerical aperture (NA) is a measurement of the ability of an optical fiber to
capture light. The NA is also used to define the acceptance cone of an optical fiber.

Figure 2-13 illustrates the relationship between the acceptance angle and the
refractive indices. The index of refraction of the fiber core is n1. The index of refraction
of the fiber cladding is n2. The index of refraction of the surrounding medium is n0. By
using Snell's law and basic trigonometric relationships, the NA of the fiber is given by:
 Since the medium next to the fiber at the launching point is normally air, n0 is
equal to 1.00. The NA is then simply equal to sin -a. The NA is a convenient way to
measure the light-gathering ability of an optical fiber. It is used to measure source-to-
fiber power-coupling efficiencies. A high NA indicates a high source-to-fiber coupling
efficiency. Source-to-fiber coupling efficiency is described in chapter 6. Typical values
of NA range from 0.20 to 0.29 for glass fibers. Plastic fibers generally have a higher
NA. An NA for plastic fibers can be higher than 0.50.

In addition, the NA is commonly used to specify multimode fibers. However, for

small core diameters, such as in single mode fibers, the ray theory breaks down. Ray
theory describes only the direction a plane wave takes in a fiber. Ray theory eliminates
any properties of the plane wave that interfere with the transmission of light along a fiber.
In reality, plane waves interfere with each other. Therefore, only certain types of rays are
able to propagate in an optical fiber. Optical fibers can support only a specific number of
guided modes. In small core fibers, the number of modes supported is one or only a few
modes. Mode theory is used to describe the types of plane waves able to propagate along
an optical fiber.

SKEW RAYS.—A possible path of propagation of skew rays is shown in figure

2-14. Figure 2-14, view A, provides an angled view and view B provides a front view.
Skew rays propagate without passing through the center axis of the fiber. The acceptance
angle for skew rays is larger than the acceptance angle of meridional rays. This condition
explains why skew rays outnumber meridional rays. Skew rays are often used in the
calculation of light acceptance in an optical fiber. The addition of skew rays increases the
amount of light capacity of a fiber. In large NA fibers, the increase may be significant.

Figure 2-14. - Skew ray propagation: A. Angled view; B. Front view

 The addition of skew rays also increases the amount of loss in a fiber. Skew rays
tend to propagate near the edge of the fiber core. A large portion of the number of skew
rays that are trapped in the fiber core are considered to be leaky rays. Leaky rays are
predicted to be totally reflected at the core-cladding boundary. However, these rays are
partially refracted because of the curved nature of the fiber boundary. Mode theory is
also used to describe this type of leaky ray loss.

Mode Theory

The mode theory, along with the ray theory, is used to describe the propagation of
light along an optical fiber. The mode theory is used to describe the properties of light
that ray theory is unable to explain. The mode theory uses electromagnetic wave
behavior to describe the propagation of light along a fiber. A set of guided
electromagnetic waves is called the modes of the fiber.

PLANE WAVES.—The mode theory suggests that a light wave can be

represented as a plane wave. A plane wave is described by its direction, amplitude, and
wavelength of propagation. A plane wave is a wave whose surfaces of constant phase
are infinite parallel planes normal to the direction of propagation. The planes having the
same phase are called the wave fronts. The wavelength (λ) of the plane wave is given
by:
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, f is the frequency of the light, and n is the index
of refraction of the plane-wave medium.

Figure 2-15 shows the direction and wave fronts of plane-wave propagation.
Plane waves, or wave fronts, propagate along the fiber similar to light rays. However, not
all wave fronts incident on the fiber at angles less than or equal to the critical angle of
light acceptance propagate along the fiber. Wave fronts may undergo a change in phase
that prevents the successful transfer of light along the fiber.

Figure 2-15. - Plane-wave propagation

Wave fronts are required to remain in phase for light to be transmitted along the
fiber. Consider the wave front incident on the core of an optical fiber as shown in figure
2-15. Only those wave fronts incident on the fiber at angles less than or equal to the
critical angle may propagate along the fiber. The wave front undergoes a gradual phase
change as it travels down the fiber. Phase changes also occur when the wave front is
reflected. The wave front must remain in phase after the wave front transverses the fiber
twice and is reflected twice. The distance transversed is shown between point A and point
B on figure 2-16. The reflected waves at point A and point B are in phase if the total
amount of phase collected is an integer multiple of 2 radian. If propagating wave fronts
are not in phase, they eventually disappear. Wave fronts disappear because of destructive
interference. The wave fronts that are in phase interfere with the wave fronts that are out
of phase. This interference is the reason why only a finite number of modes can
propagate along the fiber.

Figure 2-16. - Wave front propagation along an optical fiber

The plane waves repeat as they travel along the fiber axis. The direction the plane
wave’s travel is assumed to be the z direction as shown in figure 2-16. The plane waves
repeat at a distance equal to λ/sin- . Plane waves also repeat at a periodic frequency  =
2 sin -/λ. The quantity  is defined as the propagation constant along the fiber axis. As
the wavelength (λ) changes, the value of the propagation constant must also change. For a
given mode, a change in wavelength can prevent the mode from propagating along the
fiber. The mode is no longer bound to the fiber. The mode is said to be cut off. Modes
that are bound at one wavelength may not exist at longer wavelengths. The wavelength at
which a mode ceases to be bound is called the cutoff wavelength for that mode. However,
an optical fiber is always able to propagate at least one mode. This mode is referred to as
the fundamental mode of the fiber. The fundamental mode can never be cut off. The
wavelength that prevents the next higher mode from propagating is called the cutoff
wavelength of the fiber. An optical fiber that operates above the cutoff wavelength (at a
longer wavelength) is called a single mode fiber. An optical fiber that operates below the
cutoff wavelength is called a multimode fiber. Single mode and multimode optical fibers
are discussed later in this chapter.

In a fiber, the propagation constant of a plane wave is a function of the wave's

wavelength and mode. The change in the propagation constant for different waves is
called dispersion. The change in the propagation constant for different wavelengths is
called chromatic dispersion. The change in propagation constant for different modes is
called modal dispersion. These dispersions cause the light pulse to spread as it goes down
the fiber, see figure 2-17. Some dispersion occurs in all types of fibers. Dispersion is
discussed later in this chapter.
 Figure 2-17. - The spreading of a light pulse

MODES.—A set of guided electromagnetic waves is called the modes of an

optical fiber. Maxwell's equations describe electromagnetic waves or modes as having
two components. The two components are the electric field, E(x, y, z), and the magnetic
field, H(x, y, z). The electric field, E, and the magnetic field, H, are at right angles to
each other. Modes traveling in an optical fiber are said to be transverse. The transverse
modes, shown in figure 2-18, propagate along the axis of the fiber. The mode field
patterns shown in figure 2-18 are said to be transverse electric (TE). In TE modes, the
electric field is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The magnetic field is in the
direction of propagation. Another type of transverse mode is the transverse magnetic
(TM) mode. TM modes are opposite to TE modes. In TM modes, the magnetic field is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The electric field is in the direction of
propagation. Figure 2-18 shows only TE modes.

Figure 2-18. - Transverse electric (TE) mode field patterns

The TE mode field patterns shown in figure 2-18 indicate the order of each mode.
The order of each mode is indicated by the number of field maxima within the core of the
fiber. For example, TE0 has one field maxima. The electric field is a maximum at the
center of the waveguide and decays toward the core cladding boundary. TE0 is
considered the fundamental mode or the lowest order standing wave. As the number of
field maxima
increases, the order of the mode is higher. Generally, modes with more than a few (5-
10) field maxima are referred to as high-order modes.

The order of the mode is also determined by the angle the wave front makes with
the axis of the fiber. Figure 2-19 illustrates light rays as they travel down the fiber. These
light rays indicate the direction of the wave fronts. High-order modes cross the axis of the
fiber at steeper angles. Low-order and high-order modes are shown in figure 2-19.

Figure 2-19. - Low-order and high-order modes

Before we progress, let us refer back to figure 2-18. Notice that the modes are not
confined to the core of the fiber. The modes extend partially into the cladding material.
Low-order modes penetrate the cladding only slightly. In low-order modes, the electric
and magnetic fields are concentrated near the center of the fiber. Low-order modes take
parallel or modestly transverse paths. However, high-order modes penetrate further into
the cladding material and take considerably more transverse paths. In high-order modes,
the electrical and magnetic fields are distributed more toward the outer edges of the
fiber.

This penetration of low-order and high-order modes into the cladding region
indicates that some portion is refracted out of the core. The refracted modes may become
trapped in the cladding due to the dimension of the cladding region. The modes trapped
in the cladding region are called cladding modes. As the core and the cladding modes
travel along the fiber, mode coupling occurs. Mode coupling is the exchange of power
between two modes. Mode coupling to the cladding results in the loss of power from the
core modes.

In addition to bound and refracted modes, there are leaky modes. Leaky modes
are similar to leaky rays. Leaky modes lose power as they propagate along the fiber. For
a mode to remain within the core, the mode must meet certain boundary conditions. A
mode remains bound if the propagation constant  meets the following boundary
condition:
where n1 and n2 are the index of refraction for the core and the cladding, respectively.
When the propagation constant becomes smaller than 2n2/λ, power leaks out of the
core and into the cladding. Generally, modes leaked into the cladding are lost in a few
centimeters. However, leaky modes can carry a large amount of power in short fibers.

NORMALIZED FREQUENCY.—Electromagnetic waves bound to an optical

fiber are described by the fiber's normalized frequency. The normalized frequency
determines how many modes a fiber can support. Normalized frequency is a
dimensionless quantity. Normalized frequency is also related to the fiber's cutoff
wavelength. Normalized frequency (V) is defined as:

where n1 is the core index of refraction, n2 is the cladding index of refraction, a is the
core diameter, and λ is the wavelength of light in air.

The number of modes that can exist in a fiber is a function of V. As the value of V
increases, the number of modes supported by the fiber increases. Optical fibers, single
mode and multimode, can support a different number of modes. The number of modes
supported by single mode and multimode fiber types is discussed later in this chapter.
 OPTICAL FIBER TYPES

Optical fibers are characterized by their structure and by their properties of

transmission. Basically, optical fibers are classified into two types. The first type is
single mode fibers. The second type is multimode fibers. As each name implies, optical
fibers are classified by the number of modes that propagate along the fiber. As
previously explained, the structure of the fiber can permit or restrict modes from
propagating in a fiber. The basic structural difference is the core size. Single mode fibers
are manufactured with the same materials as multimode fibers. Single mode fibers are
also manufactured by following the same fabrication process as multimode fibers.

Single Mode Fibers

The core size of single mode fibers is small. The core size (diameter) is typically
around 8 to 10 micrometers (m). A fiber core of this size allows only the fundamental or
lowest order mode to propagate around a 1300 nanometer (nm) wavelength. Single mode
fibers propagate only one mode, because the core size approaches the operational
wavelength (λ). This is achieved by using a LASER as a light source. The value of the
normalized frequency parameter (V) relates core size with mode propagation. In single
mode fibers, V is less than or equal to 2.405. When V -2.405, single mode fibers
propagate the fundamental mode down the fiber core, while high-order modes are lost in
the cladding. For low V values (-1.0), most of the power is propagated in the cladding
material. Power transmitted by the cladding is easily lost at fiber bends. The value of V
should remain near the 2.405 level.

Single mode fibers have a lower signal loss and a higher information capacity
(bandwidth) than multimode fibers. Single mode fibers are capable of transferring higher
amounts of data due to low fiber dispersion. Basically, dispersion is the spreading of
light as light propagates along a fiber. Dispersion mechanisms in single mode fibers are
discussed in more detail later in this chapter. Signal loss depends on the operational
wavelength (λ). In single mode fibers, the wavelength can increase or decrease the losses
caused by fiber bending. Single mode fibers operating at wavelengths larger than the
cutoff wavelength lose more power at fiber bends. They lose power because light
radiates into the cladding, which is lost at fiber bends. In general, single mode fibers are
considered to be low-loss fibers, which increase system bandwidth and length.
Multimode Fibers

As their name implies, multimode fibers propagate more than one mode.
Multimode fibers can propagate over 100 modes. The number of modes propagated
depends on the core size and numerical aperture (NA). As the core size and NA increase,
the number of modes increases. Typical values of fiber core size and NA are 50 to 100 -m
and 0.20 to 0.29, respectively.

A large core size and a higher NA have several advantages. Light is launched
into a multimode fiber with more ease. The higher NA and the larger core size make it
easier to make fiber connections. During fiber splicing, core-to-core alignment becomes
less critical. Another advantage is that multimode fibers permit the use of light-emitting
diodes (LEDs). Single mode fibers typically must use LASER diodes. LEDs are
cheaper, less complex, and last longer. LEDs are preferred for most applications.

Multi-mode fibers are described by their core and cladding diameters. Thus,
62.5/125 µm multi-mode fiber has a core size of 62.5 micrometers (µm) and a cladding
diameter of 125 µm. The transition between the core and cladding can be sharp, which is
called a step-index profile, or a gradual transition, which is called a graded-index profile.
The two types have different dispersion characteristics and thus different effective
propagation distance. Multi-mode fibers may be constructed with either graded or step-
index profile.

In addition, multi-mode fibers are described using a system of classification

determined by the ISO 11801 standard — OM1, OM2, OM3 — which is based on
the modal bandwidth of the multi-mode fiber & OM4. OM4 cable will support 125m
links at 40 and 100 Gbit/s. The letters "OM" stand for optical multi-mode.

For many years 62.5/125 µm (OM1) and conventional 50/125 µm multi-mode

fiber (OM2) were widely deployed in premises applications. These fibers easily support
applications ranging from Ethernet (10 Mbit/s) to Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbit/s) and,
because of their relatively large core size, were ideal for use with LED transmitters.
Newer deployments often use laser-optimized 50/125 µm multi-mode fiber (OM3).
Fibers that meet this designation provide sufficient bandwidth to support 10 Gigabit
Ethernet up to 300 meters. Optical fiber manufacturers have greatly refined their
manufacturing process since that standard was issued and cables can be made that
support 10 GbE up to 550 meters (OM4). Laser Optimized Multi-mode Fiber (LOMMF)
is designed for use with 850 nm Vertical-Cavity Surface Emitting Laser (VCSEL).
 The migration to LOMMF/OM3 has occurred as users upgrade to higher speed
networks. LEDs have a maximum modulation rate of 622 Mbit/s because they cannot be
turned on/off fast enough to support higher bandwidth applications. VCSELs are capable
of modulation over 10 Gbit/s and are used in many high speed networks.

Cables can sometimes be distinguished by jacket color: for 62.5/125 µm (OM1)

and 50/125 µm (OM2), orange jackets are recommended, while Aqua is recommended
for 50/125 µm "Laser Optimized" OM3 and OM4 fiber.

VCSEL power profiles, along with variations in fiber uniformity, can cause modal
dispersion which is measured by differential modal delay (DMD). Modal dispersion is an
effect caused by the different speeds of the individual modes in a light pulse. The net
effect causes the light pulse to separate or spread over distance, making it difficult for
receivers to identify the individual 1's and 0's (this is called inter-symbol interference).
The greater the length, the greater the modal dispersion. To combat modal dispersion,
LOMMF is manufactured in a way that eliminates variations in the fiber which could
affect the speed that a light pulse can travel. The refractive index profile is enhanced
for VCSEL transmission and to prevent pulse spreading. As a result the fibers maintain
signal integrity over longer distances, thereby maximizing the bandwidth.

2 4 1 Gb (1000 10 Gb 40 Gb 100 Gb
3 100 Mb Ethernet Mb) Ethernet Ethernet Ethernet
Transmissi Etherne
on t
Standards
OM1 (62.5/125) up to 2000 meters 275 meters (SX) 33 meters Not Not
(FX) (SR) supported supported
OM2 (50/125) up to 2000 meters 550 meters (SX) 82 meters Not Not
(FX) (SR) supported supported
OM3 (50/125) up to 2000 meters 800 meters (SX) 300 meters 100 meters 100 meters
(FX) (SR)
OM4 (50/125) up to 2000 meters 880 meters (SX) 300 meters 125 meters 125 meters
(FX) (SR)

Plastic Optical Fiber (POF)

POF is an optical fiber which is made out of plastic, traditionally from PMMA
(poly methyl meth acrylate), a transparent shatter resistant alternative to silica glass
(sometimes referred to as acrylic glass). PMMA is an economical alternative to silica
 glass when extreme strength is not necessary. It is often preferred because of its ease in
handling and processing and low cost. The core size of POF is in some cases 100 times
larger than glass fiber. In larger diameter fiber, up to 96% of the cross section is the core
that allows the transmission of light. POF is often called the “consumer” optical fiber
because the fiber and the associated components are all relatively inexpensive. Common
applications include sensing or where low speed and short distances (less than 100
meters) make POF desired. Digital home appliances, home networks, industrial
networks, and automotive networks are also common applications.

Hard Clad Silica (HCS)

HCS is a fiber with a core of silica glass (200µm) and an optical cladding made of
special plastic (230µm). HCS fibers are limited to distances up to 2 kilometers and are
used in local networks in buildings or small industries. Comparing both bandwidth and
distances, HCS fibers rank between POF and multimode & single mode fibers.
Plastic Clad Silica (PCS)

PCS fiber is an optical fiber that has a silica based core and a plastic cladding.
PCS fibers in general have significantly lower performance characteristics, higher
transmission losses, and lower bandwidths than all glass fibers. PCS is commonly used
in industrial, medical, or component sensing applications where cores that are larger
than standard fibers are more advantageous.

CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL FIBRES

There can be various classifications of optical fibres depending on different parameters. We will consider one by one
ype.

Classification of Optical Fibres Depending on Material Used in Manufacture

of Optical Fibre Cables

There can be three types of optical fibres according to the material used in manufacture of optical
fibre cables. These are:

1. Glass Fibres: These fibres consist of glass as the core and also glass as a cladding. These are the most widely used
fibres. However, to propagate the light within the fibre, the refractive index of the cladding must be lower than that
of the core. For this to achieve, impurities such as Germanium, Boron, Phosphorous or Fluorine are added to the
pure glass for getting the desired refractive index.

2. Plastic Clad Silica or PCS. Fibres: By replacing the cladding with a plastic coating of the refractive index lower
than that of the core, a plastic clad fibre is achieved. However, the core can be homogeneous composition or with
radially graded refractive index. Its advantage is only that the replacement of the glass cladding with a plastic offers
the saving in cost. However, the limitations are many like:

{a) Losses are more than the glass fibres.

{b) Refractive index varies with temperature.

{c) Fibre life is small, mainly in humid environment.

{d) There is an upper temperature limit set up by the softening point of the plastic.

Due to the above listed factors, performance of this type of fibre is inferior to glass fibre

3. Plastic Fibres: These fibres consist of both core and cladding of the plastic material. These
fibres are cheaper in comparison to the above stated fibres. But these fibres have high losses and low bandwidth.
Also life of these fibres are small and refractive index varies with temperature. Advantages are having its cheapness
and plastic fibres do not need protective coating. Also both the core and cladding have similar softening points that
simplifies the production process. Plastic fibres have the advantage of more flexibility than glass fibres. Attenuation
of plastic fibres are worse than glass or silica fibres but even then they are frequendy used for short distance
computer applications. Also plastic fibres have lesser operational temperature ranges, hence, for higher temperature
applications, this fibres are not used.

Classification of Optical Fibres Depending on Number of Modes

There are two numbers of optical fibres depending upon the number of modes propagating into the fibre:

1. Monomaode or Singlemode Fibre: In this, fibre is capable of transmitting only one mode. Suppose we make the
core of the fibre very small ray, of order of 2 to 8 um, then only one ray of light can enter the core and get guided by
the total internal reflection. This will be the sole ray of light or mode that could enter the core at such a shallow
angle.
Major advantage of single mode fibre is that it exhibits minimum dispersion loss and hence, the highest transmission
bandwidth. Only high-quality laser sources that produces a very focused beam of nearly monochromatic light can be
used for single-mode operation. Furthermore, because of small core diameter and acceptance angle, there are certain
engineering difficulties in handling them such as splicing, coupling and bending etc. However, because of the
superior transmission characteristics, such fibres are extensively used for long-distance applications.

2. Multimode Fibres: In this, the (ibre is capable of transmitting more than one mode, so the name multimode fibre.
The multimode fibre has the core diameter of the order of 50 um i.e., larger than the monomode fibre. As the core
radius is large enough to accommodate many different rays of light or modes, each entering the core at different
angles. Since the different modes have different group velocities, there exists considerable broadening of transmined
light pulses. Hence, dispersion losses are more and bandwidth length product is smaller of order of 1 GHz-Km.
These fibres are useful for moderate distances. The loss of information capacity, however, is compensated by certain
benefits of multimode fibre over monomode fibres such as:

(a) Incoherent optical source can be used in multimode fibre due to large core diameter and large acceptance angle.
(b) Ease of splicing or jointing.
(c) Lower tolerance requirements on fibre connectors.

As per CCITT recommendation, the core diameter is 50 um and the cladding diameter is 125 um.

Classification of Optical Fibres Depending on the Index Profile

This is the mostly used classification for optical fibre and accordingly there are three rypes available in the market.
An index profile for a fibre is a plot of refractive index against the radial distance from the core axis. The three types
accordingly are:
1. Multimode Step index Fibre (MMSI): This is the simplest type and also the poorest of three types in
performance. It consists of a core material surrounded by a concentric

Figure- Index profile of multimode step index fibre

layer of cladding material with a uniform index of refraction n, that is only slightly less than that of the core
refractive index n,. If the refractive index is plotted against the radial distance [rom the core, the refractive index
abruptly changes at the core-cladding surface creating a STEP hence the name step index. The index profile is as
shown in figure.

The name step index due to this index profile and the term multimode due to its feature of propagating a number of
modes. Its manufacturing is such that its core radii is large enough to accommodate many different rays of light or
modes each entering the core at different angles. Different rays take shorter or longer time to travel down the length
of the fibre depending upon the angle, the ray makes with the fibre guide axis. Thus though all the rays enter the
fibre at the same time but they reach the distant end at different times as shown in figure 2.7. This results into the
spreading of light or pulse spreading. This spreading of light is called modal dispersion. Due to this, the full energy
is not received ar the same time at the distant end. This is why this fibre is poor in the performance. Typical value of
dispersion for this fibre is 15 to 30 ns/km.

Figure- Propagation in multimode step index fibre

1. Multimode Graded Index Fibre (GRIN): In this type, the material in the core is modified so that the refractive
index profile does not exhibit step index change but a parabrlic refractive index profile with its maximum in
the fibre axis. In this fibre, index of refraction has a maximum value n, at the axis and lesser values falling off
gradually and hence the name graded index as shown in figure.
Figure -Index profile of multimode graded index fibre
Since the light travels faster in a medium with lower refractive index, the light ray, which is farther from the fibre
axis travels faster than the ray which is nearer to the axis. As the refractive index is continuously changing across the
fibre axis, the light ray is bent towards the fibre axis in almost sinusoidal fashion as shown in figure 2.9. Light rays
are curved toward the fibre axis by refraction. Light rays periodically diverge and converge along the length of the
fibre. Also, a somewhat larger acceptance cone results than with multimode step index fibre. Typical values of
modal dispersion for GRIN fibre is 1 ns km. or less Le., much smaller than MMSI fibre. This type is useful in
moderate distance and moderate applications. However, by choosing the index grading profile carefully, it is
possible to
make a fibre in which the group velocities for all propagated ray paths average about the same, resulting in a large
reduction of intermodal dispersion of transmitted pulses, making GRIN fibres practical for long-distances.

Figure -Propagation in a multimode graded index fibre.

2. Single-Mode Step Index Fibre (SMS): In this fibre, the core of a fibre is made so small that only one ray of
light can enter the core and get guided by the total internal reflection hence the name single mode. This will be
the only ray of light or mode that can enter the core at such a shallow angle as shown in figure.

Figure -Propagation In a single-mode step index fibre

Major advantage of this fibre is that modal dispersion is totally eliminated and because of this, such fibres are
extensively used for long distance communication. Different fibre designs have a specific wavelength called cut off
wavelength above which it carries only one mode. This mode is the most widely used in India. Major reasons for
this are:
(i) Single mode step index fibres have a superior transmission quality over other fibre types because of the absence
of modal dispersion.
(ii) They currenuly exhibit the greatest transmission bandwidths.
(iii) They have the lowest losses than any other fibre types.
(iv) They are compatible with developing integrated optical technology.
{v) Installation of single mode step index fibre prevents the replacement over its twenty-plus-year anticipared life
time,
(vi) They offer a substantial upgrade capability for future wide bandwidth services.
Classification of Optical Fibres Depending Upon the Requirements and Usage

Depending upon the requirements and of particular usage, the optical fibres may be classified into
various types as follows:

 Active Fibre; The active fibre is one that emits light as well as guides part of it.
 Passive Fibre: The passive fibre is one that guides light incident on it from an external source. The optical
fibre communication system makes use of passive fibre. Luminescent Fibre: Luminescent fibre is one that
emit luminescent radiations when excited by X-ray, ultraviolet or any high energy particles.
 Lasing Fibre: Lasing libre is one in which light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation takes place.
These are small diameter fibres capable of providing higher pumping efficiency and better mode selection.
 Multiple Fibre: Multiple fibre is one kind of fibre configuration that consist of a multitude of smaller
diameter fibres. These fibres have made possible the availability of very small fibres that are capable of
providing high resolution.
 Conical Fibre: Conical fibre is one that is used for light condensing and in aligned assemblies for
magnification and demagnification purposes. In this type, conical condensing property is used.

Fiber Types and Typical Specifications

(OM/OS refers to TIA types, B refers to IEC types, G refers to ITU types)
Core/Cladding Attenuation Bandwidth Applications/Notes
Multimode Graded-Index
@850/1300 nm @850/1300 nm
50/125 microns (OM2, Laser-rated for GbE
3/1 dB/km 500/500 MHz-km
G.651.1) LANs
50/125 microns (OM3, Optimized for 850 nm
2.5/0.8 dB/km 1500/500 MHz-km
G.651.1) VCSELs
50/125 microns (OM4, Optimized for 850 nm
2.5/0.8 dB/km 3500/500 MHz-km
G.651.1) VCSELs, higher speed
Wideband MMF,
optimized for WDM 850-
50/125 microns (OM5) 2.5/0.8 dB/km 3500/500 MHz-km
950 nm VCSELs, higher
speed
62.5/125 microns (OM1) 3/1 dB/km 160-200/500 MHz-km LAN fiber
100/140 microns 3/1 dB/km 150/300 MHz-km Obsolete
Singlemode
@1310/1550 nm*
9/125 microns (OS1 0.4/0.25 dB/km HIGH! Singlemode fiber, most
B1.1 or G.652) ~100 Terahertz common for
Telco/CATV/high speed
LANs. OS1 is a
designation of TIA-568
for SM fiber cabled for
premises use that has
higher attenuation -
 1dB/km. All SM fiber
appears to be low water
peak fiber.
Low water peak fiber.
9/125 microns (OS2, HIGH! OS2 is a designation of
0.4/0.25 dB/km
B1.2 or G.652) ~100 Terahertz TIA-568 for SM fiber
cabled for outdoor use.
9/125 microns (B2 or HIGH!
0.4/0.25 dB/km Dispersion shifted fiber
G.653) ~100 Terahertz
9/125 microns (B1.2 or HIGH!
0.4/0.25 dB/km Cutoff shifted fiber
G.654) ~100 Terahertz
9/125 microns (B4 or HIGH! Non-zero dispersion
0.4/0.25 dB/km
G.655) ~100 Terahertz shifted fiber
HIGH!
9/125 microns (G.657) 0.4/0.25 dB/km Bend-insensitive fiber
~100 Terahertz
Multimode Step-Index
@850 nm @850 nm
200/240 microns 4-6 dB/km 50 MHz-km Slow LANs & links
POF (plastic optical fiber)
@ 650 nm @ 650 nm
1 mm ~ 1 dB/m ~5 MHz-km Short Links & Cars

ATTENUATION IN OPTICAL FIBRES

Attenuation is the loss of the optical power. Attenuation in the optical fibre cable takes place due to many elements
like coupler, splices, connectors, fibre itself. A fibre with a lower attenuation will allow more power to reach a
receiver than with a higher attenuation. Artenuation may be categorized as Extrinsic or Intrinsic. Figure shows
various factors causing attenuation in the optical fibre,

Figure - Factors causing attenuation in fibre

INTRINSIC ATTENUATION
Intrinsic Attenuation is the loss of the optical power over a set distance due to inherent or within the fibre sources.
Intrinsic attenuation may occur as:
Absorption
Scarring

Absorption

Absorption is the most predominant factor causing the attenuation in the optical fibre. Absorption in the optical fibre
takes place as:
{a) Intrinsic absorption
(b) Absorption due to Impurities.

(a) Intrinsic absorption: Intrinsic absorption is a natural property of glass itself, Two different mechanism contribute
to the intrinsic absorption losses in the glass fibres. These are ultraviolet absorption and infrared absorption.

Ultraviolet absorption is due to electronic and molecular transition band. Ultraviclet absorption takes place because
for pure fused silica, valence electrons can be ionized into conduction by the light and the energy for this ionization
is drawn from the light fields being propagated and constitute a transmission loss, The ultraviolet absorption loss
does not occur at fixed wavelength. This loss occur over a broad band extending up into the visible part of spectrum.
The loss decreases with increasing wavelength and becomes negligible in the 1.2 to 1.3 pm band as shown in figure.
However, absorption losses increases by the introduction of impurities to modify the refractive index because of an
upward shift of the wavelength at which the peak absorption takes place as illustrated
in figure.

Infrared absorption is due to the vibration of chemical bonds and it takes place because photons of the light energy
are absorbed by the atoms within the glass molecules and converted to the random mechanical vibrations typical of
heating. This loss prohibits the use of silica fibres beyond 1.6 pm.

Figure -Inirinsic Absorption loss effects in silica glass fibre

(b) Absorprion due to impurities: Two types of impurities metal ions and hydroxyl ions (OH- ions), are the main
sources of absorption losses.
The presence of metal impurities such as Iron, Copper, Chromium, Cobalt, Nickel and manganese create
unacceptable losses within the usable portion of the spectrum. These impurities must not exceed one part per billion
to obtain low losses. The loss snechanism due ro hydroxyl ions is the swerching vibration. The oxygen and hydrogen
atoms are vibration due to thermal motion, hence, minute quantities of water molecules trapped in the glass during
manufacture contribute OH" ions to the material.
These ions absorb energy at peaks of 0.95 pm, 1.23 pm and 1.37 pm as shown in figure. The water content of the
glass must be kept below 0.01 ppm to prevent these peaks from spreading out and merging to eliminate the low-loss
windows between peaks. Special precautions are taken during the glass manufacture to ensure low level of OH" ions
impurity in the finished product. Dry fibres have low OH" ions levels. Within the low intrinsic loss region OH- ion
absorption dictates which wavelength must be avoided for most efficient propagation. The same type of zone-
refining techniques used to purify silicon for integrated circuits is used to make glass fibres.

Figure -Hydroxy! jon absorption effects in silica-glass fibre

Scattering

Scattering is the loss of optical energy due to imperfections in the fibre. Due to this phenomenon, the light is
scattered in all directions which causes the loss of the optical power in the forward direction. This loss is known as
Rayleigh scattering loss. Rayleigh scattering takes place because during forming process, submicroscopic variations
in the density of the glass and in doping impurities
are frozen into the glass and then become reflecting and refracting facets to scatter the light passing through the
glass. Density and compositional variations take place during the manufacture itself. Rayleigh scattering loss is
found to be inversely proportional to the fourth power of the light wavelength used, diminishing rapidly at the longer
wavelengths as shown in figure, In the figure is shown the Rayleigh scattering loss of silica fibres against
wavelength over the portion of
spectrum from 0.7 to 1.6 um.
 Figure - Rayleigh scattering losses in silica fibres
EXTRINSIC ATTENUATION

Extrinsic attenuation is the loss of optical power due to external sources. Extrinsic attenuation occurs mainly due to
geometric effects which are caused by the bending of a fibre. Extrinsic attenuation due to geometric effects may
occur as:
 Microbending
 Macrobending

Microbending

Microbending losses are caused either during the manufacturing or during the cabling process. Microbends may not
be visible with the naked eyes. During the manufacturing, the microscopic bending of the core of the fibre occurs
due to different thermal contraction between the core and cladding. During the cabling process, the deformation of
fibre axis occurs and when a fibre is sheathed within a protective cable, it sets up stresses which causes microbends
to appear randomly
along the fibre. These microbends acts as a scattering facets within the fibre that causes some of the light to couple
out of the fibre as shown in figure. This effect is greatly reduced by loose tube cable construction and careful
manufacturing or handling of the fibres.

Figure- Microbending losses in a fibre

Macrobending
Excessive bending of the cable or fibre may result in Joss known as macrobend loss. The fibre is sharply bent so that
the light travelling down the fibre cannot make the turn and is lost in the cladding as shown in figure. This loss may
occur when wrapping the fibre on a spool or pulling the fibre cable around a comer. Safe bending distance for most
types of fibres is approximately,

Figure- Macrobend losses in a fibre

20 times total fibre diameter (with sheath and armour), normally given by manufacturer. Minimum bending radius
not only depends on attenuation but alse on the strength of fibre. Macrobends introduce loss by mode coupling into
leaky modes. Modes that are fully guided in straight sections of fibre are either only partially guided or not guided at
all over the curved portion of a fibre.
There is a term specified called critical radius of curvature R_ at which large bending losses tend to occur.
Critical radius of curvature for multimode fibres is given by equation as:

Here, n, is the refractive index of core

n, is the refractive index of cladding
is the operating wavelength.
It may be observed from equarion that macrobending losses in multimode fibres may be reduced by operating at the
shortest wavelength possible and designing the fibres with large refractive index differences.

The critical radius of curvature for single-mode fibres is given by equation as:

Here n,, n, and A are as specified in expression (3.1) A_is the cut-off wavelength for the single-mode fibre as given
by expression (2.9):
Mode stripping is used to remove those modes that are near cut-off and may contribute to leakage losses.

COMBINED FIBRE LOSSES

Figure shows the total fibre losses in a fibre as a function of wavelength due to Rayleigh scattering and material
absorption which are the predominant factors for the losses in a fibre. As can be seen from diagram, good quality
silica fibres have losses below 1 dB/km at 1.3 pm. All fibres are characterized by a loss spectrum curve of this
general shape, although the actual loss value and peak wavelength differ depending on the fibre used. We are
considering the case of silica glass fibre, It is clear from figure 3.7 that Rayleigh scattering losses are more dominant
in the
region between 0.7 and 1.3 pm. However, above 1.3 pm the IR absorption losses dominates. These both IR
absorption losses and Rayleigh scattering losses can be controlled to a degree by careful manufacturing techniques.
OH" peaks are at 0.95 pm, 1.23 pm and 1.37 ym and these peaks are also reduced in amplitude and width by careful
manufacturing techniques. It may be observed that the lowest attenuation for this fibre occurs at a wavelength of
1.55 pm and is 0.2 dB/km.

Figure -Total losses for silica-glass fibre

DISPERSION

Newton found that when a ray of sunlight falls on a prism, it is splitted into its constituent colours ie., Violet, Indigo,
Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red or VIBGYOR, red light having more wavelength than violet light. The position
of invisible spectrum beyond red is called Infrared and which lies beyond the violet end is called ultraviolet. This
phenomenon of separation of a composite beam into its constituents is called Dispersion. In optical fibre, Dispersion
is defined as phenomenon of spreading of light pulse as it travels [rom one end to other end in a fibre. A pulse of
light with a given width and amplitude transmitted into one end of a fibre should reach other end with its amplitude
reduced but its shape and width unchanged. But dispersion widens out and flattens it, further reducing its amplitude.
Also, widening of the pulse may cause it to overlap with adjacent pulses, thereby causing intersymbol interference
(ISI) as shown in figure 3.8. In the figure shown, we have considered digital bit pattern 1011. As can be seen each
pulse broadens and overlaps with
its adjacent pulse, thereby becoming indistinguishable at the receiver input. In figure 3.8 (b), output is at some
distance x and here the amplitude is reduced and pulse widening occurs but still the pulses can be distinguished.
However, if the distance is further increased say upto x + y, then amplitude is further reduced and pulses become
indistinguishable, as can be seen from figure 3.8
(c). So, dispersion is undesirable phenomenon. Dispersion alone limits the maximum bandwidth or it reduces the
upper limit on the pulse transmission rare. The bit rate must be low enough to ensure that pulses do not overlap. This
dispersion depends on the length of the fibre. The product of bandwidth and dispersion or bandwidth dispersion
product is used as a quality factor for the
fibre. Broadly. there are two classes of dispersion as shown in figure 3.9.
 Figure 3.9. Various lypes of dispersion

Intermodal Dispersion

Pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion or sometimes called modal dispersion is caused by differences in path
lengths of different rays of light in a fibre, When a light pulse is launched imo a fibre cere, it is in effect a collection
of thousands of rays of light, each beam within the limit of shallow angle required for total internal reflection. Each
such ray is called mode when angle of incidence is shallow, it is called lower mode. When angle is more but within
limit of numerical aperture, then it is called higher order mode. Due to differences in their angle of entry, each ray
has a distinct zigzag pattern. Over a distance, rays that entered the fibre core simultaneously are unable to travel in
unison because each one is travelling a different path length. The received pulse is the summation of these mode
pulses, each delayed by a different time. This mechanism of modal dispersion causes pulses to spread out and this
pulse width depends on the transmission times of the slowest and fastest modes.
In single-mode fibre, there is no intermodal dispersion. However in single-mode fibre, pulse broadening may occur
due to intramodal dispersion. So, single mode fibres have the least pulse broadening and widely used for long haul
applications. However, in multimode fibres, there is intermodal dispersion present. But multimode step index fibres
exhibit a larger amount of intermodal dispersion than multimode graded index fibres. Due to this multimode graded
index fibres have
less pulse broadening and higher bandwidth than multimode step-index fibres. We will consider each case
separately.

Multimode Step index Fibre: As the pulse width ar output is difference between transmission times of the
slowest and fastest modes. Fastest mode is mode having shortest delay Le, for axial ray and it is the lowest order
mode having angle of incidence 90° as shown in figure. The slowest mode is mode having the lowest delay ie.
for extreme meridional ray and it is the highest order mode having angle of incidence just slightly higher than
critical angle as shown in figure .
 Figure - Path by fastest and slowest mode in multimode slep infex fibre

Dispersion is usually expressed in the unit of ns/km. Intermodal dispersion is a characteristic of the fibre and is not
affected by the wavelength of light used. Intermodal dispersion may be reduced by mode coupling or mixing. The
coupling between the guided modes transfer optical power from slower to the faster mode and vice versa. Hence, by
coupling optical power tends te be transmitted at average speed which is a mean of the various propagating modes,
thereby, reducing intermodal dispersion. Another successful technique used to reduce the intermodal dispersion is by
grading the core refractive index to follow a parabolic profile ie, by making graded index fibre.

2. Multimode Graded Index Fibre: Multimode graded index fibres have a much lower intermodal dispersion than
multimode step index fibre. In graded index fibre, the refractive index of the core reduces gradually from the fibre
axis to the cladding and since, the light travels faster in a medium with lower refractive index. So. the light ray
which is farther from the fibre axis travels faster than the ray which is nearer to the axis. As the refractive index is
changing continuously across the axis, the light ray is bent continuously towards the fibre axis in almost sinusoidal
fashion as already shown in before topics. So, the longer
sinusoidal paths are compensated for by higher speed in lower index medium away from the axis, thereby, reducing
the disparity in the mode rransit time. Figure shows variation of intermodal pulse spreading as function of
characteristic index profile a from which it may be observed that an alpha graded fibre profile with alpha slightly
less than 2 will have an intermodal dispersion approaching a theoretical minimum and is given
 Figure - Pulse spreading vs. index profile « for graded index fibre

Here n, is refractive index of the core, | is length of fibre, A is normalized refractive index difference given by
expression (2.5) and ¢ is the velocity of light.
As it can be seen from expression (3.9) and (3.10) that pulse broadening is less in the case of multimode graded
index fibre than corresponding step index fibres. However, expressicn (3.10) gives a theoretical minimum, but
graded index fibres with intermodal dispersion less than 1 ns/km have been made,

Intermodal Dispersion

Inramodal dispersion also known as chromatic dispersion may occur in all types of fibre. This dispersion arises from
the finite spectral emission width of an optical source. This phenomenon is also known as group velocity dispersion
because dispersion is a result of the group velocity being a function of wavelength. Intramodal dispersion depends
on the wavelength, its effect increases with the spectral width of the optical source. This spectral width is the band of
wavelengths over which the optical source emits light. While in case of intermodal dispersion, as discussed earlier,
each mode have a different value of the group velocity at a single frequency and intramodal dispersion occurs due to
propagation delay differences berween ditferent spectral components of the transmitted signal. Intramodal dispersion
are due to two causes which are discussed one by one in the following topic.

1. Material Dispersion. Material dispersion arises from the variation ef the refractive index of the core material as a
function of wavelength. This causes a wavelength dependence of the group velocity of any given mode that is pulse
broadening occurs even when different wavelengths follow the same path. Light components of a pulse with shorter
wavelengths will experience more delay than the components having lenger wavelengths. To calculate material-
dispersion, we consider a plane wave in an infinitely dielectric medium having refractive index n, equal to that of
fibre core. For this medium propagation
Constant beta may be written as:

As the signal propagates along the fibre, each spectral component can be assumed to travel independently and to
undergo a time delay or group delay per unit length in the direction of propagation given by:

Here, L is the length of fibre and v, denotes the group velocity given by

Figure -Malerial dispersion vs. wavelength for sifica fibre.

However, material dispersion will almost absent near wavelength of 1.3 mm. For multimode fibre, material
dispersion will be much less than intermodal dispersion.
Material dispersion can be reduced either by choosing sources with narrower spectral width or by operating at longer
wavelengths. Use of LASER source also minimises material dispersion as its spectral width is less of order of 1-5
nm, very smaller than that of LED source having spectral width 20-100 nm.

2. Waveguide Dispersion: Wave guide dispersion results from the guiding characteristics of the fibre. Wave guide
dispersion is a consequence of the changes in fibre dimensions as practically there will be some differences in
dimensions as compared to theoretical dimensions. This type of dispersion is of significance in single-mode fibre
since it confines only about 80% of the oprical power to the core. Thus, the 20% of the light propagating in the
cladding travels faster than the light confined to core (-- of lower refractive index) causing pulse spreading. The
amount of waveguide dispersion depends on the Abre design. Multimode fibres are almost free of waveguide
dispersion and it is generally negligible compared with material dispersion. At wavelength of 1.3 mm, for silica
Fibre waveguide dispersion is around 4 ps/nm-km.

TOTAL DISPERSION AND MAXIMUM TRANSMISSION RATES

The total pulse broadening in a fibre result in an approximately Gaussian pulse shape at the receiver end for which
the independent pulse spreading effects combine in a root mean square manner given by:

Here AT__, is pulse spreading due to modal dispersion AT, is pulse spreading due to material dispersion and AT, is
pulse spreading due to wave guide dispersion. Expression (3.18) is only due to dispersion effect and not takes into
account the transmitted pulse width. If the
transmitted pulse also have Gaussian shape, then received pulse width T, is root mean square combination of the
transmitted pulse width T, and total pulse width AT,

Now, the maximum bit transmission rate so thar there is no overlapping of light pulses down on a fibre link is given
by:

PROPERTIES OF OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION

The principles behind the transfer of light along an optical fiber were discussed
earlier in this chapter. You learned that propagation of light depended on the nature of
light and the structure of the optical fiber. However, our discussion did not describe
how optical fibers affect system performance. In this case, system performance deals
with signal loss and bandwidth.

Signal loss and system bandwidth describe the amount of data transmitted over a
specified length of fiber. Many optical fiber properties increase signal loss and reduce
system bandwidth. The most important properties that affect system performance are
fiber attenuation and dispersion.

Attenuation reduces the amount of optical power transmitted by the fiber.

Attenuation controls the distance an optical signal (pulse) can travel as shown in figure 2-
20. Once the power of an optical pulse is reduced to a point where the receiver is unable
to detect the pulse, an error occurs. Attenuation is mainly a result of light absorption,
scattering, and bending losses. Dispersion spreads the optical pulse as it travels along
the fiber. This spreading of the signal pulse reduces the system bandwidth or the
information-carrying capacity of the fiber. Dispersion limits how fast information is
transferred as shown in figure 2-20. An error occurs when the receiver is unable to
distinguish between input pulses caused by the spreading of each pulse. The effects of
attenuation and dispersion increase as the pulse travels the length of the fiber as shown in
figure 2-21.

Figure 2-20. - Fiber transmission properties

Figure 2-21. -Pulse spreading and power loss along an optical fiber

In addition to fiber attenuation and dispersion, other optical fiber properties affect
system performance. Fiber properties, such as modal noise, pulse broadening, and
polarization, can reduce system performance. Modal noise, pulse broadening, and
polarization are too complex to discuss as introductory level material. However, you
should be aware that attenuation and dispersion are not the only fiber properties that
affect performance.

Attenuation

Attenuation in an optical fiber is caused by absorption, scattering, and bending

losses. Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fiber. Signal
attenuation is defined as the ratio of optical input power (Pi) to the optical output power
(Po). Optical input power is the power injected into the fiber from an optical source.
Optical output power is the power received at the fiber end or optical detector. The
following equation defines signal attenuation as a unit of length:

Signal attenuation is a log relationship. Length (L) is expressed in kilometers.

Therefore, the unit of attenuation is decibels/kilometer (dB/km).

As previously stated, attenuation is caused by absorption, scattering, and bending

losses. Each mechanism of loss is influenced by fiber-material properties and fiber
structure. However, loss is also present at fiber connections. Fiber connector, splice, and
coupler losses are discussed in chapter 4. The present discussion remains relative to
optical fiber attenuation properties.

Absorption.

Absorption is a major cause of signal loss in an optical fiber. Absorption is

defined as the portion of attenuation resulting from the conversion of optical power into
another energy form, such as heat. Absorption in optical fibers is explained by three
factors:

 Imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material

 The intrinsic or basic fiber-material properties
 The extrinsic (presence of impurities) fiber-material properties

Imperfections in the atomic structure induce absorption by the presence of

missing molecules or oxygen defects. Absorption is also induced by the diffusion of
hydrogen molecules into the glass fiber. Since intrinsic and extrinsic material properties
are the main cause of absorption, they are discussed further.

Intrinsic Absorption.—Intrinsic absorption is caused by basic fiber-material

properties. If an optical fiber were absolutely pure, with no imperfections or impurities,
then all absorption would be intrinsic. Intrinsic absorption sets the minimal level of
absorption. In fiber optics, silica (pure glass) fibers are used predominately. Silica fibers
are used because of their low intrinsic material absorption at the wavelengths of
operation.
 In silica glass, the wavelengths of operation range from 700 nanometers (nm) to
1600 nm. Figure 2-22 shows the level of attenuation at the wavelengths of operation. This
wavelength of operation is between two intrinsic absorption regions. The first region is
the ultraviolet region (below 400-nm wavelength). The second region is the infrared
region (above 2000-nm wavelength).

Figure 2-22. - Fiber losses.

Intrinsic absorption in the ultraviolet region is caused by electronic absorption

bands. Basically, absorption occurs when a light particle (photon)interacts with an
electron and excites it to a higher energy level. The tail of the ultraviolet absorption band
is shown in figure 2-22.

The main cause of intrinsic absorption in the infrared region is the characteristic
vibration frequency of atomic bonds. In silica glass, absorption is caused by the vibration
of silicon-oxygen (Si-O) bonds. The interaction between the vibrating bond and the
electromagnetic field of the optical signal causes intrinsic absorption. Light energy is
transferred from the electromagnetic field to the bond.

Extrinsic Absorption.—Extrinsic absorption is caused by impurities introduced

into the fiber material. Trace metal impurities, such as iron, nickel, and chromium, are
introduced into the fiber during fabrication. Extrinsic absorption is caused by the
electronic transition of these metal ions from one energy level to another.

Extrinsic absorption also occurs when hydroxyl ions (OH-) are introduced into the
fiber. Water in silica glass forms a silicon-hydroxyl (Si-OH) bond. This bond has a
fundamental absorption at 2700 nm. However, the harmonics or overtones of the
fundamental absorption occur in the region of operation. These harmonics increase
extrinsic absorption at 1383nm, 1250nm, and 950nm. Figure 2-22 shows the presence of
the three OH- harmonics. The level of the OH- harmonic absorption is also indicated.

These absorption peaks define three regions or windows of preferred operation.

The first window is centered at 850nm. The second window is centered at 1300nm. The
third window is centered at 1550nm. Fiber optic systems operate at wavelengths defined
by one of these windows.

The amount of water (OH-) impurities present in a fiber should be less than a few
parts per billion. Fiber attenuation caused by extrinsic absorption is affected by the level
of impurities (OH-) present in the fiber. If the amount of impurities in a fiber is reduced,
then fiber attenuation is reduced.

Scattering

Basically, scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density
fluctuations within a fiber. Density changes are produced when optical fibers are
manufactured. During manufacturing, regions of higher and lower molecular density
areas, relative to the average density of the fiber, are created. Light traveling through
the fiber interacts with the density areas as shown in figure 2-23. Light is then partially
scattered in all directions.

In commercial fibers operating between 700nm and 1600nm wavelength, the

main source of loss is called Rayleigh scattering. Rayleigh scattering is the main loss
mechanism between the ultraviolet and infrared regions as shown in figure 2-22.
Rayleigh scattering occurs when the size of the density fluctuation (fiber defect) is less
than one-tenth of the operating wavelength of light. Loss caused by Rayleigh scattering
is proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength (1/λ 4). As the wavelength
increases, the loss caused by Rayleigh scattering decreases.
 If the size of the defect is greater than one-tenth of the wavelength of light, the
scattering mechanism is called Mie scattering. Mie scattering, caused by these large
defects in the fiber core, scatters light out of the fiber core. However, in commercial
fibers, the effects of Mie scattering are insignificant. Optical fibers are manufactured with
very few large defects.

Figure 2-23. - Light scattering

Bending Loss

Bending the fiber also causes attenuation. Bending loss is classified according to
the bend radius of curvature: microbend loss or macrobend loss. Microbends are small
microscopic bends of the fiber axis that occur mainly when a fiber is cabled. Macrobends
are bends having a large radius of curvature relative to the fiber diameter. Microbend and
macrobend losses are very important loss mechanisms. Fiber loss caused by
microbending can still occur even if the fiber is cabled correctly. During installation, if
fibers are bent too sharply, macrobend losses will occur.

Microbend losses are caused by small discontinuities or imperfections in the fiber.

Uneven coating applications and improper cabling procedures increase microbend loss.
External forces are also a source of microbends. An external force deforms the cabled
jacket surrounding the fiber but causes only a small bend in the fiber. Microbends change
the path that propagating modes take, as shown in figure 2-24. Microbend loss increases
attenuation because low-order modes become coupled with high-order modes that are
naturally lossy.

Figure 2-24. - Microbend loss

Macrobend losses are observed when a fiber bend's radius of curvature is large
compared to the fiber diameter. These bends become a great source of loss when the
radius of curvature is less than several centimeters. Light propagating at the inner side
of the bend travels a shorter distance than that on the outer side. To maintain the phase
of the light wave, the mode phase velocity must increase. When the fiber bend is less
than some critical radius, the mode phase velocity must increase to a speed greater than
the speed of light. However, it is impossible to exceed the speed of light. This condition
causes some of the light within the fiber to be converted to high-order modes. These
high-order modes are then lost or radiated out of the fiber.

Fiber sensitivity to bending losses can be reduced. If the refractive index of the
core is increased, then fiber sensitivity decreases. Sensitivity also decreases as the
diameter of the overall fiber increases. However, increases in the fiber core diameter
increase fiber sensitivity. Fibers with larger core size propagate more modes. These
additional modes tend to be more lossy.
 DISPERSION

Is the spreading of a pulse of light as it travels down the length of an optical fiber.
Dispersion limits the bandwidth or information carrying capacity of a fiber. The bit rate
must be low enough to ensure that pulses do not overlap. A lower bit rate means that the
pulses are farther apart and, therefore, that greater dispersion can be tolerated. There are
five types of dispersion:

1. Modal dispersion
2. Material dispersion
3. Waveguide dispersion
4. Chromatic dispersion
5. Polarization mode dispersion

Modal Dispersion

Modal dispersion occurs only in multimode fibers. It is the result of light rays
following different paths through the fiber core and consequently arrives at the fiber end
at different times. The input light pulse is made up of a group of modes. As the modes
propagate along the fiber, light energy distributed among the modes is delayed by
different amounts. The pulse spreads because each mode propagates along the fiber at
different speeds. Since modes travel in different directions, some modes travel longer
distances. Modal dispersion occurs because each mode travels a different distance over
the same time span, as shown in figure 2-25. The modes of a light pulse that enter the
fiber at one time exit the fiber a different times. This condition causes the light pulse to
spread. As the length of the fiber increases, modal dispersion increases.

Figure 2-25. - Distance traveled by each mode over the same time span

Material Dispersion

Material dispersion occurs because different wavelengths (colors) also travel at

different velocities through a fiber, even in the same mode. Remember, n = c/v where
“c”
is the speed of light in a vacuum and “v” is the speed of the same wavelength in a
material. Here the index of refraction will change according to the wavelength. Material
dispersion occurs because the spreading of a light pulse is dependent on the wavelengths'
interaction with the refractive index of the fiber core. Different wavelengths travel at
different speeds in the fiber material. Different wavelengths of a light pulse that enter a
fiber at one time exit the fiber at different times. Material dispersion is a function of the
source spectral width. The spectral width specifies the range of wavelengths that can
propagate in the fiber. Material dispersion is less at longer wavelengths.

The amount of dispersion depends on two factors:

1. The range of wavelengths injected into the fiber. A source does not emit a
single wavelength; it emits several. The range of wavelengths, expressed in nanometers,
is the spectral width of the source. An LED can have a spectral width in the range of
35nm to well over 100nm. A Laser diodes spectral width is .1nm to 3nm.

2. Longer “reddish” wavelengths travel faster than shorter “bluish” wavelengths.

An 860nm wavelength travels faster than an 840nm wavelength. At 1550nm, the situation
is reversed. The shorter wavelength travels faster than longer ones: a 1560nm
wavelength travels slower than a 1540nm wavelength. At some point a crossover must
occur where the bluish and reddish wavelengths travel at the same speed. This point is
called the zero dispersion point occurs at 1300nm.

Material dispersion is of greater concern in single-mode systems. A standard

single-mode fiber has the lowest material dispersion at 1300nm and the lowest loss at
1550nm. Or, it has the highest information-carrying capacity at 1300nm and the longer
transmission distance at 1550nm. Dispersion is about five times higher at 1550nm than
at 1300nm, while attenuation is about 0.2 dB lower.

A dispersion-shifted fiber attempts to give the designer the best of both worlds,
low loss and high bandwidth at the same optical wavelength. The zero-dispersion
wavelength is shifted from the 1300nm region to 1550nm.

Zero dispersion-shifted (DS) fibers have the zero dispersion point shifted to
1550nm to coincide with the low attenuation operating point. Material dispersion is
reduced to zero. DS fibers work well when a single channel data stream is transmitted
through the fiber. The newer systems send more than one channel through the fiber. They
may send channels or streams of data at 1546, 1548, 1550, and 1552nm. Here an effect
called four-wave mixing robs the signals of power and increase noise in the system. Four-
wave mixing occurs in fibers that have the zero dispersion point at or near the
wavelengths being transmitted. This mixing can seriously limit the use of multiple
wavelengths in DWDM applications and this will lower transmission speeds.

Adding a small amount of dispersion can suppress four-wave mixing. Nonzero-

dispersion-shifted (NZ-DS) fibers overcome this problem by shifting the zero dispersion
point not to 1550nm, but to a point nearby. NZ-DS fibers, because of their ability to
handle high data rates and multiple wavelengths, are widely used in communications
applications, surpassing DS fibers.

Waveguide Dispersion

Waveguide dispersion occurs because the mode propagation constant () is a

function of the size of the fiber's core relative to the wavelength of operation. Waveguide
dispersion is most significant in a single-mode fiber. The energy level travels at slightly
different velocities in the core and cladding because of the slightly different refractive
indices of the materials. Altering the internal structure of the fiber allows waveguide
dispersion to be substantially changed, thus changing the specified overall dispersion of
the fiber. About 80% of the light is propagated down the core with the remaining 20%
traveling down the cladding.

To understand the physical origin of waveguide dispersion, we need to know that

the light energy of a mode propagates partly in the core and partly in the cladding and
that the effective index of a mode lies between the refractive indices of the cladding and
the core. The actual value of the effective index between these two limits depends on the
proportion of power that is contained in the cladding and the core. If most of the power
is contained in the core, the effective index is closer to the core refractive index. If most
of the power propagates in the cladding, the effective index is closer to the cladding
refractive index.

The power distribution of a mode between the core and the cladding of a fiber is
itself a function of the wavelength. More accurately, the longer the wavelength, the more
power in the cladding. Thus, even in the absence of material dispersion, the refractive
indices of the core and the cladding are independent of wavelength. If the wavelength
changes, the power distribution changes.
Chromatic Dispersion (CD)

Chromatic Dispersion (CD) is the term given to the phenomenon by which

different spectral components of a light pulse travel at different speeds. CD arises for two
reasons. The first reason is that the refractive index of silica is frequency dependent. Thus
different frequency components travel at different speeds in silica. This component of CD
is called material Dispersion. The second reason is that although material dispersion is
the principle component of chromatic dispersion for most fibers, there is a second
component called Waveguide Dispersion.

Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)

Polarization mode dispersion (PMD is a minor type of dispersion that only

becomes significant in a system that has already minimized other forms of dispersion and
that is operating at gigabit data rates. Polarization mode dispersion arises from the fact
that even a single mode can have two polarization states. These polarizations travel at
slightly different speeds, thus spreading the signal. For a 100-km transmission distance,
PMD limits the signal frequency to 40 GHz. The magnitude of PMD in a fiber is
expressed as this difference, which is known as the differential group delay (DGD) and
called Δτ (“delta Tau”).
Each type of dispersion mechanism leads to pulse spreading. As a pulse spreads,
energy is overlapped. This condition is shown in figure 2-26. The spreading of the optical
pulse as it travels along the fiber limits the information capacity of the fiber.

Figure 2-26. - Pulse overlap

In multimode fibers, waveguide dispersion and material dispersion are basically

separate properties. Multimode waveguide dispersion is generally small compared to
material dispersion. Waveguide dispersion is usually neglected. However, in single mode
fibers, material and waveguide dispersion are interrelated. The total dispersion present in
single mode fibers may be minimized by trading material and waveguide properties
depending on the wavelength of operation.
 Modal dispersion is the dominant source of dispersion in multimode fibers.
Modal dispersion does not exist in single mode fibers. Single mode fibers propagate only the
fundamental mode. Therefore, single mode fibers exhibit the lowest amount of total dispersion.
Single mode fibers also exhibit the highest possible bandwidth.

4.Describe the types of optical fiber cable

OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE

However, fibres have additional coatings around the cladding. The primary
function of the additional coatings which are made of polymer, is to protect the core and cladding from the shocks that
might affect the optical or physical properties of the fibre. However, the coatings do not have any optical property so as to
affect the light propagation within the fibre. As, the single mode fibre is the most widely used in India, we will see the
construction and specifications of single mode fibres. The main component parts of an OFC are as shown in figure

 Core
 Cladding
 Primary coating
 . Secondary coating
 . Strength member
 Fillers
 Core wrap
 Cable sheath
 Armour
 Jacket and moisture barrier.

An optical fibre has two concentric layers called the core and the cladding as seen

Core

The core is a central tube of very thin size having approximately diameter of 9 pm. made up of optically transparent
material usually doped silica or borosilicate glass. The core carries the light signals from transmitter to receiver.

Cladding
The cladding surrounds the core cylindrically and is having slightly lower refractive index as compared to the core. Due to
the total internal reflection phenomenon, it confines the light signal to the core. Cladding is made of the same material as
the core and is having diameter of 125 pm approximately. Refer figure Primary Coating

The fibres are coated with a buffer immediately after being drawn. This buffer known as primary coating is made of silicon
rubber, Acrylate or Lacquer and is applied to the cladding by the fibre manufacturer. This primary serves as mechanical
protection during the subsequent stages of the cable manufacturing. The typical diumeter of the fibre after primary coating
is 250 — 200 um. After
this primary coating, the fibres are normally coloured by passing through the colouring machines.

Secondary Coating

The coloured fibres are passed through the additional buffer during manufacturing process which is known as secondary
coating. These cable buffers are of three types as given:

1. Loose Buffer:
One way of isolating the optical fibre from external forces is to place the fibre in a buffer tbe. The cable fills these
tubes with Jelly like compound to provide additional cushioning and prevents the intrusion of moisture, The inside
diameter of the buffer tube is severgl times that of the fibre diameter. More than one fibre can be inserted in a single
buffer tube. The buffer tube protects the fibre from any mechanical forces acting on the cable. The fibre can adjust
itself within the tube when the cable is distorted. As the cable expands and shrinks with change in temperature, it
does not affect the fibre much. The fibre in the tube is slightly longer than the tube itself. Thus, the cable itself can
easily expand and contract without stressing the fibre. Loose buffer tube also eliminates micro bending of the fibre.
The diameter of this tube is 1.5 to 2 mm. The loose buffer is preferred for almost ail outdoor applications.
2. Tight Buffer: The night buffer has a plastic coating directly applied over the primary coating of the fibre, This
arrangement provides better crush and impact resistance. The tight buffer is also more flexible and allows tighter
turn ratio. Tight tube buffers have general application in indoor cables where temperature variations are mixed and
the ability to make tight turns inside walls is desired. This arrangement may produce micro bends due to stresses
and they do not protect the fibre from sessing or temperature variations. Single fibre pigtail cables use tight buffer.
They are used for termination in the equipment room.
3. Open Channel: In this type of cable, fibres are located in the groove formed in the central strengsh member. Like loose
tube buffer, the fibres in this are free to move within the cable avoiding tensile stress. Fibres are protected from the
moisture by filling the cable with Jelly or similar compound.
Strength Member

The function of strength member is to add mechanical strength to the fibre. They protect the fibre from the tensions and
strains generated during pulling shearing and bending of the cable. Optical fibres are stranded helically around the strength
member. The strength members are centrally located or applied over the buffer Jacket. The central strength member
cunstruction is generally used in multifibre cables. The most common strength members are:

{a) Kevlar

(b) Aramid Yarn

(c) Fibre-glass Reinforced Plastic (FRP)

(d) Steel wires

The Kevlar is one of the most frequently used strengthening members. Its effective strength to weight ratio is almost four
times that of steel. Fibre glass rods are used in multifibre cables while Kevlar is most commonly used for individual fibres.

Fillers

Fillers are dummy tube like structure without fibres. Fillers are employed to provide cushioning to the fibres and to give
shape to the cable. Typical materials are PVC, Polyethylene, low-densiry cellulose paper, spunbonded polyester.

Core Wrap

This is in the form of a tape and these binder tapes are applied to hold the assemblies of coated fibres and fillers together. It
also provides a heat barrier to the fibre during the extrusion process of outer sheath. Materials used are polyester, mylar,
cellulose paper etc.

Cable Sheath

This protects the fibre cable from the environmental damages. Sheath material can be high density polyethylene. PVC
sheaths are common in fibres installed for indoor applications.

Armour

Whenever cables are to be buried directly in the earth, then armouring is considered essential to protect the cable against
rodent attacks. Armouring can be by steel wire or steel tapes. Armouring provides extra strength and improves flexibility
for easy handling. Mostly organisations uses unarmoured cable because in armoured cable, there is a problem of lightning
induction due to metallic sheath, So, we have to earth the sheath properly in armoured cable. Railway uses armoured
cable due to the rodents found near the railway tracks.

Jacket and Moisture Barrier

Normally outermost sheath, which is called Jacket provides protection from the effects of cut and abrasion, chemicals,
acids, oil, ozone, alkalis, solvents and so forth. Materials such as low densiiy polyethylene, high density polythene,
polyurethane, Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC), nylon etc, have been successfully employed in commercial cables. The choice of
Jacket material depends on
application and cost.

OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE CONFIGURATIONS

As the optical fibre cable need to be protected before it is used. Cabling is the process to package one or more fibres in an
outer protective structure. Cabling improves the mechanical characteristics of a fibre without causing a deterioration of its
optical properties. Cabling protects fibre environmentally, mechanically from being damaged or degraded in performance.
Important parameters which need strengthening and protection are:

1, Tensile strength

2. Protection from excessive bending

3. Crushing resistance

4. Abrasion protection

5. Twist

6. Chemical protection.

Optical fibre cables are light, small, flexible, lame retardant and temperature insensitive besides being mechanically strong
and rugged. Optical fibre cable is available in variety of configurations depending on its application. We will discuss here
only the outdoor cable structures used in DOT. Generally, the cables installed outdoor are subjected to extreme conditions.
Such cables are rugged and durable, Most outdoor cables have an additional protective sheaths. Most outdoor cables
contain many fibres. The central strength member is usually a fibre glass wrap.

There are many kinds of optical fibre cable designed to utilise their merits fully. Mainly two types of cables are used in
DOT which are as given:

 Loose tube structure.

 Slotted core structure,

Loose Tube Structure

This type of structure uses protective loose tube made of thermoplastic material. The tube may contain one or more fibre.
These tubes are then stranded helically in continuous or alternate paths around a central strength member. The central
strength member used in the cables is FRP Le., fibre reinforced plastic. These tubes are generally filled with selected
materials. which have stable physical characteristics over a wide temperature range. The cable interstices are filled with
moisture resistant filling compound to retard the ingress and axial migration of water. The cable core is wrapped with a
wrapping tape. The buffer tube and the fibres in cable are identified by colour and numbering are as follows for the fibre:

1. Blue 6. White
2. Orange 7. Red
3. Green 8. Black
4. Brown 9. Yellow
5. Slate 10. Violet.

Fibre number 1 in the first cable is spliced to fibre number 1 in the second cable and 2 to 2, 3 to 3 and so on. Hence, colour
coding simplifies fibre identification. The loose tube structure is shown in figure below. The buffer ube are numbered
according to colour as follows:
Figure -Cross section of armoured loose tube optical fibre cable

Slotted Core Structure

This type of cable consists of a plastic rod abstracted over a central strength member assuring good Mechanical and thermal
performance of the structure. V-grooves or slots are cut in the surface of the plastic rod. These grooves or slots may contain
one or more fibres protected only by primary coating. After the fibres have been inserted, the slotted core is closed by
applying plastic or synthetic covering and wherever necessary, slots are filled with a filling compound having stable
physical characteristics over a wide range of temperatures. Each slotted core may either be used alone with protective outer
Jacket or assembled with similar cable units before providing outer protection, The slotted core structure is as shown in

Figure -Cross-section of Armoured siotled core optical fibre cable

SUMMARY OF CABLE COMPONENTS
FIBRE OPTIC CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS

Unit 2: Tools, Equipment and Components

1.Describe the light sources of optical fiber

Structure of LED:-
What is Light Emitting Diode (LED)?

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are the most widely used semiconductor diodes among all the different types of
semiconductor diodes available today. Light emitting diodes emit either visible light or invisible infrared light when
forward biased. The LEDs which emit invisible infrared light are used for remote controls.

A light Emitting Diode (LED) is an optical semiconductor device that emits light when voltage is applied. In other words,
LED is an optical semiconductor device that converts electrical energy into light energy.

When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased, free electrons in the conduction band recombines with
the holes in the valence band and releases energy in the form of light.

The process of emitting light in response to the strong electric field or flow of electric current is called electroluminescence.

A normal p-n junction diode allows electric current only in one direction. It allows electric current when forward biased
and does not allow electric current when reverse biased. Thus, normal p-n junction diode operates only in forward bias
condition.

Like the normal p-n junction diodes, LEDs also operates only in forward bias condition. To create an LED, the n-type
material should be connected to the negative terminal of the battery and p-type material should be connected to the positive
terminal of the battery. In other words, the n-type material should be negatively charged and the p-type material should be
positively charged.

The construction of LED is similar to the normal p-n junction diode except that gallium, phosphorus and arsenic materials
are used for construction instead of silicon or germanium materials.

In normal p-n junction diodes, silicon is most widely used because it is less sensitive to the temperature. Also, it allows
electric current efficiently without any damage. In some cases, germanium is used for constructing diodes.

However, silicon or germanium diodes do not emit energy in the form of light. Instead, they emit energy in the form of
heat. Thus, silicon or germanium is not used for constructing LEDs.

Layers of LED

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) consists of three layers: p-type semiconductor, n-type semiconductor and depletion layer.
The p-type semiconductor and the n-type semiconductor are separated by a depletion region or depletion layer.
P-type semiconductor

When trivalent impurities are added to the intrinsic or pure semiconductor, a p-type semiconductor is formed.

In p-type semiconductor, holes are the majority charge carriers and free electrons are the minority charge carriers. Thus,
holes carry most of the electric current in p-type semiconductor.

N-type semiconductor

When pentavalent impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, an n-type semiconductor is formed.

In n-type semiconductor, free electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are the minority charge carriers. Thus,
free electrons carry most of the electric current in n-type semiconductor.

Depletion layer or region

Depletion region is a region present between the p-type and n-type semiconductor where no mobile charge carriers (free
electrons and holes) are present. This region acts as barrier to the electric current. It opposes flow of electrons from n-type
semiconductor and flow of holes from p-type semiconductor.

To overcome the barrier of depletion layer, we need to apply voltage which is greater than the barrier potential of depletion
layer.

If the applied voltage is greater than the barrier potential of the depletion layer, the electric current starts flowing.

How Light Emitting Diode (LED) works?

Light Emitting Diode (LED) works only in forward bias condition. When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased,
the free electrons from n-side and the holes from p-side are pushed towards the junction.

When free electrons reach the junction or depletion region, some of the free electrons recombine with the holes in the
positive ions. We know that positive ions have less number of electrons than protons. Therefore, they are ready to accept
electrons. Thus, free electrons recombine with holes in the depletion region. In the similar way, holes from p-side
recombine with electrons in the depletion region.
Because of the recombination of free electrons and holes in the depletion region, the width of depletion region decreases.
As a result, more charge carriers will cross the p-n junction.

Some of the charge carriers from p-side and n-side will cross the p-n junction before they recombine in the depletion
region. For example, some free electrons from n-type semiconductor cross the p-n junction and recombines with holes in p-
type semiconductor. In the similar way, holes from p-type semiconductor cross the p-n junction and recombines with free
electrons in the n-type semiconductor.

Thus, recombination takes place in depletion region as well as in p-type and n-type semiconductor.

The free electrons in the conduction band releases energy in the form of light before they recombine with holes in the
valence band.

In silicon and germanium diodes, most of the energy is released in the form of heat and emitted light is too small.

However, in materials like gallium arsenide and gallium phosphide the emitted photons have sufficient energy to produce
intense visible light.

How LED emits light?

When external voltage is applied to the valence electrons, they gain sufficient energy and breaks the bonding with the
parent atom. The valence electrons which breaks bonding with the parent atom are called free electrons.

When the valence electron left the parent atom, they leave an empty space in the valence shell at which valence electron
left. This empty space in the valence shell is called a hole.

The energy level of all the valence electrons is almost same. Grouping the range of energy levels of all the valence
electrons is called valence band.
In the similar way, energy level of all the free electrons is almost same. Grouping the range of energy levels of all the free
electrons is called conduction band.

The energy level of free electrons in the conduction band is high compared to the energy level of valence electrons or holes
in the valence band. Therefore, free electrons in the conduction band need to lose energy in order to recombine with the
holes in the valence band.

The free electrons in the conduction band do not stay for long period. After a short period, the free electrons lose energy in
the form of light and recombine with the holes in the valence band. Each recombination of charge carrier will emit some
light energy.

The energy lose of free electrons or the intensity of emitted light is depends on the forbidden gap or energy gap between
conduction band and valence band.

The semiconductor device with large forbidden gap emits high intensity light whereas the semiconductor device with small
forbidden gap emits low intensity light.

In other words, the brightness of the emitted light is depends on the material used for constructing LED and forward current
flow through the LED.

In normal silicon diodes, the energy gap between conduction band and valence band is less. Hence, the electrons fall only a
short distance. As a result, low energy photons are released. These low energy photons have low frequency which is
invisible to human eye.

In LEDs, the energy gap between conduction band and valence band is very large so the free electrons in LEDs have
greater energy than the free electrons in silicon diodes. Hence, the free electrons fall to a large distance. As a result, high
energy photons are released. These high energy photons have high frequency which is visible to human eye.

The efficiency of generation of light in LED increases with increase in injected current and with a decrease in temperature.
In light emitting diodes, light is produced due to recombination process. Recombination of charge carriers takes place only
under forward bias condition. Hence, LEDs operate only in forward bias condition.

When light emitting diode is reverse biased, the free electrons (majority carriers) from n-side and holes (majority carriers)
from p-side moves away from the junction. As a result, the width of depletion region increases and no recombination of
charge carriers occur. Thus, no light is produced.

If the reverse bias voltage applied to the LED is highly increased, the device may also be damaged.

All diodes emit photons or light but not all diodes emit visible light. The material in an LED is selected in such a way that
the wavelength of the released photons falls within the visible portion of the light spectrum.

Light emitting diodes can be switched ON and OFF at a very fast speed of 1 ns.

Light emitting diode (LED) symbol

The symbol of LED is similar to the normal p-n junction diode except that it contains arrows pointing away from the diode
indicating that light is being emitted by the diode.

LEDs are available in different colors. The most common colors of LEDs are orange, yellow green and red.

The schematic symbol of LED does not represent the color of light. The schematic symbol is same for all colors of LEDs.
Hence, it is not possible to identify the color of LED by seeing its symbol.

LED construction

One of the methods used to construct LED is to deposit three semiconductor layers on the substrate. The three
semiconductor layers deposited on the substrate are n-type semiconductor, p-type semiconductor and active region. Active
region is present in between the n-type and p-type semiconductor layers.
When LED is forward biased, free electrons from n-type semiconductor and holes from p-type semiconductor are pushed
towards the active region.

When free electrons from n-side and holes from p-side recombine with the opposite charge carriers (free electrons with
holes or holes with free electrons) in active region, an invisible or visible light is emitted.

In LED, most of the charge carriers recombine at active region. Therefore, most of the light is emitted by the active region.
The active region is also called as depletion region.

Biasing of LED

The safe forward voltage ratings of most LEDs is from 1V to 3 V and forward current ratings is from 200 mA to 100 mA.

If the voltage applied to LED is in between 1V to 3V, LED works perfectly because the current flow for the applied voltage
is in the operating range. However, if the voltage applied to LED is increased to a value greater than 3 volts. The depletion
region in the LED breaks down and the electric current suddenly rises. This sudden rise in current may destroy the device.

To avoid this we need to place a resistor (Rs) in series with the LED. The resistor (Rs ) must be placed in between voltage
source (Vs) and LED.
The resistor placed between LED and voltage source is called current limiting resistor. This resistor restricts extra current
which may destroy the LED. Thus, current limiting resistor protects LED from damage.

The voltage drop of LED is 2 to 3V whereas silicon or germanium diode is 0.3 or 0.7 V.

Therefore, to operate LED we need to apply greater voltage than silicon or germanium diodes.

Light emitting diodes consume more energy than silicon or germanium diodes to operate.

Output characteristics of LED

The amount of output light emitted by the LED is directly proportional to the amount of forward current flowing through
the LED. More the forward current, the greater is the emitted output light. The graph of forward current vs output light is
shown in the figure.

Visible LEDs and invisible LEDs

LEDs are mainly classified into two types: visible LEDs and invisible LEDs.

Visible LED is a type of LED that emits visible light. These LEDs are mainly used for display or illumination where LEDs
are used individually without photosensors.

Invisible LED is a type of LED that emits invisible light (infrared light). These LEDs are mainly used with photosensors
such as photodiodes.
What determines the color of an LED?

The material used for constructing LED determines its color. In other words, the wavelength or color of the emitted light
depends on the forbidden gap or energy gap of the material.

Different materials emit different colors of light.

Gallium arsenide LEDs emit red and infrared light.

Gallium nitride LEDs emit bright blue light.

Yttrium aluminium garnet LEDs emit white light.

Gallium phosphide LEDs emit red, yellow and green light.

Aluminium gallium nitride LEDs emit ultraviolet light.

Aluminum gallium phosphide LEDs emit green light.

Advantages of LED

1. The brightness of light emitted by LED is depends on the current flowing through the LED. Hence, the brightness

of LED can be easily controlled by varying the current. This makes possible to operate LED displays under

different ambient lighting conditions.

2. Light emitting diodes consume low energy.

3. LEDs are very cheap and readily available.

4. LEDs are light in weight.

5. Smaller size.

6. LEDs have longer lifetime.

7. LEDs operates very fast. They can be turned on and off in very less time.

8. LEDs do not contain toxic material like mercury which is used in fluorescent lamps.

9. LEDs can emit different colors of light.

Disadvantages of LED
1. LEDs need more power to operate than normal p-n junction diodes.
2. Luminous efficiency of LEDs is low.

Applications of LED
The various applications of LEDs are as follows
 1. Burglar alarms systems

2. Calculators

3. Picture phones

4. Traffic signals

5. Digital computers

6. Multimeters

7. Microprocessors

8. Digital watches

9. Automotive heat lamps

10. Camera flashes

11. Aviation lighting

INTRODUCTION

|Light sources used for fibre optics act as light transmitter and must meet certain
requirements if they are to be acceptable for the purpose. These requirements are :

1. Light source should have a high intenstiy output so that sufficient energy is transmitted
on a fibre to overcome the losses encountered during transmission.
3. Ourput of light source must be highly directional ro focus ir into the fibre, to achieve high
source-fibre coupling efficiency.

3. Output of light source must be as monochromatic as possible to reduce dispersion.

4. Light source should have long life and good stability of operation.
5. Source must be small and easily coupled to fibre so that excessive coupling losses do not
occur.
6.The emission wavelength of light source must lie in the low loss region of the fibre,
7. Sources must be capable of being easily modulated giving linear input-output characteristics.
8 .Light source must be inexpensive to manufacture.
9. Light source must be capable of maintaining a stable optical output.

SOURCES USED IN OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Elemental semiconductors like Germanium and Silicon are very useful in electronics but they are
not useful for optics communication due to the following reasons:

1. They emit light very poorly.

2. Their absorption coefficients are low.
3. They possess a small energy gap.
4. Their conversion efficiency is very low.
There are two important optical sources that are employed in optical fibre communication
which are:

{a) Light Emitting Diode.

(b) LASER Diode.

These two sources are used because of possessing almost all requirements to be needed by
light source as enumerated earlier.
EMISSION PROCESS OCCURING IN LIGHT SOURCES

Emission process can occur in two ways:

1. Spontaneous Emission. The process in which the electrons in the excited atoms are
released on thicr own from their higher energy state to the ground state is called
spontaneous emission. Light Emitting Diede employs this process and we will deal with
this in detail shortly.

2, Stimulated Emission. The process where a phcton having energy equal to the energy
difference between the two staict interacts with the atom in the upper energy state,
causing it to return to the lower slate with the creation of a second photon is called
stimulated emission.

LED RECOMBINATION PROCESS AND SPECTRUM OF

RECOMBINATION

A Light Emitting Diode works by the phenomenon of spontaneous emission when it is forward biased
and conducting current. Radiation from a LED is caused by the recombination of holes and electrons that
are injected into the junction by a forward-bias voltage. One side of junction is n- type material consisting
of mostly free electrons and wther side of p-type material consisting of mostly holes. When there is no
voltage applied that is at zero bias, a depletion region is formed at the junction consisting of immobile
ions creating a potential barrier as shown in figure The Barrier prevents the migration of the majority
carriers but the minority carriers are able to fall the hill.

Figure Energy band

diagram and carrier distribution with no bias

The application of a forward bias potential will pressure electrons in the n-type material and holes in the
p-type material with the ions near the boundary and reduce the width of depletion zone, and consequently,
barrier potential is reduced as shown in figure 6.2. The width of the depletion region is reduced until
holes and electrons are free to cross the barrier to conduct current. In this phenomenon, electrons injected
into p-region encounter holes and recombine,
Similarly, holes injected into n-region encounter free electrons and process of recombination takes place.
 Figure- Energy band
diagram and carrier distribution with forward bias

When each hole-electron pair recombines, a single photon of energy is released as shown in figure which
carries with it the amount of energy required to liberate an electron from the valence band. The
wavelength and frequency of light emitted are determined from band-gap energy. The wavelength of
emitted light is related 10 band-gap energy by relation.

The light output of the LED varies smoothly with changes in drive current or the light output is
proportional to forward current conducted by the junction which controls the number of holes and
electrons crossing the junction to be recombined as shown in figure 3.

Figure. Light output power of

LED as function of drive current

As the injected minority carriers have a very shon life time, all recombination and hence light emission
takes place in the near vicinity of the pn-junction of the diede. Light emitted by the LED is generally not
concentrated and has a very broad spectrum. As shown in figure 4. This is centered on a wavelength of
650 nm and has a spectral width of about 200 A. Which is spectra of GaAsP diode. The actual diode
emission center frequency is chosen so that it falls in the middle of one of the loss windows of the fibre
loss spectrum. Because of broad spectrum, LEDs are
generally useful only for short lengths of large-core diameter multimode fibres operating at low
bit rates.

Figure 4. Spectrum of LED operating at 650 nm for GaAsP

The spectral width of an LED operating at room temperature in the 0.8 to 0.9 pm wavelength band is
usually between 25 and 40 nm at the half maximum intensity points. For materials with smaller bandgap
energies operating in 1.1 to 1.7 pm wavelength band, the spectral width tends to increase to around 50 to
160 nm. The LED output spectrum of Ga, _ Al, As LED with x = 0.08 is shown in figure 6.5 and the
width of the spectral pattern at its half-power point is 36 nm. The peak output power occurs at 810 nm.
The width of the spectral pattern at its half-power point is known as full-widrh half maximum or FWHM
spectral width. The spectral width increases due to increased doping levels as shown in figure 6.6. As can
be seen from figure 6 that there is a
 Figure 6. Output spectra of LED with ligthly and heavily doped cases

shift to higher peak emission wavelength through reduction in doping and hence the active layer
composition must be adjusted if the same centre wavelength is 10 be maintained. The output nm spectrum
of LED tend to broaden at a rate of between 0.1 and 0.3 oe with increase in temperature due to the greater
energy spread in carrier distribution at higher temperatures. Peak emission
wavelength also shifts by increase in temperature of the junction depending upon the material used for
LED as shown in figure 6.7. Hence, it becomes necessary to utilize heat sinks with LEDs for optical fibre
communication applications.
 Figure 6.7. Spectral variation of outpul with lemperature for LED

LIGHT SOURCE MATERIALS

The semiconductor materials used for optical sources must meer few criteria as
below:
1. The semiconductor material mus? lend themselves to the formation of p-n junctions with suitable
characteristics for carrier injection,

2. The devices fabricated must have high internal quantum efficiency and high probability of radiative
transitions.

3. The semiconductor materials used must emit light ar a suitable wavelength to be utilized with current
optical fibres and detectors.

4. The semiconductor material should allow bandgap variation with appropriate doping and fabrication in
order that emission at a desired specific wavelength may be achieved.

The semiconductor material that is used for the active layer of an optical source must have a direct band
gap. In a direct band gap semiconductor, electrons and holes can recombine directly, across the band gap
without needing a third particle to conserve momentum. Also the radiative recombination is sufficiently
high only in direct band gap material ro prodcue an adequate level optical emission. Although none of the
normal single-element semiconductors are direct-gap materials but many binary compounds are. The
most important of these are [1I-V group materials. These are
made from compounds of a group Ill element and a group V element. Various termary and quaternary
combinations of binary compounds of these elements are also direct band gap materials and are suitable
candidates for optical sources.

The Ga As or ternary alloy Ga,_, Al, As is the principal material used for fabricating both LEDs and laser
for the shorter wavelength region, The band gap in these materials may be tailored 10 span the entire 0.8
to 0.9 um wavelength band. The ratio x of Aluminium arsenide to gallium arsenide determines the band
gap of the alloy and correspondingly, the wavelength of the peak emitted radiation. The quaternary alloy
In, , Ga, As P, is one of the primary material candidate at longer wavelengths. This material allow
emission over the entire 1.0 to 1.7 pm wavelength band by varying the mole fractions x and y in the
active area. For simplicity the notations Gaal As, In Ga As P are generally used unless there is an explicit
need to know the values of x andy.

HETEROJUNCTIONS

A heterojunction is an interface between two adjoining single crystal semiconducrors with different
bandgap energics. Devices fabricated with heterojunctions are said to have heterostructure,
Heterojuncrions are classified into nwo types:

{a) Isotype (n-n or p-p) heterojunction,

(b) Anisotype (p-n) heterojunction.

The isotype hetercjunction provides a potential barmier with in the structure which is useful for carrier
confinement to a small active region, thereby reduces the carrier diffusion length and thus the volume
within the structure where radiative recombination takes place. This technique is widely used for
fabrication of high radiance LEDs and injection lasers. While the anisotype heterojunctions with
sulficiently large bandgap differences improve the injection efficiency. The
following properties of heterojunctions make them useful in fabrication of semiconductor devices for
Optical Communication Systems:

1. Selective etching of layers. That is the material can be etched away precisely to the heterojunctions
without the necessity for critical control of the etching process.

2. Improvement of ohmic contacts. The use of heterojunction enable transitions to be made

to materials that permit the fabrication of good, low resistance ohmic contacts at the device terminals.
3. Heterojunction provide high injection efficiency than that of the homojunction.

4. Hererojuncrions provide a dielectric step due to the different refractive indices at the either side of the
junction because the refractive index of semiconductor vary inversely with the band-gap energy. This
helps in providing radiation confinement to the active region.
5. Heterojunctions provide the potential barrier thereby obstructing the minority carriers to inject into
active laver Hence, much higher rate of recombination can be established within the active layer for a
given injection current density.

INTERNAL QUANTUM EFFICIENCY

The performance of LED source is measured by the radiant power coupled into the optical fibre and by
the extent that they limit the modulation bandwidth of the fibre transmission system. LEDs designed to
transmit maximum useful power through an optical fibre must meet some requirements as given below:

1. The emission wavelength must lie in the low loss region of fibre.

2. LED source should have high quantum efficiency.

3. Optical output must be highly directional to focus the light output into the fibre for efficient coupling.

4. The emission wavelength must coincide with an absorption minimum of the fibre.

Internal quantum efficiency is one factor deciding the efficiency of optical source and it is defined as the
ratio of number of photons generated to the number of carriers crossing the junction ie
 .

PREPARATION OF THE MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR LED

As already stated in previous topic, elemental semiconductor like Ge and Si are not used in fibre optic
communication due to small energy gap, low conversion efficiency and low absorption coefficients etc.
To overcome all these deficiencies, compound semi- conductors are used for LED Compound
semiconductors are made from elements of different columns of Group Ill and Group Vor Group IV and
Group V of the periodic table. Compound semiconductors have high electronic
mobility and high radioactive efficiency. There are two methods used to prepare semiconductor materials
for LEDs. These methods are:

1. Vapour phase epitaxy

2. Liquid phase epitaxy.

By vapour phase epitaxy, composition can be graded to any desired degree, thus, reducing the defect
density in the active region of the grown layer. However, liquid phase epitaxy is used especially for the
application of Ge, Si and Al into the semiconductor material layers. However,
there are some problems encountered during liquid phase epitaxy like:

(a) need for a uniform temperature zone over the whole crucible length makes it difficult to grow
multilayer on a large area of material,
(b) small thermal gradients and Muctuations can lead to variations in layer thickness.
(c) oxidation of melt components due to oxygen residuals in the system atmosphere leading to inclusion
of oxide particles in the epitaxial layer.
(d) prevents re-use of old melts, To encounter above stated problems, vapour phase epitaxy is employed
which is based on principle that the constituted elements of the erystal are transparted over the heated
surface and
deposited epitaxially, The LEDs used for fibre optics are usually of GaAs rype with various dopants
added to shift the centre wavelength of the radiation spectrum. For GaAs epitaxy, Arsenic trichloride is
passed over the heatedmetallic gallium and the volatile Gallium chloride and Arsenic so formed are
carried in pure Hydrogen gas over the substrate. The reaction taking place are as follows:

4As Cl + 12 Ga «= 12 GaCl + As,

4 GaCl + AS, + 2H, == 4 GaAs + 4 ICI

The LED is formed by diffusing a microscopically thin transparent layer of p-material into the surface of
an n-rype substrate chip. Light is emitted within the junction and radiates randomly through the thin p-
layer in all directions as shown in figure 6.9. The chip is usually arranged so that it is at the bartom of a
well or behind a lens that concentrates the light onto the end of a fibre. Generally, the optical output is not
concentrated having a broad spectrum.
 Figure. Foward bias LED structure

In figure, E, is providing forward bias and 1 is the current by light emitting dinde. As shown in figure ,
LED emit optical output in random directions, so, it has found the use only for short-length of fibres
operating at low bit rates.
DOUBLE HETEROSTRUCTURE

To be useful in fibre communication an LED must have a high radiance output, a fast emission response
time and a high quantum efficiency. LED radiance is defined as the optical power radiated into a unit
solid angle per unit area of the emitting surface. The emission response nme is the time delay between the
application of a current pulse and the on set of optical emission. The quantum
efficiency of LED is related to the fraction of injected electron-hole pairs that recombine radiatively. To
achieve high quantum efficiency, LED structure must provide a means of confining the charge carriers
and the stimulated optical emission to the active region of the pn- junction where radiative combination
take place. Carrier confinement is used to achieve a high level of radioactive recombination in the active
region of the device which vields, a high quantum efficiency optical confinement is of importance for
preventing absorption of the emitted radiation by the material surrounding the pn-junction.
To achieve carrier and optical confinement, double heterostructure or heterojunction is used. Whenever
[1I.V semiconductors are used for the sources, they take the form of five layer heterostructure. The
double heterostructure as shown in figure 6.10 is so called because of the two different alley layers on
each side of the active region. The two outermost layers are essentially contact layers and one layer act as
a substrate on which the other layers are grown epitaxially The middle three layers from the double
heterostructure and consist of an active layer sandwiched.

Figure . Schematic Diagram of a double heterostructure

berween two confining layers made from wider-band-gap material. Whereas the active layer is made from
narrow-band-gap material. By means of this sandwich sturcture of differently composed alloy layers, both
the carriers and the optical field are confined in the central active layer. The charge carriers are confined
due to the band-gap differences of adjacent layers. The optical feld is confined due to the difference in
the refractive indices of adjoining layers as shown on lef in
figure . So, active layer having a narrowband gap that is sandwiched between wo obit lavers having wider
bandgap acts as a planar light guide. This dual confinement leads to both high quantum efficiency and
high radiance. So, the double heterostructure is used to provide the most efficient incoherent sources for
the appleation within optical fibre communication. There are two basic LED configurations or structures
that are being used for fibre optics which are surface emitter and edge emitter discussed one by one in the
following section,
SURFACE EMITTER LED

A design for LED that provides the small emissive area and high radiance needed for fibre optic
communication is the Burrus-type, surface emitting LED. The structure of a high-radiance surface
emitting LED is shown in figure 6.11. In this configuration, a well is etched through the substrate of a
device into which a fibre is then cemented in order to accept the emitted light and the active region is
limited to a circular section that has an area compatible with the fibre-core and face. The
circular active area in practical surface emitter 15 nominally 50 pm in diameter and upto 2.5 pm thick.
The emitted light is brought out through the back of the diode i.e, through the substrate. Etching done
minimizes the distance between the active layer and the emirning surface. The proximity of the active
layer to the heat sink means that the thermal impedance is small and that high current densities may be
used without causing an excessive rise of temperature. Excessive
active layer temperature may cause:
(a) Fall in the internal quantum efficiency because of increase in rate of non-radiative recombination.
(b) Life of LED to fall.
(c} Wavelength distribution of the emitted light to change.

Figure Structure of AlGaAs surface emitting LED

The internal absorption in this device is very low due to larger bandgap confining layers. The emission
pattern is essentially isotropic with a 120” half-power beamwidth. This isotropic pattern from a surface
emitter is called a Lambertian pattern. In this pattern, the source is equally bright when viewed from any
direction. The power coupled into the fibre is dependent upon emission pattern, medium between the
emitting area and fibre and the distance and alignment between the emitting area and the fibre. The
addition of epoxy resin in the circular eiched well increase the external power efficiency of the device.
This type of surface emitter LED is the most widely used
in optical fibre communication.

EDGE EMITTER LED

This type of LED structure uses a modified injection LASER structure as shown in figure . This structure
is equivalent to a surface emitter with a very thick active region with the significant difference that a
wave guide around the active area channels radiation to the emitting face of the device. The optical power
is guided by internal reflection at heterojunctions along a path parallel to the junction and is brought out
of the emitting facet of LED with a hall power beamwidth of about 30” in the plane of the junction.
The beam emitted perpendicular to the junction where there
is no wave guiding effect is still Lambertian with a half power beamwidth of 120°. Edge emitter

Figure . Edge emitting LED struciure

LED have the advantage of transparent guiding layers with a very thin active layer, thereby reducing self-
absorption in the active layer. The transparent guiding layers both have a refractive index which is lower
than thar of the active region bur higher than the index of the surrounding material, hence forming the
wave guide channel that directs the optical radiation towards the fibre core. The emission pattern of the
edge emitter LED is more directional than that of the surface emitter LED. Edge emitter also have better
modulation bandwidth than surface emitter. If lens coupling is used with the edge emitter, then high
coupling efficiency may be obtained. Furthermore ft has been found that edge emitter LED couple more
optical power into low numercial aperture than surface emitter LED whereas the opposite is true for large
numerical aperture. But as compared to surface emitter LED, the edge emitter LED is having
manufacturing problems with more
ccmplicated structure, difficulty to hear sink, more difficult to handle mechanically and more expensive.

LED CHARACTERISTICS

We have already seen the spectrum of LED and many characteristics ef LED but for a quick reference,
they are reproduced below:
 Spectral width of LED optical source is wide, typically 20-200 nm.
 Because of so wide spectral width, coupling efficiency of LED is very low.
 Modulation bandwidth of LED is small, typically 200-300 MHZ.
 LED cost 1s lower than their counter part LASER.
 The light output is not concentrated and does not travel in well-defined direction, so LED are used
only for short lengths of fibres.

 LED is used for fibres operating at low bit rates.

 Reliability of LED is high than LASER source.

 Power required by LED source is low,

 LED life time is more than 10° hours which is more than LASER source life time. This time is
the time elapsed before the light output decreases by 50%.
 LEDs are useful for large core diameter mulumode fibres.

 Power output from LED is less temperature sensitive. Temperature increase produces 10%
decrease in the light output of LED source as shown in figure 6.13. In the figure, solid line
represents a lower operating t=mperarture and broken line denotes a higher operaung temperature,

Figure =Temperature effect on LED output

LED BEHAVIOUR AT HIGH FREQUENCIES

The frequency response of an LED is generally determined by the three factors which are:

1. The doping level in the active layer.

2. The parasitic capacitance of the LED.

3. The reduction in radiative life time due to the injected carriers.

LENS COUPLING TO FIBRE

Since larger fraction of the light emitted from LED is not coupled into the relatively narrow acceptance
angle of the fibre, thereby, reducing coupling efficiency. Hence, lenses are used to collimate the emission
from LED and better efficiency has been achieved by it. Particularly when the emitting area of the source
is smaller than the core area. The function of the lens is to maginfy
the emitting area of the source to match exactly the core area of the fibre end face. And the solid angle
within which the optical power is coupled to the fibre {rom the LED is increased by the same factor as
that of emitting area.

There are several lensing schemes used shown in figure 6.15. These includes spherical ended fibre,
tapered fibre lenses, truncated spherical lens and integral lens LED. In these cases, radiation within a
layer acceptance solid angle is rransformed by the lens to have a smaller solid angle which can be
accepted by the fibre. The main limit in coupling efficiency is determined ty the fraction of emitted
radiation thar can be collected by the lens.
In the spherical ended fibre configurations shown in figure 6.15 (a), the lenses collect a fraction of
radiation emitted into air from the front face of LED. The tapered fibre lens configuration as in figure
6.15 (b) can be made quite easily by the controlled drawing down and meliing the end of fibre. The taper
can be used to adjust the radius of curvature or alternatively, a sphere of larger diameter than the fibre
core can be formed. With tnoneated spherical lens coupling as in
figure (c), the adhesive used to hold the lens in place acts as an immersion medium with a higher
refractive index than that of air and so this lens acts on a larger proportion of the internally emitted
radiation. However, the best coupling efficiency will be achieved by integral lens LED as in figure as the
LED-lens interface is completely eliminated and the lens can act upon a
large proportion of the internally generated power. Although these techniques can improve the LED to
fibre coupling efficiency, they also create additional complexities. As the lens size is almost similar to the
fibre core dimensions, which introduces the fabrication and handling difficulties.
 Figure Various lens coupling for LED lo fibre

LASER LIGHT SOURCE

INTRODUCTION

energy in an efficient manner which allows the light output to be effectively

coupled into the optical fibre. The requirements of an light source for its acceptability are already
discussed in previous chapter. Because of broad spectrum, LED sources are useful for short lengths of
large core diameter multimode fibres operating at low bit rates. However, for single mode fibre having
advantage of extremely low dispersion, LASER sources were developed. LASERs come in many forms
with dimensions ranging from the size of a grain of salt to one that will occupy an entire room. Lasing
action has been obtained using many different materials including gases such as neon or carbon dioxide,
solids such as rubies or a semiconductor. For optical fibre systems the LASER sources used almost
exclusively are semiconductor laser diodes. They are similar to other lasers such as solid state Laser and
gas laser in that the light output has spatial and temporal coherence Le., the optical output is highly
monochromatic, and the light output is
very directional. To basic function of optical source is to convert the electrical energy into optical

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF LASER ACTION

LASER is as an acronym for Light Amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Unlike the LED,
LASER is a device which amplifies light. However, LASERs are seldom used as amplifiers because of
difficulties in achieving high gain whilst avoiding oscillation from the required energy feedback. Thus the
practical realization of LASER is as an optical oscillator. LASER action is the result of three key
processes: Photon absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission. These three processes are
represented by the simple two-state energy state diagram shown in figure 7.1. In this an atom is initially
in the lower energy state E, and if the energy state is E,, then according to Planck's low, the frequency of
the absorbed or emitted radiation v is related to difference in energy E, and E, by the expression

where h is the Plank’s constant = 6.626 x 10-* Js or in other words, a transition between these two
states involves absorption or emission of a photon. When a photon with energy (E, - E,) impinges on the
atom, an electron in lower energy state E, can absorb the photon energy and may be excited to higher
energy state E,. This process is referred as absorption since this is a unstable state, an electron will shortly
make a transition to the lower energy state E; thereby emitting a
photon of energy hv. This occurs without any external stimulation and is called spontaneous emission. In
spontaneous emission, the electron return to the lower energy state in an entirely random manner and
thus, the emission appear as a narrowband gaussian output. However, the electron can also be induced to
make a downward transition from the higher energy state to the lower energy state by an external
stimulation, in which a photon having energy equal to the energy
difference berween the two states ie, (E, - E,) or hv interacts with the atom in the upper energy state
causing it to return to the lower energy state with the creation of a second photon. This emitted photon is
in the phase with the incident photon and also having the same polarization. Furthermore, when an atom
is stimulated to emit light energy by an incident wave, the liberated energy can add to the wave in a
constructive manner, thereby providing amplification. Also the mean life time of the excited state is
decreased in the presence of radiation of the appropriate
frequency. The resultant emission is known as stimulated emission.

Figure -. Processes involved in LASER action (a) Absorption (b) Spontaneous emission (c) Stimulated
emission

POPULATION INVERSION IN TWO-ENERGY LEVELS

Now, we will consider the conditions necessary for the production of LASER radiation. For this first
consider a population of atoms inside an enclosure in total thermal equilibrium. If r; and n, represent the
densities of atoms in energy levels E, and E, respectively then by Boltzmann equation n, and n, are related
as:

Here, K is Boltzmann's constant and T is the absolute temperature. Since we have considered thermal
equilibrium system which produces a radiation density which is identical to black body radiation. The
radiation spectral density for a black body radiating in frequency range Fto F + dF as given by Planck is:

SEMICONDUCTOR INJECTION LASER

The injection of a sufficiently high flux density of carriers at a forward-biased

pn-junction can lead to an inversion between populations of energy levels in the conduction band and
those in valence band. In previous topic is shown a very simple condition that must be satisfied before the
rate of stimulated emission can exceed the rate of absorption. At this level of forwards bias, the diode
carries a very high current denstiy and a key parameter is the minimum current
density needed to initiate stimulated emission. This is called the threshold current density, J, as shown in
figure. Semiconductor injection laser also known as the injection laser diode or simply the injection laser
were first fabricated in 1962 using GaAs. They took the form of diffused p-n homojunctions as shown in
figure 7.8. There was, thus, no external means of providing oprical or
carrier confinement. The active layer thickness is determined by the carrier diffusion lengths. In this, at
each end of the chip, facets were cleaved prependicular to junction thereby causing Frensel reflection
from the semiconductor surface which provide the required optical feedback. The cleaved ends of the
crystal act as partial mirrors in order to encourage stimulated emission when electrons
are injected into the p-type region.

Figure GaAs-
homojunction injection laser

These devices have a high threshold current density due to lack of carrier confinement and so they are
inefficient light sources. The room temperature threshold current density in these devices is of order of
300-500 + and hence, only low dury-cycle pulsed operation is possible.
Mm The performance of an injection laser is enhanced by using heterojunction structures as this provide
both carrier and optical confinement and thus lower threshold current denstities. However, in order to
provide reliable continuous wave operation of double heterostructure injection laser it is necessary to
provide further carrier and optical confinement which is provided by stripe geometry double
heterostructure laser configurations.

BURIED HETEROSTRUCTURE LASER DIODES

The buried heterostructure is fabricated by etching away either side of the stipe on double- heterostructure
material and regrowing epitaxial material of wider bandgap to reform a planar surface. The stripe is
embedded in high-resistivity lattice matched n-type material with an appropriate band gap and low
refractive index. This material is GaAlAs in 0.8 to 0.9 pm lasers with a GaAs
active layer and is InP for 1.3 te 1.6 pn lasers with an InGaAsP active laver as shown in figure 7.9. The
lateral heterojunctions confine the radiation as well as the carriers and such lasers are referred to as Index-
guided. This index-guided lasers can have either positive-index or negative- index wave confining
structures. In negative-index, the central region of the active layer has a

Figure . Buried-heterostructure laser diode. (a) Short wavelength GaAlAs

{b) Longer-wavelength In GaAsP

lower refractive index than the outer regions. Hence, at the dielectric boundaries, part of light is reflected
and the rest is refracted into the surrounding material and is thus lost. The radiation loss appears as a
narrow side lobes to the main beam. While in positive-index, the central region has higher refractive
index than the outer regions. Hence, all the guided light is reflected at the
dielectric boundary just as it is at the core-cladding interface in an optical fibre. By proper choice of the
change in refractive index and the width of the higher-index region, we can make the device only
supporting the fundamental lateral mode.

STRIPE GEOMETRY LASER DIODES

The double heterostructure laser diode provides optical confinement in the vertical direction through the
refractive index step at the heterojunction interfaces. However, lasing takes place band gap and low
refractive index. This material is GaAlAs in 0.8 10 0.9 pm lasers with a GaAs active layer and is InP for
1.3 tc 1.6 pn lasers with an InGaAsP active layer as shown in figure. The lateral heterojunctions confine
the radiation as well as the carriers and such lasers are
referred to as Index-guided. This index-guided lasers can have either positive-index or negarive- index
wave confining structures. In negative-index, the central region of the active layer has a

Figure 7.9. Bureg-heterostructure laser diode. (a) Short wavelength GaAlAs

(b) Longer-wavelength In GaAsP

lower refractive index than the outer regions. Hence, at the dielectric boundaries, part of light is reflected
and the rest is refracted into the surrounding material and is thus lost. The radiation loss appears as a
narrow side lobes to the main beam. While in positive-index, the central region has higher refractive
index than the outer regions. Hence, all the guided light is reflected at the dielectric boundary just as it is
at the core-cladding interface in an optical fibre. By proper choice of the change in refractive index and
the width of the higher-index region, we can make the device only supporting the fundamental lateral
mode.

STRIPE GEOMETRY LASER DIODES

The double heterostructure laser diode provides optical confinement in the vertical direction through the
refractive index step at the heterojunction interfaces. However, lasing takes place across the whole width
of the device, thereby, providing broad emission area. So, there arises several factors which make it
desirable to reduce to width of the active region.

1. Operating current is reduced in direct proportion with the width of the active region. Hence, the driving
circuitry is greatly simplified particulary at high frequencies.
2. By reducing emissive area it better matches the fibre core diameter resulting the improved coupling
efficiency.
3. By reducing emissive area it was found that the output power varices more linearly with the driving
current,

4. In a broad-area device, the laser action tends to concentrate into filaments and can become unstable.
This is avoided with the narrow stripe geometry or gain guided laser which has become universally used.
A simple stripe-geometry structure is shown in figure. Which provide optical containment in the
horizontal plane. This structure confines the laser action to a narrow stripe across the chip between the
reflecting surfaces. Generally, the stripe is formed by the creation of high resistance areas on either side
by techniques such as proton bombardment or oxide isolation.
The lateral confinement of the laser action is determined by the current density distribution. The
confining action results from having the pumping current injected into the junction from a narrow stripe
contact deposited over the p-layer. Current density within the junction only exceeds the laser threshold
value within the stripe region under the contact, thus confining light generation to this stripe. The
population inversion and hence the optical gain is greatest where the current density is greatest and that is
where lasing occurs. Light tends to be concentrated along the stripe under
the contact, ‘resulting in partial guiding. However, this guiding is not complete and results in a wide
beam width. Reducing the width of the stripe tends to reduce but not eliminate the higher- order spatial
modes, so the beam is wider than it should be. Also, the cavity supports several spectral modes within its
band pass, so the laser tends to produce a series of harmonic lines with normally distributed magnitude
within its spectrum, centered on the dominant mode d=termined
by the cavity length. As the optical mode distribution along the junction plane is decided by the optical
gain, hence, these devices are said to be gain-guided laser structure. The
 Figure. -Gain-guided stripe geomelry laser diode

asers are overcome by index-guided or buried heterostructure

drawbacks associated with gain-guided | beam concentration and narrow
as already discussed which provides a large improvement in both
spectrum.

DISTRIBUTED FEEDBACK LASERS

The distributed feedback laser diode is a modification of the index-guided laser divde. There are
essentially two types of laser configurarions which uses a built-in frequency reflector. Both types involve
use of distributed resonators fabricated into the laser structure to give integrated wavelength selectivity.
The structure used in both types is the distributed Bragg diffraction grating which provides periodic
variation in refractive index in the laser heterostructure waveguide along the
direction of wave propagation and the feedback can be thought to result from the interaction between the
propagating waves and each segment of the grating which causes a small fraction of the wave ta be
reflected. Only those wavelengths for which the reflections add together in-phase receive the required
positive feedback.

One type is the usual design that is distributed feed-back (DFB) laser in which the periodic structure
extends along the whole length of the active layer as shown in figure . As already discussed, the exit
surface of the stripe is made as non-reflecting as possible so that there is no

Figura . Schematic of DFB laser

Fabray-Perot cavity, and the boundary of the light guide adjacent to the active Junction is etched to form a
diffraction grating before the top layers are formed. This diffraction grating acts as a Bragg reflector
which reflects light travelling toward the back end of the guide and adds it in phase to reinforce the light
travelling in the forward direction. When a light beam is passed close to and
parallel to a diffraction grating, Bragg reflection ocours. For any given spatial mode, only light of a single
wavelength, determined by the spacing of the grating is reflected back on itself, others are scattered or
cancelled. The grating has many medes given by eqn. (7.31) depending on the angle of incidence of the
reverse wave on the granng plane and the wavelength of the light source, But only one mode coinciding
with a dominant mode of the laser will be excited resulting in virtually monochromatic light.
The other ype is Distributed Bragg reflector {DBR} laser which is an improvement on DFB laser. In this
case, the active region is made in the normal manner with the guiding interfaces plane and parallel to the
junction. The gratings are located at the ends of the normal active layer of the laser to replace the cleaved
end mirrors used in the Fabray-Perot optical resonawor as shown in figure 7.12. Hence distributed
feedback does not occur in the central active region. However, in this case the resonant wavelength is
determined by the spacing of the grid on the Bragg reflectors and not by the guide length. The rest of the
structure is the same as in the DFB laser. This device have the advantage of separating the perturbed
regions from the actve region bur is somewhat lossy due to optical absorption in the unpumped
distributed reflectors. The result is a much more efficient diode with a virtually monochromatic light
whose wavelength can be closely tailored during manufacture. However, at present DBR lasers are less
well developed than DFB lasers.

Figure, Schematic of DBR laser

LASER TO FIBRE COUPLING

One problem that arises in the optical fibre communication using semiconductor lasers is the efficient
coupling of light between the laser and the fibre. This problem is particulary with single- mode fibre
becuase of small core diameter and low numerical aperture. Although semiconductor lasers are relatively
directional but their angular output distribution is greater than the fibre acceptance angle, thereby,
affecting coupling efficiency Since the laser emitting area is much
smaller than rhe fibre core, burr coupling or oprical fibre tapers or confocal lens system can be used to
improve the coupling efficiency berween the laser diodes and optical fibres. In bunt coupling technique,
the fibre end is positioned very close to the laser facet as shown in figure, But this technique produces
noise at device output becasue of back reflections from the fibre, hence, degrade laser performance in
high speed systems so, even with a well cleaved end and good alignment, the coupling efficiency
achieved by this technique is low around order of 10%. In
optical fibre technique, a hemispherical lens is formed on the end of a tapered fibre which matches the
output field of laser to the output field of the fibre. By this technique, coupling efficiency of around 65%
can be achieved which is significantly higher than the butt coupling scheme. This technique is as
illustrated in figure 7.17. In confocal lens system, the combination of sphere lens and graded-index rod
lens is generally used as shown in figure 7.17 because of the ease of
manufacture and assembly. In confocal design, coupling efficiency of around 40% can be achieved and it
can be increased upto 70% by use of silicon lens within confocal system.

Figure17. Various laser to fibre coupling lechniques

Comparison of LED and LASER diodes.

LED LASER

LED - Light emitting diode LASER - Light amplification by stimulated emission

of radiation

It is polychromatic It is highly monochromatic

It is not coherent It is highly coherent

LED LASER

Spontaneous emission is responsible for Spontaneous emission is responsible for it.

it.

Not directional Highly directional

Poor energy is associated Highly energetic

LED’s are small in size, longer life, Laser’s are bigger in size, longer life, less reliable
reliable & require little power. & require more power than LED.

Generation of photon by spontaneous Generating photon by stimulated emission.

emission

LED’s produce a divergent & incoherent Laser produces a monochromatic & coherent light
light beam. beam.

Types of LED (a) surface emitter (b) Types of LASER (a) semiconductor Laser (b) Gas
Edge emitter Laser

Their response is fast. Their response is faster than LED.

Bandwidth of LED is moderate Bandwidth of Laser is higher

Here require drive current is 50 to Here require drive current is Threshold current of
100mA 5-40mA.

Feedback is not required in LED. Proper feedback is essential in LASER to be

treated as an optical source.
 PHOTODETECTORS
PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL DETECTION

device should be affected by radiation. The most commonly used property is the
conversion of light into the electron-hole pairs which can be detected in a properly chosen electric circuit.
This is the fundamental principle of optical detector. The vpto-electronic device used for the optical
detection is called Photodetector. A photodetector is an opto-electronic device that absorbs optical energy
and converts it to electrical energy, which usually manifests as a photo current. In the photodetection
process, generally three steps are involved which are:
1. Absorption of optical energy and generation of carriers.
2. Transportation of the photo generated carriers across the transit region.
3. Carrier collection and generation of photo current which flows through the external circuit.
To collect the electron-hole pairs generated by light, one needs an electric field. This can be done by
reverse biasing the device.

REQUIREMENTS OF PHOTODETECTORS

The requirements of photo detector for its good performance are:

1. High sensitivicy

Low noise

Wide bandwidth

High reliability

Low cost

High stability

Low bias voltage

High responsivity or conversion efficiency

High speed of response

Absorption region should be long enough to absorb nearly all the light.

Low dark current.

TYPES OF PHOTODETECTORS

The main detectors which are generally employed are:

1. PN photodiode
2. PIN photodiode
3. Avalanche photodiode. (APD)
In the above stated detectors, PIN and APD are the two important detectors which find their applications
in optical fibre communication system.
PIN PHOTODIODE

The sensitivity of pn-photodiode may be improved by including a lightly doped or almost intrinsic i layer
between p and n region which is highly doped denoted by n* to form p-i-n phorodiode, This intrinsic
layer is inserted 10 get a wider depletion region. The field distribution of p-i-n photodiode is shown in
figure 8.3. from which it can be seen that almost all the absorption takes place in the depletion zone. The
intrinsic layer is made thick enough to absorb the phorons that passes without ionizing. The junction
electric field extends deep into this region as shown in figure. This results in large photocurrent and much
higher sensitivity, However, the carriers produced within the intrinsic layer have to travel farther to cross
the junction, hence response speed is reduced than that of pn-photodiode. Hence, the sensitivity is gained
at the expense of speed.

Figure . Field distribution

of p--n photodiode

For silicon p-i-n photodiode operating ar wavelengths below 0.9 pm, high quantum efficiency (In excess
of 50%) and fast response {less than 1 ns) are simultaneously obtainable. Also dark current of Si p-i-n
photdiode is normally less than 1 nA at room temperature. At longer wavelengths as the absorption length
rapidly increases, other materials are needed. Germanium pi-n photodiode
may span the entire wavelength range of interest but due to high dark current, this photodiode are not
used also at the shorter wavelength 1.1 pm. However for the longer wavelength region direct band MI-V
alloys are superior because their bandgaps can be tailored to the desired wavelength
by changing the reladve concentrations of their constituents resulting in lower dark currents. They may
also be fabricated in heterojunction structures which enhances their high speed operation and improves
the quantum efficiency also.

Intrinsic Absorption

The main fundamental of photodetector that is to detect optical radiation may be utilized by both external
and intemal photoemission of electrons. External photoemission devices meet some of the performance
criteria but they are too bulky and require high voltages for operation. However, intrinsic photoemission
devices satisfy most of the performance requirements. So, they are used in all major optical fibre
communication systems. The intrinsic photoemission process may take place in both intrinsic and
extrinsic semiconductor. Extrinsic absorption involves impurity centres created within the material used.
Intrinsic absorption is preferred and used by all the detectors used for optical fibre communication
because of efficient absorption of photons and fast response so, we will consider only intrinsic, absorption
in detail.

In intrinsic absorption, when an incident photon has an energy greater than or equal to the bandgap
energy of the semiconductor material, the photon can give up its energy and excite an electron from the
valence band to the conduction band. This process creates free electron-hole pairs called photocarriers
because they are charge carriers by photogeneration. The photodetector is designed so that these carriers
are generated mainly in the depletion zone because most of the
incident light is absorbed here. The high electric field present in the depletion zone causes the carriers to
separate and be collected across the reverse-biased Junction. This gives rise to current flow in a circuit
with one clectron flowing for every carrier pair generated. This current is called photocurrent. The
intrinsic absorption process in p-i-n photodiode is shown by energy band diagram
in figure B4. As the charge carriers flows through the material, some electron hole pairs will recombine
and hence disappear. The distance taken by charge carriers is called diffusion length and the time taken
by hole or electron to recombine is called carrier life-time.

Figure. Energy band diagram of pn photodiode

The absorption of photons in a photodiode to produce photocurrent depends on the absorption coefficient
a of the light in the semiconductor used to fabricate the device. The absorption coefficients of
semiconductor materials depends strongly on the wavelength. Photons are absorbed in the semiconductor
material according to the experntial law as:

Materials and Design for p--n Photodiodes

(i) Silicon p-i-n photodiode. At wavelengths less than 1 um, the natural advantages of silicon and its
highly developed technology made it the preferred choice for photodetector. Figure shows the structures
of two types of silicon p-i-n photodiode operating in the shorter wavelength band from 0.8 um to 1 um.
One is the front illuminated photodiode and the other one is side illuminated p-i-n photodiode, The silicon
device has a thick depletion region 30 to 100 pum formed in low doped material. The absorption depth at
850 nm means that a depletion-layer thickness of a few tens of microns is desirable. The undepleted n*
layer at the surface is very thin (about 1 pm thick) and hence, very little of the incident radiation is
absorbed here. The p-i-n photodiode is so designed that the field required to deplete it fully is well below
the breakdown field strength but sufficiently high to accelerate
the camners to their scattering limited velocity in many semiconductors at room temperature, resulting in
a response time of about 10 ps per micron of depletion region. High speed silicon p-i-n photodiodes
required for fibre optics communication are designed to have a wide depletion region typically 50 pm
with a very low doping level in order to attain high quantum efficiency with fast response and low dark
current. The wide depletion layer also
reduces the junction capacitance. The side illuminated silicon p-i-n photodiode as in figure where light is
injected parallel to the junction plane.

Figure 8.8. Structure of silicon p-i-n photodiodes

exhibits a large absorption width and hence is particularly sensitive at wavelengths close to the bandgap
limit where the absorption coefficient is very small.

(ii) Germanium p-i-n photodiode. Germanium p-i-n photodiode can span the entre
wavelength range of interest. Ar wavelengths longer than about 1.55 pm, they too require a depledon
layer width of few tens of microns but this reduces to 1 or 2 pm for wavelengths around 1.3 um. For
technological reasons, Germanium photodiodes are normally made as pn or n*p diodes. But Germanium
p-i-n photodiode possess a problem Le., having high dark current which increases from 100 nA at 20°C
to 1 pA at 40°C,

(iii) InGaAs p-i-n photodiode. For longer wavelength region detectors, 11I-V semiconductor alloys have
been used. Ar present, the most usual maternal for optical detection purpose is lattice matched InGaAs
photodiode which can detect ar wavelengths upto 1.67 pm. In this the bandgap is adjustable over a wide
range with the help of a suitable composition. The dark current is quite small as compared to that in
Germanium p-i-n photodiode figure 8.9 (a) shows front illuminated InGaAs photodiode, In front-
illuminated type, several epitaxial layers are grown on n type InP substrate. The incident light is absorbed
in the low doped n type InGaAs laver. An n type InP buffer layer is incorporated due to discontinuity
between n* InP substrate and n- InGaAs absorption region. The front illuminated photodiode
is the simplest structure and light is introudced through the top layer as shown, hence also known as top
entry device. But due to optical absorption in the undepleted p* region, quantum efficiency is reduced.
Also there is a limit to how small such a device can be fabricated as devices are fabricated using liquid
phase epitaxy due to the ease in obtaining low doping levels needed and to obtain low capacitance.
However, liquid phase epitaxy does not allow impurity level concentrations. So, high quality devices are
produced using metal oxide vapour phase epitaxy. For wavelengths longer than 1.67 pm, narrower
bandgap
semiconductors such as InAs, InSb, CdHgTe have to be used. Bur they require cooling in order to
minimize the thermal generation of carriers. Even so, high leakage currents may limit their operation in
the reverse-biased mode. For example, of the binary I1I-V compound semiconductors, InSb can be used
for wavelengths extending to about 6 pm.
AVALANCHE PHOTODIODES

The problems associated with pn photodiode and pn photodiode are that their output current is very small
and has the possibility of mixing up with the noise. In an ideal photodivde where every incident photon
produces a photoelectron, then at wavele ngth 1 pum the responsivity is about 0.8A/W. The most
sensitive optical receivers operate at optical input levels of about a nanowatts. Thus, the photocurrent is a
few nanoamperes or less. These small currents are difficult to be
processed electronically without adding excessive amplifier noise. It is both light access and metallic
contacts are required on the top. To enable smaller devices with lower capacitance, back-illuminated InGa
As pin photodiode as shown in figure 8.9 (b) is employed. In this case the light enters through a
transparent InP substrate, hence also known as substrate entry device, Positive feature is that the device
area can be fabricated as small as may be practical for bonding. These therefore desired that some
mechanism be used to increase the photodiode current before amplification such a mechanism is
avalanche gain and is used in Avalanche photodiode or APD. Hence, APD internally multiply the primary
signal photocurrent before it enters the input circuitry of the following amplifier, thereby increasing the
sensitivity over PN or PIN photodiodes. In order for carrier
multiplication to take place, the photogenerated carriers must traverse a region where a very high electric
field is present. In this high field region, photogenerated electrons or holes can acquire sufficient energy
to excite new electron-hole pairs. This mechanism is known as impact ionization. The newly created
carriers are also accelerated by the high electric field, thus gaining enough energy to cause further impact
ionization. This phenomenon is known as avalanche effect. The number of carriers generated by the
avalanche effect is exponentially related to the field intensity so that high gains can be obtained with
modest reverse bias voltages. All the additional carriers produced by the avalanche contribute to the
photocurrent, so much higher conversion effeciencies are possible than without it figure 8.10 shows the
principle of the working of APD. In this device an electron-hole pair is created by the absorption of a
photon within a high field region the electron and hole accelerate repeatedly in opposite directions
thereby creating further pairs.
 Front-luminated InGaAs photodiode

(b) Back-iluminated InGaAs photodiode

Figure Structure of InGaAs p-i-n photodiode

This is the multiplication process. Thus, depending upon the reverse bias voltage an initial primary hole-
electron pair may result in tens, hundreds or even more secondary pairs, thereby resulting amplification of
photodiode output current. At present both Silicon and Germanium APD are available,

Figure . Principle of AFD

However, it is essential thar carrier multiplication should take place uniformly across the whole area
illuminated by the incident radiation. High quality material with a minimum of defects and dislocations
must be used because these imperfections tend to cause a local enhancement of the electric field and
produce premature avalanches or microplasmas in their immediate vicinity.
Often an asymmetric pulse shape is obtained from APD resulting from a relatively fast rise time as the
electrons are collected and a fall time dictated by the transit time of the holes travelling at a lower speed
which limit the over all response of the device. A modified reach through avalanche photodiode or RAPD
overcomes these problems and is being accepted for the most applications.
APD Design
A commonly used APD for achieving carrier multiplication with very little excess noise is the reach-
through APD. The avalanche should be initiated by the carrier with the higher ionization coefficient to
reduce noise factor The ratio of the hole ionization rate 10 the electron ionization rate is generally useful
as a measure of the photodetector performance. The ionization rate is the average number of electron-hole
pairs created by a carrier per unit distance wavelled. APD structure is
therefore most suited to material like silicon because it has significant difference between electron and
hole ionization rates. APD constructed by this material exhibit low noise and large gain bandwidth
product. Also for minimum noise, the electric field at avalanche breakdown must be as low as possible.
The photogenerated electrons initiate the a ilanche and the holes then produced give rise to little further
carrier generation.

The silicon reach through APD consists of n*-p-n-p* layers as shown in figure 8.11. The n layer is grown
epitaxially on the p*-substrate. The p-player which must be thin and uniformly doped may be introduced
by ion implantation or diffusion. It is followed by construction of n* layer. As can be seen from figure
8.11, the high field region where the avalanche multiplication takes place is relatively narrow and
centered on p-n* junction. Thus under low reverse bias most of the voltage is dropped across p-n”
junction. The depletion layer widens with increase in reverse bias voltage until a certain voltage is
reached at which the depletion layer just reaches through to the nearly intrinsic & region. Normally
RAPD is operated in the fully depleted mode. Light enters the device through p* region and is absorbed
in the n material which acts as the collection region for the photogenerated carriers. Upon being absorbed,
the photon gives up its energy, thereby creating electron-hole pairs which are then separated by the
electric field in the pie region. The

a) Structure of RAPD
 b) Field distribution of RAPD

Figure , Silicon reach-through avalanche photodioda

photogenerated electrons drift through the x region in the pn* junction where a high electric field exists,
The carrier multiplication takes place in this high-field region. Silicon APD of this type can give
multiplication factors of several hundred before micorplasmas develop and the excess noise increases
sharply in consequence. The quantum efficiency of silicon RAPD in the region of 0.85 pm
can exceed 90% and the dark current of this photodiode is also low depending slightly on bias voltage. If
APD is constructed from Germanium material, then the dark current will be high because of high thermal
generation rate and as a result of surface leakage. Surface passivation is also a problem in Germanium
APD. If APD are constructed from 111-V alloy, then there are also difficulty with surface passivation and
only modest multiplication factors can be obtained. Also it is more difficult to achieve high bandwidth
and low noise in I11-V semiconductor alloys for the fabrication of APD.

BENEFITS OF APD OVER PFN PHOTODIODE

The advantages of APD over p-i-n photodinde are listed below:

APD due to gain mechanism can detect very low light levels encountered in optical fibre communication.

APD generally increases the sensitivity over p-i-n photodiode,

APD generally have a wider dynamic range as a result of their gain variation with response time and
reverse bias.

DRAWBACKS OF APD OVER PAN PHOTODIODE

There are also some drawbacks of APD over other photodetectors used and are listed as:
Temperature compensation is necessary to stabilize the operation of APD device because
multiplication factor or gain varies with the temperature as already discussed in figure
Due to the randomness of multiplication process additional noise anses in APD over p-i-n photodiode,

APD have more complex structure causing (abrication difficulties and hence increased cost.

APD require high bias voltages than p-i-n photodiode.

2.Identify and use fiber optic tools in tool kit

Basic Hand Tools-

screwdriver. cable cutting knife, Plier, scissors. Round tube cutter, Electrical tape, optical fiber
stripper

Tools and Test Equipment

[email protected]
Tools Termination
Kits OTDR
Dead Zone Eliminator
OPTM Fibre Optic Loss Test Kit Visual Fault
Locator/ OPTVFL
 Tools and Test Equipment
Tools

EASY HANDLE STRIPPER

Description Part No.
Easy Handle Stripper OPT-FOS
This hard wearing, easy to handle fibre optic stripping tool in- cludes
three stripping guides for: 2mm outer jacket, 900µm Buffer, and
250µm acrylic coating, Safety catch and factory set adjuster.

JACKET STRIPPER
Description Part No.
Jacket Stripper OPT-CS
Ideal for stripping jackets from backbone cable between 4.5mm and
25mm in Diameter. A small rotating blade accurately splits the
circumference of the jacket, then by flicking a switch, the same blade
will rotate 90° and is used to split the jacket down one side, for easy
removal.

CARBIDE PEN CLEAVER

Description Part No.
Carbide Pen Cleaver OPT-CPC
This well presented pen-style scribe, uses a 30° wedge shaped
carbide tip. Its design makes for quick and precise cleaving of optical
fibre.

KEVLAR SCISSORS
Description Part No.
Kevlar® Scissors OPT-KS
These light-weight shears are ideal for cutting the Kevlar® strength
members found in fibre optic cables. Ergonomic, moulded handles
provide comfort for both right and left-handed users. The one micro-
serrated blade reduces slippage for more positive cutting action.
Length: 140mm Weight: 79g.

UNIVERSAL CRIMP TOOL

Description Part No.
Fibre Optic Crimp Tool OPT-FOCT
This professional ratchet-style crimping tool is constructed of solid
steel. The rubber handle provides a firm grip and includes a ratchet
TOOLS &

mechanism for consistent crimping.

TEST

Crimp Specifications:
.78” / .151” / .128” / .78” / .068” / .042”
(4.52 / 3.84 / 3.25 / 2.0 / 1.72 / 1.07mm)

Kevlar is a registered trademark of DuPont

 Tools and Test Equipment
Tools

UNIVERSAL STRIPPER
Description Part No.
Universal Data Stripper OPT+UTPS
This tool is ideally used for stripping the jacket from round data
cable such as UTP and STP. With an adjustable blade it will strip
from 3.2mm to 9mm, on flat cable, irregular out shape cable or
even multi-conductor cable.

UTP/STP CYCLOPS STRIPPER

Description Part No.
Cyclops Stripper OPT+CYCLOPS
An outer sheath stripper for all types of data, audio and fibre optic
cables. Completely automatic, no adjustments required. For cables
up to 11mm in Diameter.

MODULAR CRIMP TOOL

Description Part No.
Modular Crimp Tool OPT-RJCT
A compact, lightweight and durable tool which can be used to
crimp RJ45, RJ12 or RJ11 connectors onto data cable. In
addition to crimping it can also be used to cut and strip round cable
- although we recommend you use OPT+UTPS to perform this
particular task.

IMPACT PUNCH DOWN TOOL

Description Part No.
Impact Punch Down Tool OPT+IPPT-S
Spare Scissor Blade OPT+IPDT-SB
The impact punch down tool comes with an adjustable Hi-Lo
pressure selector. The hook and tracer makes tracing and removing
wires easy, and the twist lock style holder gives the ability to
quickly, safely, change blades.

NETWORK TESTER
Description Part No.
Network tester OPT+NT
This basic level network tester will comprehensively test each
twisted pair through RJ45 or RJ11 connectors. An easy red and
TOOLS &
TEST

green light system will notify you of which pairs are fully
functional and which are faulty. Comes with remote end terminator
for testing links and patchcords. Requires 1X 9V battery (not
included).
 Tools and Test Equipment
Tools
CLAUSS FIBRE OPTIC STRIPPER
Description Part No.
Quality fibre optic cable stripper CFS-2
The CF2-2 stripper incorporates two holes for stripping fibre optic
cable. The first size accurately removes 250µm coatings and 900µm
buffer tube. The second hole is able to strip cable jackets up to 3mm
Diameter.

MILLER TRI-HOLE FIBRE OPTIC STRIPPER 1

Description Part No.
Tri-hole fibre optic cable stripper FO103-T-250-J
The tri-hole fibre optic stripper is an exceptional tool, recommended
for stripping 250µm coated loose tube fibre and 900µm buffer tube.
This stripper has a .0055” (0.14mm) laser drilled hole, soft plastic
cushioned handle grip, and super accurate hardened stripping jaws,
ensuring a clean smooth stripping action.

MILLER DUAL-HOLE FIBRE OPTIC STRIPPER 2

Description Part No.
Dual-hole fibre optic stripper FO103-D-J
The FO103-D-J A 140µm Diameter hole and V-opening in the blade
make this tool ideal for stripping 250µm buffer coating, to expose
125µm cladded fibre. A second hole strips 2-3mm fibre jackets. It is
pre-set at the factory so no adjustments are needed.

MILLER FIBRE OPTIC STRIPPER

Description Part No.
Miller V-hole fibre optic strippers FO103-S
These factory set strippers require no adjustment and prevent
scratching or nicking of optical fibre. All cutting surfaces are
precision formed, hardened, tempered and ground, assuring precise
buffer removal.

NO-NIK FIBREOPTIC STRIPPER

Description Part No.
NO-NIK 200µm fibre optic stripper NN203
In a single short stroke the red handle removes 900µm buffer tube
and the 250µm or 500µm fibre coating on tight buffer cable.
TOOLS &
TEST
 Tools and Test Equipment
Tools
ABECO “CC” SERIES CABLE CUTTER / STRIPPER
Description Part No.
Cable cutter CC60
These durable cable cutters are designed to strip solid and stranded
copper and aluminium conductor. Constructed of high quality carbon
steel the preformed rounded jaws automatically position for
optimum cutting.

ABECO JACKET STRIPPING TOOL

Description Part No.
Jacket stripping tool MK02
This stripper can be used on 4.5 to 28.5mm cable insulations and has
an adjustable cutting depth of 3mm, as well as alternative blade
options to suit different jacket types. Its stripping action is both
circumferential and longitudinal, for the removal of insulation or mid
span wires.

ABECO JACKET STRIPPING TOOL

Description Part No.
Jacket stripping tool MK01A
Designed for precision stripping of a variety of insulation types
including rubber, PVC, nylon, cotton and coaxial cables from 8mm
to 25mm Diameter. Its stripping action is both circumferential and
longitudinal for the removal of insulation or mid span wires.

RIPLEY MAGNI TWEEZERS

Description Part No.
Magni tweezers MT-1
This handy stainless steel tool is specifically suited to fibre optic
applications. Its integral magnifier improves ability to work with
small fibre optic segments.

MILLER KEVLAR SHEARS

Description Part No.
Kevlar® shears KS-1
These lightweight shears are perfect for cutting Kevlar® strength
members. The blades are made from high carbon molybdenum and
vanadium steel for a long life and a precise, neat cut.
TOOLS &
TEST

Kevlar is a registered trademark of DuPont

 Tools and Test Equipment
Termination Kits
Cold Cure Fibre Termination and Inspection Kit

The cold cure fibre termination and inspection kit, is a much needed and valuable piece of kit for anyone
who wishes to terminate fibre using the cold cure method. This kit is suited for anyone who is competent
at terminating fibre. The kit contains a range of tools (contents listed below). An inspection scope also
comes, as standard. All items are packed into their own
cut-foam compartment to keep them safe from damage, and all are presented in a very robust, virtually
indestructible, yet stylish, case ideal for such fragile equipment.

We have recently updated and modernised this range of tool kits. They are a must-have for any installer
in the fibre optic industry. Our kits now come loaded with a high quality and very popular range of
tools giving the user comfort in the knowledge that they are using a superior tool with a consistent
quality in performance which is critical in our industry today.

The tool cases themselves are IP67 rated, and are normally used in military applications therefore you can be
assured that they
have been through and passed rigorous tests. Our cases offer the following features and benefits:
► Airtight ► Crush proof ► Shock proof
► Interstackable ► Corrosion proof ► Sand and dust proof
► High thickness body material ► Watertight and waterproof ► Can withstand temperatures between -33 / +90 °C

The inserts are made from a very dense foam which will not absorb any liquid that may be spilled. This
is ideal for protecting any fragile equipment contained in the kit. The foam inserts have also been
routed via a computerised method, this allows the
contents to fit perfectly, in their own special areas, ensuring maximum security from possible damage. We
have also allowed for a two-tone effect which allows the easy identification of missing tools.

In addition to the standard kits, we also offer a customization program for those who wish to really put their own
mark on the kit,
and decide exactly how the contents should be made up. (MOQ, price variations and lead times will apply)
Kit Contents
 ITEM QUANTITY ITEM QUANTITY ITEM QUANTITY
Inspection Scope (x200 mag) 1 Carbide Pen Scribe 1
Fibre Optic Stripper (Tri Hole) 1 Fluid Dispenser 1 2ml Syringe 5
Kevlar Scissors 1 Cold Cure Epoxy 5 Sin Bin 1
Fibre Optic Crimp Tool 1 1.25mm Polishing Puck 1 Lapping Film (0.3 / 1.0 / 5.0µm) 15 (5 of each µm)
Cable Ringing Tool 1 2.5mm Polishing Puck 1 Glass Polishing Plate 1
Universal Stripping Tool 1 1” Yellow Syringe Tips 5

Ordering Information
DESCRIPTION PART NO.
Cold Cure Kit OPT-COLDKIT
 Termination Kits

Heat Curing Fibre Termination and Inspection kit

The heat curing fibre termination and inspection kit is a much needed and valuable piece of kit for anyone who
wishes
to terminate fibre using the heat cure method. This kit is suited for anyone who is competent at
terminating fibre in this manner. The kit contains a range of tools (contents listed below) and uses the
quality high temperature curing epoxy from
ResinTech, in conjunction with a Fibretron curing oven. An inspection scope also comes standard. All
items are packed into their own cut-foam compartment to keep them safe from damage, and all are
presented in a robust, virtually indestructible, yet stylish, case, ideal for such fragile equipment.

We have recently updated and modernised our range of tool kits. They are a must have for any installer in
the fibre optic industry. Our kits now come loaded with the high quality and very popular range of tools
giving the user comfort in the knowledge that they are using a superior tool with a consistent quality in
performance which is critical in our industry today. The excellence of the tools is also represented in the
tool case in which the tools are presented.

The tool cases themselves are IP67 rated and are normally used in military applications therefore you can be
assured that they
have been through and passed rigorous tests. Our cases offer the following features and benefits:
► Airtight ► Crush proof ► Shock proof
► Interstackable ► Corrosion proof ► Sand and dust proof
► High thickness body material ► Watertight and waterproof ► Can withstand temperatures between -33 / +90 °C

The inserts are made from a very dense foam which will not absorb any liquid that may be spilled. This
is ideal for protecting any fragile equipment contained in the kit. The foam inserts have also been routed
via a computerised method, this allows the contents to fit perfectly, in their own special areas, ensuring
maximum security from possible damage. We have also allowed for a two-tone effect which allows the
easy identification of missing tools.
In addition to the standard kits, we also offer a customization program for those who wish to really put their own
mark on the kit,
and decide exactly how the contents should be made up. (MOQ, price variations and lead times will apply)
Kit Contents
 ITEM QUANTITY ITEM QUANTITY ITEM QUANTITY
Termination Oven 1 Universal Stripping Tool 1
Inspection Scope (x200 mag) 1 Carbide Pen Scribe 1 2ml Syringe 5
Fibre Optic Stripper (Tri hole) 1 Fluid Dispenser 1 Hospital Sin Bin 1
Kevlar Scissors 1 1.25mm Polishing Puck 1 Lapping Film (0.3/1.0/5.0µm) 15 (5 of each type)
Fibre Optic Crimp Tool 1 2.5mm Polishing Puck 1 Glass Polishing Plate 1
Cable Ringing Tool 1 1” Yellow Syringe Tips 5

Ordering Information
DESCRIPTION PART NO.
Heat Curing Kit OPT-HEATKIT
 Tools and Test Equipment
Installers Tool Kit
Termination Kits

The network installer kit is a must have for anyone who is terminating a copper network. It contains all the
essential
tools needed for copper installation. It is suited to all levels of users, from an apprentice, right up to an
experienced engineer. The
kit contains a range of tools (contents listed below). The tools are packed into their own cut foam compartments
and
all are presented in a robust, virtually indestructible, yet stylish case.

We have recently updated and modernised their range of tool kits. They are a must have for any
installer in the copper industry. Our kits now come loaded with the highest quality tools, giving
the user comfort in the knowledge that they
are using a superior tool with a consistent quality and performance, which is critical in our industry
today. The excellence of the tools is also respresented in the tool case for in which the tools are
presented.

The tool cases themselves are IP67 rated and are normally used in military applications therefore you can be
assured that they
have been through and passed rigorous tests. Our cases offer the following features and benefits:
► Airtight ► Crush proof ► Shock proof
► Interstackable ► Corrosion proof ► Sand and dust proof
► High thickness body material ► Watertight and waterproof ► Can withstand temperatures between -33 / +90 °C

The inserts are made from a very dense foam which will not absorb any liquid that may be spilled. This
is ideal for protecting any fragile equipment contained in the kit. The foam inserts have also been
routed via a computerised method, this allows the
contents to fit perfectly, in their own special areas, ensuring maximum security from possible damage. We
have also allowed for a two-tone effect which allows the easy identification of missing tools.

In addition to the standard kits, we also offer a customization program for those who wish to really put their own
mark on the kit,
and decide exactly how the contents should be made up. (MOQ, price variations and lead times will apply)
 Kit Contents
ITEM QUANTITY ITEM QUANTITY ITEM QUANTITY
Network Cable Tester 1 Modular Crimp Tool 1 5m Tape Measure 1
TOOLS &

Precision Wire Cutters 1 Non Impact Punch Down Tool with Krone Blade 1 Cross Head Screwdriver 1
TEST

Wire Cutter and Stripper 1 Alternative Punch Down Blade for 66, 110/88 1 Flat Head Screwdriver 1
Cable Cutter 1 Cat5e RJ45 Plugs 50 Label Markers + Dispenser 1
UTP Stripper 1 Junior Hack Saw 1 Cable ties 100

Ordering Information
DESCRIPTION PART NO.
Network Installers Tool KitOPT+INSTALLKIT
 OTDR

Multimode and Singlemode OTDR

MM OTDR Infrared Printer SM OTDR Port

Interface
Port

VFL Port
Power Metre
Detect Port

A user friendly multimode and singlemode OTDR specifically designed for testing and trouble-shooting
on enterprise, campus and access networks. The OTDR’s robust construction and long battery life make
it ideal for use in the field.
A single button push starts a test, making it simple to use for the beginner or expert. The result is then
shown as a trace or table of events in full colour, making uncomplicated location of faults on fibre cable.
By transferring the results to a USB memory stick, or directly to PC via the USB port, easy management
of the results can be achieved using the free software provided.
Improved fibre testing capability can be achieved by adding the optional power metre, visual fault locator
and connector end-face inspection probe. This ensures that this OTDR is a truly versatile fibre optic test
instrument.

Features & Benefits

► 850/1300nm wavelengths for multimode ► 6 languages; English, French, German, Spanish,
Russian and Chinese
► 1310/1550nm wavelengths for singlemode
► Optional VFL, power metre or Inspection probe
► Internal memory for up-to 500 results
► SC, ST & FC ports available
► 8 hour battery life
► Transreflective colour screen
► One touch testing

Specification
MULTIMODE SINGLEMODE
Wavelength 850/1300nm 1310/1550nm
Dynamic Range 20/20dB 25/24dB
Event Dead Zone 3.5m 3m
Attenuation Dead Zone 12/12m 12/13m
Sampling Points Over 30,000
Distance Range 5km 50km
Internal Memory 500 Results
OTDR Port Connector SC
Size (H x W x D) 250mm x 125mm x 75mm
Weight 1kg
Operating Temperature -18 °C to 50°C
Battery 2 x Li-ion batteries 8 hours continuous use
*All specifications valid at 23.C ± 2.C with an FC/PC connector. Dynamic range using 10µs pulse and 3min
averaging at SNR=1. MM dynamic range is specified for 62,5µm fibre. Dead zones with a

-45dB reflection for SM, with a -35dB reflection for MM, using the shortest pulse.
 Tools and Test Equipment
OTDR
Power Metre
Adding the power metre to the OTDR gives the flexibility of
two testers in
one. It can be used in conjunction with an external light
source to measure the loss of fibres, or by means of looping
back, the OTDR can be used as both light source and power
metre. All results can be stored for downloading at a later
date. The power metre covers the range from 800nm to
1650nm, offering a power range of -60 to 26dBm. The
power metre also comes with a very cost effective three
year calibration interval. An SC connector adaptor is

Inspection Probe
Ordering Information The inspection probe option gives you superior vision into
DESCRIPTION PART NO.
your fibre optic network by enabling you to inspect all
Test OTDR UK OPT-OTDR-UK
Quad wavelength SM & MM OTDR with VFL option*
types of connector end faces in switches,
OPT-OTDR-V-UK
routers, interface
cards, patch panels, wall outlets and patch cables. It saves
TOOLS &

Quad wavelength SM & MM OTDR with Power Metre option* OPT-OTDR-P-UK

TEST

time
Quad wavelength SM & MM OTDR with Power Metre and VFL option*
by eliminating the need to access the back of patch
OPT-OTDR-VP-UK
panels or disassemble hardware
Quad wavelength SM & MM OTDR with Inspection Probe, Power Metre and VFL option*
devices for inspection.
OPT-OTDR-PRO-UK
Inspection Probe Option for OPT-OTDR Instead of removing each individual fibre, you only need to
OPT-OTDR-PROBE
ST Connector Adapter for OTDR Port insert the video probe to inspect the end-face while it is still
OPT-OTDR-STPA
SC Connector Adapter for OTDR Port in place. This is the only practical way to inspect many
OPT-OTDR-SCPA
FC Connector Adapter for OTDR Port OPT-OTDR-FCPA
*product created on request : Lead times = 1month VFL
The visual fault locator option provides a visible 650nm
red laser with a
universal 2.5mm ferrule adaptor, with continuous and
flashing modes. The VFL will verify continuity and
polarity of installed links, which will help to speed up
installation time. It can also be used to locate breaks and
excessive bends in fibres, connectors and splices where
they are terminated into patch panels, ensuring that fibre
management is carried out correctly. Problem patchcords
can also be quickly identified as the VFL will show breaks
 Tools and Test Equipment
Dead Zone Eliminator
Compact Dead Zone Eliminator

OTDRs require launch and receive test cables to measure the end-to-end loss of optical fibre links. A
launch cable, which connects to the OTDR to the link under test, reveals the insertion loss and
reflectance of the near-end connection. A receive cable, which is connected to the far-end of the link,
reveals the insertion loss and reflectance of the far-end connection.

The launch cables are available in a compact rugged box with 1.5m connectorised tails (or made to
custom lengths). These can be neatly stored underneath the box with the provided hook and loop ties.
The box is loaded with 150m of fibre as standard and lengths up to 500m can be supplied on special
order. The tails can be terminated with the connector combination of your choice. It is supplied in a
protective pouch with a handy belt loop. Available fibre types are 50/125, 62.5/125 and 9/125.
Features
Avantages
► 1.5mm tails
► Compact Solution
► Choice of connectors
► 150m of fibre as standard
► 150m of fibre standard
► Rugged construction
► No splicing
► 50N cable retention force
Technical Specification

We test all terminations as per IEC 61300-3-4 and IEC

61300-3-6.
Specific link losses over the length are dependent upon fibre type, wavelength used and length of fibre.
Individual test certifica- tion supplied with each product.
For individual fibre specifications please see our standard fibre datasheets.

Operating Temperature -40 to +85ºC

Intermateability Compliant with IEC 61754 series

Fire Performance Compliant with IEC 60332-1

 TOOLS &
TEST
Ordering Information

Connector 1 Connector 2 Fibre Type

DZCOMPACT

FC FC 62
SC SC 50
ST ST 09
LC LC
 Tools and Test Equipment
OPTM Fibre Optic Loss Test Kit
OPTM Fibre Optic Loss Test Kit

The OPTM test kit is an inexpensive solution for testing multimode systems. The OPTM kit combines the OPTPM optical power metre and the OPTLS Du
The OPTM test kit is a ideal kit for beginners or network owners and can be used for testing premise networks, LAN, and gigabit ethernet.
Features
Multimode testing► Loss measurements at 850 and 1300nm
Includes 50μm and 62.5μm mandrels► Field portable, battery operated
Certify 50μm or 62.5μm multimode fibre► Links for any 850 or 1300nm application, including gigabit ethernet (GBE)
NIST traceable

ORDERING INFORMATION
Description Part No.
Optical light source, optical power metre, protective rubber boots, adapter cap, 50μm and OPTMKIT
62.5μm mandrels, user’s guide, and carrying case.
Test leads and connector adapters are required for operation (purchased separately). Test leads with a variety of connector styles and fibre types are available.
Adapter caps for most common connectors may be purchased.
RoHS Compliant
Technical Data
MODEL OPTM KIT OPTICAL POWER METRE
Optical Light Source OPTLS Dual
Calibration Wavelength 850, 1300, 1310, 1550 nm
Output ports 2
Detector type Germanium (Ge)
Output wavelength 850 + 35/-40 nm 1300 + 50/-10 nm
Dynamic Range +6 to -60 dBm
Spectral width (typ) (FWHM) 40nm 120nm
Accuracy(at 25°C –10.0dBm) ±0.25 dB
Output power -20 dBm >-20dBm
Measurement Units dBm
Stability(at 25°C, 5 min. 0.1 dB over 8 hours
Power Typical 60 hours with 9V battery
warm up)
Adapter Caps Order separately (ST, SC, FC, and others available)
Fibre size 62.5 ìm**
Size (H x W x D) 5.5 x 3.2 x 1.5 in (14.0 x 8.1 x 3.8 cm)
Emitter type Class 1(IEC60825 - 1)
TOOLS &
TEST

Weight 0.58 lb (0.26 kg)

Power Typical 60 hours with 9V battery,
optional AC adapter GENERAL KIT SPECIFICATIONS
Connector ST Dynamic Range: Multimode 40 dB @ 850 &
(62.5/125 μm) Singlemode 1300 nm20 dB @ 1300 nm
Size (H x W x D) 5.5 x 3.2 x 1.5 in (14.0 x 8.1 x 3.8 cm) (9/125 μm)
Weight (.29 kg) Weight 2. 9 lbs (1.3 kg)
All specifications at 25° C
Dimensions 9.2 x 13.4 x 4.2 in (23.4 x 34 x 10.7 cm)
Operating Temperature -10 to 50°C
Available in Multimode and Singlemode version Storage Temperature -30 to 60°C
Part No. OPTMSKIT
Tools & Test EquipmentProduct Datasheet
Mini Fibre Optic Visual Fault Locator /OTVFL-MINI
V.3.0

Description
The OPTVFL-MINI is a powerful pocket-sized visual fault
locator, designed to trouble shoot faults on fibre optic cables.
Small enough to easily fit inside an installers pocket or tool belt, it
is the ideal tool to carry on site and have on hand for any
emergency.

The OPTVFL-MINI is a necessary addition to an engineers tool

set because it can identify breaks, bends and connector losses
inside the OTDR’s dead-zone. Portable and light, it lends itself to
other applications, including end-to-end continuity checks,
identifying connectors in patch panels and identifying fibres
during splicing operations. The universal 2.5mm connector
interface provides fast operation with many connector styles,
without the need to change adapters.
Features

□ 650nm visible red laser source

□ Truly pocket size, complete with protective soft case
□ High power (1mW)
OPTVFL-MINI
□ 2.5mm universal connector interface for quick connection (for SC/ST/FC)
□ Compact size
□ 1.25mm universal adapter available (for LC/MU)

Technical Specification
OPTVFL-2-ADPT1.25
GENERAL OPTVFL
Connector type Universal 2.5mm adapter
Power 2 AA alkaline batteries
Operating temperature -10 to 45°C
Storage temperature -40 to 70°C
Size (H x W x D) 100 x 30 x 18mm
Weight 60g including batteries

OPTICAL OPTVFL
Emitter type Class 2 laser diode
Wavelength 650 nm ± 10 nm
Output power 1 mW continuous wave
Modulation 2 Hz or CW selected

Ordering Information

DESCRIPTION PART NO.

Optronics Mini Visual Fault Locator - 650nm - 2.5mm Universal Adapter OPTVFL-MINI

1.25 Adaptor available OPTVFL-2-ADPT1.25

The Netherlands
Belgium Germany

Tel.: +31 (0)23 - 531 91 84

Tel.: +32 (0)3 - 660 13 20 Tel.: +49 (0)6192 - 97 91 85

[email protected]
[email protected] [email protected] www.mulder-hardenberg .com
 Visual Fault Locator/ OPTVFL

Visual Fault Identifier OPTVFL

The OPTVFL is a compact but powerful visual fault locator, designed to troubleshoot faults on fibre
optic cables. Light generated by this unit will escape from sharp bends and breaks in jacketed or bare
fibres, as well as poorly mated connectors. It can also identify faults in fibre optic cables, distribution
frames, patch panels, and splice trays.

The OPTVFL is an excellent addition to an engineers tool set because it can locate broken fibre inside the
OTDR’s dead-zone. Being portable and light it lends itself to other applications, including end-to-end
continuity checks, identifying connectors in patch panels, and identifying fibres during splicing operations.
The universal connector interface provides fast operation with many con- nector styles, without the need to
change adapters.

Features
► 650nm visible red laser source ► Universal connector interface for quick connection
► Compact size ► High power (1mW)

Technical Data OPTICAL OPTVFL

GENERAL Emitter type Laser (FDA and IEC Class II)*
Connector type Universal adapter (2.5 mm included) Wavelength 650 nm ± 10 nm
Power 2 AA alkaline batteries (60 hours typical) Output power 1 mW (into single-mode fibre)
Operating temperature 10 to 35°C, 85% humidity non condensing Modulation 2 Hz or CW selected
Storage temperature 0 to 50°C, 95% humidity 0 to 50°C, 95% humidity
Size (H x W x D) .5 x 2.4 x 1.3 in (14.0 x 6.2 x 3.2 cm)
Weight 7.06 oz (< 200 g)

* FDA 21 CFR 1040.10 and 1040.11, and IEC 60825-1 amended Q2, 2001.

ORDERING INFORMATION
Description Part No.
OPTVFL Visual Fault Identifier, Instruction OPTVFL
Card and Carrying Case.
RoHS Compliant
 OptronTiocoslsCalenadnTinegstaE
nqduCipomnseunmt ables
Cleaning and Consumables

► Lint Free Tissue

► IPA Wipes
► Foam Buds
► Micro Fibre Sticks
► Optronics Cleaning Kit
► Other Cleaning Brands
► Polishing
► Production equipment

Can’t find what you’re

128
31
Don’t hesitate to +44 (0) 870 8329 700 +44 87 01 27 33
Low Lint Tissue

Low lint tissues are a versatile consumable for many applications. They are primarily used to clean bare fibre as part
of the
termination or splicing process.

The lint free characteristic allows them to be used for a multitude of other purposes, such as cleaning
optical equipment and preparing work surfaces.

Features Specification
PRODUCT PACK SIZE PART NO.
Lint Free Tissues 100 CLEANTISSUE/100
► Super fast absorbency ► Material: 44% wood pile tissue & 56%
Lint Free Tissues 400 CLEANTISSUE/400
► Can be used dry or with fluid Terylene
► Leaves no lint / fluff / dust particles ► Size: 100mm x 100mm
► Removes and absorbs dirt / grease / water / ► Thickness: 0.05mm
chemicals ► Absorbency rate: 560%
► Tear resistant ► Absorbency speed: 5 seconds
► Strong non woven material ► Class:10000
 Cleaning and Consumables

IPA Wipes

The pre-saturated wipes contain 99% pure IPA or isopropyl alcohol. The wipe material is
made from a high quality, non-abrasive, low lint fabric.

They can efficiently remove dust, grease, oil, flux, soils and other contaminants or residues from
substrates prior to bonding such as bare optical fibre during a termination or splicing process.

Features Specification

► High
PRODUCT absorbance
DESCRIPTIONandPACK
liquid
SIZEretention
PART NO. ► Low lint saturated wipe
IPA Saturated Wipes 50pcs CLEANWIPES
► Strong and tear proof ► 99% pure Isopropyl Alcohol
► Resistant to vigorous use ► Wipe Size: 157mm x 176mm
► Safe on plastics ► Sachet Size: 63mm x 59mm x 5mm
► Rapid evaporation ► PH: Neutral
► Zero residue ► Evaporation Rate: 1.9
► Non-abrasive ► Highly flammable
CONSUMABL
CLEANING &
OPTRONICS
Foam Buds

Foam buds are the ideal consumable for cleaning bulkheads after installation. They are used to clean the
end faces of installed connectors, from inside the enclosure. The snug fit from the foam head will also
remove any contaminants found inside the adapter.

Features Specification

► Fast absorbency ► Material: Polyurethane

► Can be used dry or with fluid
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION PACK SIZE PART NO.
► Size: 68mm x 2mm (body)
► Efficient removal of contaminants
2.5mm Foam Buds 100 pcs CLEANBUDS 9mm x 3mm (head)
► Leaves no lint / fluff / dust particles ► Thickness:0.05mm
► Removes and absorbs dirt / grease / water / ► Absorb speed:6-8 seconds
chemicals ► Class:10000
 Cleaning and Consumables

Micro Fibre Sticks

Micro fibre sticks are the ideal consumable for cleaning 1.25mm bulkheads after installation. They can
be used to clean the end faces of installed connectors, from inside the enclosure. Cleaning is achieved by
inserting the micro fibre tip inside the adapter’s aperture and twisting once.

The micro fibre material allows the user to clean installed connector end faces without scratching the
surface, and ensures a perfect clean first time.

Features Specification

► Fast absorbency ► Material: Micro fibre, antistatic

► CanDESCRIPTION
PRODUCT be used dry or with PACK
fluid SIZE PART NO. ► Size:10mm x 4mm (body)
1.25mm Efficient
► Micro removal of contaminants
Fibre Sticks 100 CLEANSTICK 13mm x 2mm (head)
► Leaves no lint / fluff / dust particles ► Thickness: 0.05mm
► Removes and absorbs dirt / grease / water / ► Absorb speed:6-8 seconds
chemicals ► Class:10000
CONSUMABL
CLEANING &
OPTRONICS
Cleaning Kit

The fibre optic cleaning kits combine all the best and most widely used products in one simple to use package.
They contain all the necessary products to competently and professionally clean fibre optic
installations. With 3 levels of kit available it’s easier to choose the right one for the application.

Contents
Feature and Benefits

► High
PRODUCT quality productsKIT Nº1
DESCRIPTION KIT Nº2 KIT Nº3 PART NUMBER
Lint Free Tissue 100 pieces 100 pieces 100 pieces CLEANTISSUE
► 3 levels depending on100
2.5mm Foam Buds
user application 100 pieces
pieces 100 pieces CLEANBUDS
Products
► Micro
1.25mm available individually
Fibre Stick 100 pieces for kit refill
100 pieces 100 pieces CLEANSTICK
IPA Wipes 10 pieces 10 pieces 10 pieces CLEANWIPES
Connector Cleaner 1 piece 1 piece 1 piece CLEANAIR
Air Duster 1 piece 1 piece 1 piece FCC
Optical Cleaner -- 1 piece 1 piece FPF03M
Cassette Cleaner -- -- 1 piece 14110611
200x Pocket Scope 1 piece 1 piece 1 piece OPT-FHS-200X-B
Soft Carry Case 1 piece 1 piece 1 piece OPT-SOFTCASE-B

DESCRIPTION PART NO.

Level One Cleaning Kit CLEANKIT-L1
Level Two Cleaning Kit CLEANKIT-L2
Level Three Cleaning Kit CLEANKIT-L3
 Cleaning and Consumables

KIMWIPES MICROCA CLETOP

Production equipment

POLISHING MACHINES CURING OVEN POLISHING FILMS

 .
CONSUMABL
CLEANING &
OPTRONICS
3.Describe the specification of optical fiber cable

Tensile Load Strength

For fiber optic cable, the tensile strength of a cable represents the highest load or pulling force
that can be placed upon any cable before any damage occurs to the fibers or their optical
properties and characteristics. This is not the cable breaking strength, but a realistic allowable
limit.
There are two tensile strength values used to define fiber optic cable: 1) installation (or short
term) and 2) long term (or operating load). These values change depending on the cable
construction and fiber count.

The installation tensile strength rating is the maximum value that a specific cable can withstand during an actual
installation. Short term stresses during an installation can be caused by pulling the cable through ducts, around
bends, back tension on the payoff reel, etc. Installation tensile strengths in excess of 2,700 Newton’s (600
pounds) are not recommended, regardless of the tensile load rating.

The value for the long term tensile strength rating is the maximum value that a specific cable
can withstand after the cable has been installed. After a cable has been installed, the cable will
be subjected to a lesser tensile load as compared to the installation tensile load.

Maximum pulling tensions during installation are specified by the manufacturer and should
not be exceeded at any time. The cable should be pulled by hand as much as possible. Pulling
tensions should always be monitored when using mechanical pulling techniques. The cable
should be pulled in a steady, continuous motion and never jerked. At no time should the cable
be pushed. The cable should be installed using the minimum possible tension.

For permanent installed cable, the tensile load on the cable should be kept to a minimum well
below the manufacturer’s specification.
The installation and long term tensile values for Optical Cable Corporation’s cables can
be found on Optical Cable Corporation’s web site (www.occfiber.com), catalog, or by
phone at (800) 622-7711.

Pulling Attachments and Grips

During the installation of fiber optic cable, the use of a pulling grip that attaches to the
cable and to a breakaway swivel that is rated at the proper pulling tension of the cable
is highly recommended. For pulling multiple cables at one time, each cable should be
fitted with a pulling grip. All cables should then be connected to one breakaway swivel
that is rated for the cable that has the lowest installation tensile strength. For example, if
three cables are being installed together with two of the three rated at 600 lbs and one
cable rated at 300 lbs (maximum installation tensile load), then the single breakaway
swivel should be rated for 300 lbs.

Pulling Grip
Swivel

Pulling Rope
For Distribution and Round Messenger cables, the grip is installed by removing the outer jacket material
and fibers at the end of the cable, exposing the aramid yarn. The aramid yarn is then folded back over
the grip and taped down to insure that the grip is using the strength member to pull the cable. For
Breakout and Sub-Grouping cables, the grip can be placed over the outer jacket. Please refer to Optical
Cable Corporation’s application notes AE001 (Interlock Armor CST Cable Grip Installation
Procedure), AE003 (Distribution Cable Pulling Grip Installation Procedure), and AE004 (Breakout
and Subgrouping Cable Pulling Grip Installation Procedure) for more details.

The pulling grip should be sized appropriately for the diameter of the cable. For interlocked
and corrugated steel tape cables, the grip also needs to be able to fit the diameter of the outer
armored jacket. Kellems pulling grips are recommended. Listed below are sample model
numbers for the Kellems pulling grips with and without the swivel eyes and the corresponding
cable diameters. Please refer to the Kellems web site for more details.

Kellems Model # Cable Diameters With Swivel

033291007 .10 - .22 inches

033291008 .21 - .35 inches
033291009 .32 - .48 inches
033291010 .42 - .61 inches
033291011 .53 - .74 inches
033291012 .64 - .87 inches
Without Swivel

033291193 .10 - .22 inches

033291194 .21 - .35 inches
033291195 .32 - .48 inches
033291196 .42 - .61 inches
033291197 .53 - .74 inches
033291198 .64 - .87 inches
033291199 .75 - 1.0 inches

Breakaway swivels are designed to prevent twisting of the fiber optic cable and pulling line as
well as provide a safety mechanism if the pulling tension exceeds the rated load of the
breakaway swivel. When selecting a breakaway swivel, the tensile strength of the swivel must
not exceed installation tensile load rating of the cable. Consult the cable manufacturer for cable
installation tensile load ratings.
Cable Twist

Fiber optic cables should never be subject to excessive twist. Excessive twist in the cable
causes bending stress in the fibers, resulting in increased attenuation.

1. Storage & Transport – Cable Twist

If storing a cable by laying the cable on the ground, the cable should lay flat in a figure 8
configuration. Ensure that the figure 8 curves are larger than the cable’s minimum

bending radius. To prevent potential damage when storing long cable lengths, support
the cable crossing points in the middle of the figure 8 pattern.

The figure 8 position places a half twist in on one side of the 8 and takes it out on the
other.

When storing cables on a jobsite, the use of fencing or other barriers to protect cables
and reels against damage by vehicles or other equipment moving about the storage area
is highly recommended.

When transporting cable not on a reel, the cable should be placed in a figure 8 and the
two halves of the figure 8 should be folded together. This allows the cable to be placed
in a coil form that does not introduce twist in the cable yet allows for easy
transportation. Placing a cable in a coil form without placing the cable in a figure 8
position first will cause twist in a cable.

2. Installation – Cable Twist

When paying the cable off from a reel, the cable should always be rolled off the reel by
supporting the reel so it can turn instead of spinning the cable off over the end flange of
a stationary reel. Spinning the cable off puts a twist in the cable for every turn on the
reel.

The proper way to handle excess slack in a cable at pulling locations or at other
locations along the route is to lay the cable in a figure 8. For storage, the two figure 8
sections may be folded together. For further installation, the figure 8 may be “flipped”
upside down, and the cable pulled from the figure 8.
The cable should never be removed from the drum by removing a flange and sliding
the cable come off the drum.

Breakaway swivels should always be used during installation because pulling tension
will cause twisting forces on the cable and pulling rope.
Minimum Bend Radius

The minimum bend radius is the value determined to be the smallest bend a cable can
withstand without causing any excess attenuation in the fiber. Each fiber optic cable has a
minimum bending radius specified by the manufacturer for installation and long term tensile
load. The installation bend radius, the higher value, is the amount of bending radius the cable
can withstand while under the load of installation. This is specified as a larger bend radius
because the forces of the pulling tension are added to the forces of the bending of the cable.
After the cable has been installed, the stress of being pulled is removed and the cable will
typically be able to withstand a smaller bend radius.

Bending a cable tighter than its minimum bending radius, whether during installation or long
term, can damage the cable and/or increase fiber attenuation above the manufacturer’s
specifications. Furthermore, individual fibers may be broken even if no physical damage to
cable is evident.

The minimum values for the radius to which cables may be bent can be determined by the
following formula:
MBR = OD x M
Where:
MBR = Minimum radius of bend (in) OD = Outside diameter of cable (in)
M = Diameter multiplier (For more information, please refer to the Optical Cable Corporation
web site @ www.occfiber.com)
Crush and Impact

The effects of both crush and impact are important as they apply to real-life
installation situations.

Crush can be defined as a fiber optic cable’s ability to withstand, or recover from (or
both), the effects of a compressive force.

Impact can be defined as a fiber optic cable’s ability to with stand repeated impact
loads.
The industry standard procedures for testing crush and impact resistance can be found
in documents EIA-455-41A “Compressive Loading Resistance of Fiber optic Cables”
(Crush) and EIA-455-25B “Repeated Impact Testing of Fiber Optic Cables and Cable
Assemblies” (Impact).

Temperatures – Installation & Operation

Installation and operating temperatures for indoor and indoor/outdoor fiber optic cables
are defined in standards ICEA S-83-596 “Standard for Optical Fiber Premises
Distribution Cable” and ICEA S-104-696 “Standard for Indoor-Outdoor Optical Fiber
Cable”, respectively.
The temperatures listed in the ICEA documents are minimum acceptable temperature
ranges for these cables types. Some cable types, based upon the manufacturer, may be
able to be installed and operate at different temperatures.
Please consult the cable manufacturer.

In cold weather installations, it is recommended that fiber optic cables be stored in a

heated storage area at least twenty four hours prior to cable installation.

The installation temperatures are the actual temperature of cable, not the surrounding
air. Large reels of cable can retain low or high temperatures for hours after prolonged
exposure.
Unit 3: Conditional Maintenance and Safety Measures

1. Testing of optical fibre cables by conditional maintenance and planned repair

activities.

INTRODUCTION

Low loss, wide bandwidth, non-inductive transmission without cross-talk and

highly insulated, thin and lighr weight optical fibre cables have revolutionized the
field of telecommunication, Testing a fibre-optic based system requires special
instrumentation if the link itself must be checked. As light signals pass through the
various parts of an oprical link, they need 10 be measured and characterized in
terms of the three fundamental areas of optical power, polarization and spectral
content. The basic pieces of test equipments for measurement on optical fibre
components and systems come in a variety of capabilities, with size ranging from
portable, hand-held units for field use to sophisticated briefcase sized instruments
for laboratory applications. In general, the field units do not need to have the very
high precision of laboratory instruments but they need to be more rugged to
maintain reliable and accurate measurements under exireme environmental
conditions of temperature, humidity, dust and mechanical strength. However, even
the hand-held equipment for field use has reached a high degree of sophistication
with automated microprocessor controlled rest features and computer interface
capabilities. Before going into detail of measurement of vanous optical parameters
we will discuss the standards for fibre optics. There are three basic classes of
standards:

1. Primary standards which refer to measuring and characterizing fundamental

physical parameters such as attenuation, bandwidth and optical power etc. In the
United States, the main organization involved in primary standards in the NIST
(National Institute of Standard and Technology). Other national organizations
include NPL (Narional Physical Laboratory) in the United Kingdom and PTB
(Physikalisch Technische Bundesanstalt) in Germany.

2. Component testing standards which define relevant test for fibre-optic

component performance and they establish equipment calibration procedure. Some
organizations involved in formulating testing standards are TIA
(Telecommunication Industries Association} in association with the EIA
(Electronic Industries Association), IEC
{International Electrotechnical Commission) and ITU-T (Telecommunicarion
Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication Union). The TILA
has a list of over 120 fibre optic test standards and specifications. These standard
are also called Fibre Optic Test Procedures (FOTP).

3. System standards which refer 10 measurement methods for links and networks,
The major crganizations involved here are ANSI (American National Standards
Institute), IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) and ITU-T. Of
particular interest for fibre optic systems are test standards and recommendations
from ITU-T,

OPTICAL POWER METER

This instrument measures the power of any light signal which typically ranges
from 1 nW to 2 mW. This is similar to measuring the voltage or power of an
electrical signal. The power levels can be indicated in uW or in decibels as dBm,
relative to one mW or as dBr, relative to a previously noted value or in decibels as
dBy, relative to ene uW. The power meter must be calibrated carefully, since
its reading form the basis for determining the amount of light energy that is
present. The power meter uses a precise light-to-electrical energy transducer and
then measures its electrical output. Most models handle several wavelengths and
provide relative (dB) as well as absolute (dB or Warts) measurements, Multiple
adapters are usually required to deal with different oprical connector type. Some
models offer a facility to step up and down wavelength by small increments. This
allows the fibre characteristics to be quoted at any required wavelength. Cptical
power meters may be used for measurement of the absolute attenuation on a fibre
link by employing the cut-back technique. Other optical system parameter which
may be obtained by this are the measurement of individual splice and connector
losses, the determination of the absolute optical output power emitted from the
source and the measurement of the responsivity or the absolute photocurrent of
the photodetector in response to particular levels of input optical power. One such
model FOT-12A- 50 is explained in Module 1 which is calibrated for 5
wavelengths.

OPTICAL POWER SOURCE

An optical light source injects a stable test signal into a fibre, The calibrated light
source is the equivalent of a signal generator. A light source is a hand-held
instrument able to provide a light output within one or more of the standard
windows visible, 850 nm, 1310 nm and 1550 nm using an LED or LASER light
source. They often provide outputs at more than one of the wavelengths,
as installation contracts generally require measurements to be taken ar two
different wavelengths, a popular choice being 1310 nm and 1550 nm. For reliable
results, the power output of the light must be very stable over the period of the test,
typically within 0.1 dB over 1 hour The output should be able to be switched
between a test tone of 2 KHz or 270 Hz or 10 KHz and a continuous output called
CW (Continuous Wave). The choice of test tones allows easy identification of
fibres uder test.

OPTICAL LOSS METER

This instrument combines an optical power meter and an optical light source into a
single instrument. It is also called an Optical Loss Test Set (OLTS).

FIBRE IDENTIFIER

A fibre identifier traces (locates) the path of a fibre. This is accomplished by

injecting trace signal into the fibre and using some son of tapping device on the
fibre. The light thar leaks out is captured and processed to determine if it marches
the tracer signal.

OPTICAL TALK SET

Talk sets are used to coordinate maintenance acuvities over an optical fibre. Often,
optical fibre are underground or in shield room where walkie-taikies are unusual.
In these cases, the fibre itself is the best means communicating. Talk sets are
available for operation on one fibre or two fibre and offer half-duplex or full-
duplex communication. One such arrangement is shown in figure 9.1
below which is operated by procedure as given below:

 Connect the headset of two optical talk sets at head set socket.

 Inter-connect both optical talk sets with an optical fibre at optical input-
output sockets.
 Power ON both the talk sets, STANDBY green LED lights.

 Press the distance burton so that the short distance LED glows.
  Press the CONNECT button continuously on any of the two talk sets until a
buzzer comes along with glowing of connected LED red.

 Now communication is established between the two talk sets on a single

fibre.

 Once the talk is over, press the standby button. Now the STANDBY LED
glows green. Dismantle all connections.

Figure. Optical talk tost setup

Following are some instructions to be followed:

 Both ends should not press the CONNECT button simultaneously otherwise
connection will not be established.

 If the distance is short, keeping the distance button on LONG distance,

connection cannot be established.

 If STANDBY switch LED flickers afrer making power ON, it indicates that
 Ni-Cd bartery requires charging.

 When using a dry cell as an internal battery, do not connect the charger.
  When connecting the dry cell, do not make mistake with polarity and when
not in the use, remove the dry cells.

One such model V-20-A is explained in Module-III.

OPTICAL ATTENUATOR

A fibre optic attenuator, also called optical attenuator,circuit used to reduce a

signal level. In many laboratory or a high optical signal level may need to be
measured. If th output from an optical amplifier, the signal may need to be
precisely attenuated before being measured. This is done to prevent instrument
damage or to avoid overload distortion in the
measurements. Optical attenuators allow to reduce an optical signal level in precise
steps at a specified wavelength which is usually 1310 or 1550 nm. Optical
attenuator simulates the lass that would be caused by a long length of fibre. This
device is typically used to perform receiver testing and is used whenever
performance tests must be run e.g. to see how the bit error rate is affected by
varying the signal level in the link. Other applications include system testing and
acceptance, power meter calibration and verification, Bit Error Rate (BER) testing,
loss simulation or optical margin analysis. While an optical attenuator can simulate
the optical loss of a long length of fibre, the dispersion that would be caused by a
long length of fibre is not accurately simulated. The optical equivalent is much
more complex than the one used in electronic circuitry. One way to
implement optical attenuator is to have a precise mechanical setup in which the
optical signal passes through a glass plate with differing amounts of darkness and
then back to the optical fibre as shown in figure 9.2. The glass plate has gray
density ranging from O percent at one end to 100 percent at the other end. As the
plate is moved across the gap, more or less light energy is allowed
to pass. This type of attenuator is very precise and can handle any light wavelength
since the plate attenuates any light energy by the same amount regardless of
wavelength but it is mechanically expensive. The capabilities of attenuators range
from simple tape-cassette sized devices for quick field measurements that may
only need to be accurate to 0.5 dB, to laboratory instruments that have an
attenuation precision of 0.001 dB.
Figure - An attenuator for fibre-optic signals that can be built from a light
source and receiver, In between these is a special glass plate with darkness
from © to 100 percent which can reduce the optical signal by any amount.

OPTICAL TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETER (OTDR)

Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) is based on the principle of back

scattering of light. Back scattering results from Rayleigh Scartering and Fresnel
reflections. Rayleigh scartering is caused by refractive displacement due to density
and compositional variations in the fibre. In a quality fibre, the scattered light can
be assumed to be evenly distributed with length. Fresnel reflections occur because
of changes in refractive index at connections, splices and fibre ends. A portion of
Rayleigh Scattered light and Fresnel reflected light reaches the input and as back
scattered light. The OTDR technique consists of sending impulses to the fibre and
measuring the time delay and intensity of the backscattered signal. The backscatter
effect occurs because of the same reasons that we have attenuation on optical fibre,
scattering. What happens is that same of the light gets reflected back due to the
changes in the molecular density of the glass. Measuring this light is equivalent to
measuring fibre attenuation,
The structure of an OTDR is basically a light source to emit signal pulses and an
optical receiver connected to a data processing unit. The emitted signal is sent
directly into the fibre and the incoming reflection directed to the receiver by a
beamsplitter. The light source is synchronized with the receiver so that time delay
between outgoing and incoming signals can be measured. The intensity of the
reflected signal depends on the fibre attenuation and occasional bends, twists or
splices. The time delay of the reflected signal is related to the position of the fault
in the fibre. The result of an OTDR measure is a curve of reflected signal intensity
versus time delay whereas the curve slope corresponds to the attenuation
coefficient. Discontinuties in the curve indicate additional attenuation due to
splices and peaks indicate large reflections, possibly due to reflections
on connectors. Figure 9.3 shows the schematic diagram of an OTDR. A short, high
powered pulse is injected through the beam splitter into the fibre. The light is then
backscattered as it travels

through the fibre. The beam splitter directs the back scattered light to the
photodetector. The amplified output of the detector serves as the vertical input to
the oscilloscope. Because the power to the detector is extremely small, repeated
measurements are made by the Electronics of the OTDR, the SNR is improved by
averaging the readings, after which the results are displayed.
The OTDR screen displays time horizontally and power vertically. Fibre
attenuation appears as a line decreasing from the input end of the fibre to the
output end.

General Waveform Analysis by OTDR

The CRT waveform display, when measuring the splice and transmission losses of
a fibre is shown
in Figure . The horizontal axis is the distance equivalent to the transmission time
that actually corresponds to the fibre length. The vertical axis represents reflected
light power detected by the OTDR. The first spike to the extreme left is caused by
Fresnel reflection at the near-end connector. The backscattered light indicates the
fibre characteristics, e.g, if the fibre is low loss and the characteristics are
homogeneous along the entire fibre, the trace will be a straight line falling along
the horizontal axis. The gradient corresponds to the optical fibre loss. If there is a
break or connection along the fibre, a Fresnel reflection will also appear as shown
in figure when a fibre with a spliced connection is measured, a spike similar to
type caused by a break does not appear, although a step does appear and the step
indicates the splice loss. If the fibre is broken or the end of the fibre cable is
detected, a large Fresnel reflection will appear as shown in figure .

Figure General waveform display by OTDR

Both the input and backscattered light attenuate over distance, so that the detected
signal becomes smaller over time. A connector, fibre end or any abnormality in the
fibre appears as an increase in the power on the screen because backscattering from
Fresnel reflections will be greater than backscattering from Rayleigh scattering.
The quality of a splice can be evaluated by the amount of backscattering. Greater
backscattering means a higher loss splice. Improvement inreceived power is
possible by increasing pulse width at the expense of length resolution.
Backscattered signals are normally buried in noise because of their tiny
amplitudes. Special techniques are used to improve SNR of received signal in
OTDR.

Whenever the optical pulse launched into the fibre encounters a transition in
media, e.g, at a fibre break, connectors, splicing points and free fibre ends,
reflection occurs in addition ro refraction. Depending upon the reflection
coefficient at that point, the reflected light is received back at the sending end of
the fibre. This reflected light is typically 4% of incident light. Thus, the
reflected light received at the sending has a much higher power level as compared
to back- scattered light, which is typically 50 dB lower than the incident optical
power. Resolution is determined by optical pulse width and the response time of
the receiver. Sharp lasers may be used for very short pulse width but resolution is
limited by response time of high speed photodiode. It is possible to make
resolution to be as small as few mm.

Concept of Dead Zone

Dead zones are related to the presence of reflections. Dead zone occurs when the
reflected signal saturates the OTDR receiver. The dead zone is the distance
corresponding to the initial length of fibre under test whose trace is missed in
OTDR due to saturation of the receiver circuit of OTDR by strong signal like
Fresnel reflection and due to imperative property of this circuit that a certain
time is lost in transforming the time into distance. The backscattered signals
received from the initial distance take too less a time tw be transformed into
corresponding trace by the receiver circuit. The dead zone is the sum of pulse-
width and the distance corresponding to the recovery time of the receiver circuit,
The smaller the pulse width, the smaller the dead zone. A connector shows both a
power increase from reflection and a power drop from loss.

There are two types of OTDR used which are:

1. Time domain which is used for long distance.

2. Frequency domain in which range is limited by fourier transfer.
In the OTDR, phenomenon of averaging is used which is the process of sending
and receiving the echo repeatedly to improve the S/N ratio as the returned signal is
weak and covered by noise. Ghost spikes in the OTDR are caused by either large
Fresnel reflection or wrong distance range selection and ghost spikes can be
eliminated by:

1. Cleaning connectors and filling matching fluid.

2. Selecting distance range twice the length of fibre under test.

3. Set markers to avoid ghost spike or use 2PA (Two point approximation) method
instead of LSA (Least square approximation).

Uses of OTDR

Loss per unit length, splice and connector evaluation and fault location are three
field uses of OTDR. These measurements are very important during installation
and for system maintenance. OTDR measurements are used to evaluate the
attenuation characteristics of a fibre. These measures concern the attenuation
coefficient, splice loss or plug connections allowing the installer to determine
with considerable precision what are the problems in a fibre and where they are
located. In general, main uses of OTDR are to determine:

1. Length of OFC section.

2. Distance up to the OFC break point or fault localization,

3. Loss in db/km and total loss of OFC section.

4. Numbers of splices in OFC section and individual splice loss.

5. Connector loss.

Correction Factor

This correction factor is used to compensate for fibre over length and OTDR
variance. The correction factor is best determined by comparing a known cable
length to the corresponding fibre length as measured with the OTDR. Correction
factor is calculated by equation:
OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM DESIGN

A fibre optic communication system consists of optical transmitter, Fibres and

Optical receiver, as shown in figure 9.5 (a) as point-to-point optical transmission
link. This is used for transmission over shor distances when the transmission
distance is long it becomes necessary to amplify and re-transmit the signal at
intermediate points. Such repeaters are made of O/E and E/O convertors
in a back-to-back configuration and amplification is done optically now-a-days
with the use of Erbium Doped Fibre Amplifier as shown in figure 9.5 (b).

Figure A point-to-point (a) Short and (b) Long-haul Optical Fibre Link
Fibre Optic Test Equpments and Optical Link Design 185

Following specifications must be taken into account for such a system:

1. Transmission distance (Short haul/Tong haul)
2. Type of transmitted signal (voice, video or data/Analog or Digital)
3. Data rate or Channel Bandwidth
4. Required repeater spacing
5. Minimwn bir error rate (For Digital system) or the allowable signal
degradation in terms of SNR (For analog system)
6. Cost, reliability, expandability etc.

To meet these system requirements, the system designer has to suitably select the
following components. Since the operation and design of such system depend on
several interdependent variables so as to achieve an optimum performance, an
iteration would be needed. Because of the involvement of several factors a trade-
off is, therefore, required while designing system, the following parameters should
be kept in mind for the choice of components:

Optical Sources
1. Emission wavelength
2. ( Response time
3. ( Spectral width
4. (Reliability
5. Operating life
6. Bias and moduladon drcuit
7. Quantum efficiency
8. Output power
9. Radiation pattern

(B) Optical Fibres

(i) Material (Silica/Plastic/Plastic clad silica)

(if) Multimode or Single mode

(ii} Core size

(iv) Core refractive-index profile

(v) Bandwidth or dispersion

(vi) Attenuation

(vii) Numerical aperture or mode-field diameter

Photodetactors
(i) Responsivity
(ii) Operating wavelength
(iii) Speed
(iv) Sensitivity
V)Noise

LINK DESIGN

A basic block diagram of a simple point-to-point optical fibre link is shown in

figure . The transmission distance upto which a fibre optic link will work well is
dependent greatly on three fibre parameters Le, numerical aperture (NAY, core
size and attenuation, The optical power that finally falls on photodetector will
decide the system's ultiinate level of performance NA, together with core size, will
decide the level of optical power that can be launched into a fibre from optical
sources. Fibre's attenuation will indicate how much power will reach the receiving
end of an unspliced link. The analog system operation is evaluated in terms of SNR
while digital system operation is evaluated in terms of BER fe, Bit error rate,

Figure A simple poinl-to-point link

The importance of a fibre’s NA, core size and attenuation are highlighted by
the dramatic decrease in BER for small increases of received optical power. To
maximize coupling at fibre input, values must be as high as possible not only for
NA and core diameter but also for profile parameter. For a given bandwidth,
however, increasing the profile parameter lowers the NA. Then again raising the
NA over its optimum value in any glass fibre increases scattering loss, thereby,
degrading the fibre performance, Hence, a tradeoff is needed and it requires some
analysis to ensure the desired system performance. Two analyses are usually
carried out to ensure that the desired system performance can be met:

 Link power budget.

System rise time budger

Visual Inspection and Cleaning Of Connectors

Introduction
Dirty connectors are one of the major problems in fiber optics,
causing high connector loss, high reflectance and
contaminating transceivers. Network operators claim that 15-
50% of all network problems can be traced to dirty connectors
causing connection problems.

One of the first visits we made to a fiber optic network user's

facilities to demonstrate test equipment, we watched as a
technician explained that fiber was so small that it was very
sensitive to dirt on the connector. Every connector needed
cleaning, he explained, and he demonstrated how he did it by
wiping it on his shirt several times with a circular motion like
this.

While his intentions were good, his method, at least with our
current knowledge, was not. The shirt was neither clean or lint
free. It probably added more contamination to the connector
than it removed.

Typical environmental dirt is relatively large compared to the

size of the core of a singlemode fiber. Much of the dirt is silica-
based and hard enough to scratch the fiber if sandwiched
between two spring-loaded ferrules. Some cleaning processes
may cause problems if done incorrectly; adding a film to the
end of the ferrule or causing static electricity that attracts
more dirt. Uncleaned or improperly cleaned connectors can
transfer their dirt and contamination to another when mated as
this series of photos shows.

Sequence shows transfer from dirty connector (bottom) to

clean (top) and damage from dirt due to mating (last photos)
Photos from Sticklers.

And then there is the issue of "dust caps." Within the fiber
optic industry, some say that the are called dust caps because
they may be filled with dust. Dust caps are molded by the
millions, dumped into buckets by the molding machine,
packaged and shipped to connector manufacturers in large
quantities. They have mold release on them that can attract
and hold dirt. At every step along the process they are
exposed to environmental dust and contamination.

These plastic caps for ferrules or connector bodies should be

called "protective caps" because they do protect connectors
from damage, for example when dropped, or from additional
contamination from touching objects or people's skin. It is not
advisable to clean a connector, put on a protective cap and
assume the connector will stay clean. When you take them off,
clean and inspect the connector to ensure its is clean.
Optical Inspection Of Connectors with Microscopes

Introduction
There are two major uses for visual inspection of fiber optic
connectors. Polished connector ferrules require visual
inspection during manufacturing to evaluate polishing and find
possible defects during the connector termination process. In
the field, connectors need inspection for cleanliness and
damage before testing or connection to another connector or
transceiver.

Visual inspection is accomplished using a microscope that has

a fixture to hold the fiber or connector steady in the field of
view and a light source to illuminate the connector.

Optical image of connector ferrule end showing dirt and

scratches

Very inexpensive microscopes included in termination kits are

usually modified 100X plastic microscopes intended for
science student lab use with an adapter for fiber optic
connector ferrules, primarily 2.5 or 1.25 mm.

Portable optical microscope used for connector inspection

Microscopes designed specifically for fiber optics inspection

have more precise connector adapters and usually include
filters to protect the user from infrared light that might be
present in communications systems. These microscopes also
offer higher magnification, 100X to 400X, for closer inspection
of polished ferrule ends. Most have better lighting, often direct
down the axis of the microscope to see the end clearly and at
an angle which helps diagnose polishing problems. Lighting is
sometimes provided two ways, direct along the axis of the
connector ferrule and at an angle to the ferrule end. Direct
lighting helps inspect fibers for cracks and chips or to see if
the fiber is aligned properly in the ferrule hole. Angle lighting is
used to more clearly show the polish quality and scratches
since it shows shadows of any surface irregularities.

Note On Eye Safety: Visual microscopes should have a built-in

infrared filter to remove any signals being transmitted in the
fiber for the protection of the eye of the user. An optical
microscope can capture any light in the fiber and focus all of it
into the eye, a potential danger to the user.

Since the light in most fiber systems is in the infrared (IR) and
invisible to humans, it will not be detected visually, even if the
power level is high enough to be dangerous. Most fiber optic
systems have power levels too low to be harmful but some
might - especially telecom and CATV systems with fiber
amplifiers or WDM.

One should always check power levels with a power meter

before inspecting connectors with a microscope. If possible,
only use microscopes with IR filters to prevent IR light from
entering the eye. A video microscope is preferable since it
offers no danger to the eye.

Video microscopes use small video cameras and microscope

lenses to provide a display of the view on a small video screen
or the display of a PC or tablet. They offer more flexibility in
magnification and image manipulation. Many of these also
offer automatic inspection to international standards for
cleanliness and produce pass/fail results. Video microscopes
also allow for storing an image of the connector, valuable for
documenting the condition of the connector at installation and
for reference in the future.
Video microscope view of dirty connector. The screen of the
laptop shows analysis of the connector being checked. The
analysis is based on ISO/IEC-61300-3-35, the international standard used for
most automated connector endface analysis.

Microscope Magnification
Fiber optic inspection microscopes vary in magnification from
30 to 800 power, with 100-400 power being the most widely
used range for connector ferrule inspection. Higher
magnification is helpful when for inspecting for proper polish
and scratches where you are looking for micron-sized defects.
Lower magnification is used to view more of the connector
when looking for dirt or contamination.

New wide field video microscopes allow looking at the whole

ferrule and inside the connector body looking for
contamination. These are very useful tools for inspecting for
cleanliness, since they allow you to see more of the connector
ferrule and body where dust can accumulate and then migrate
back to the connector ferrule end where it becomes a problem
when mating connectors.

Wide field video microscope view of connector

The wide filed view can show dirt inside the connector body
that can transfer to the ferrule end when connectors are
mated, causing typical dirty connector problems.
Wide field microscopes are also useful for inspecting MPO
connectors like this very dirty one.

Inspecting Connectors During Termination

When inspecting connectors during termination, you will see
lots of variation in end finishes depending on the quality of the
termination. Below is something rarely seen, a perfect
connector ferrule end face. It's so perfect it doesn't look like a
photograph but instead a drawing.

A perfect polished and clean connector ferrule

Inspecting Connectors For Proper Termination

Connectors are always inspected during the termination
process to ensure termination has been done properly. Factory
terminations are machine polished and usually inspected by
video microscopes that automatically look for defects and
provide a report on the connector. These reports may be
provided with the finished cable as quality control data.

Automated fiber inspection report from video microscope.

Note in the automatically generated report above, the

inspection is centered on the fiber and ignores the outside of
the ferrule, so it might miss dirt on the ferrule that could cause
problems later. Like many automated processes, it needs
some operator review before being accepted.

Interferometry

Factory made singlemode connectors may also have

inspection done by an interferometer, a device that can
provide a profile of the end of the connector. It can verify the
end radius and its conformance to standards. It can also
profile the polished fiber end, show how well it fits the profile
of the connector ferrule, protrusion of the fiber from the
ferrule, quality of the polish and find the center of the radius of
the curvature of the end of the polished fiber.

Interferometer profile of polished fiber in connector ferrule

(FIBO)

Field terminations are more likely inspected with a visual

microscope included in a termination kit and the pass/fail
decision is made by the judgment of the technician. An
experienced technician knows what are the limitations for
scratches or defects on the connector based on experience in
termination and testing many connectors. The photo at the
beginning of this section showed what a excellent connector
looks like, but not all connectors are this good. If you look at
lots of field-terminated connectors, you are likely to see some
ferrules like these.

Microscope views of 3 bad connectors

These three connectors show some serious problems in

termination. The connector on the left has a large chip on one
side and small chips all around. It is heavily scratched and has
some pitting. The connector in the middle shows
contamination from some liquid, but the rings around the fiber
show the epoxy on the fiber end was not completely polished
off. The connector on the right shows scratching and chipping
also, including one very large scratch across the fiber and the
ferrule. All are rejects.
Field Inspection Of Connectors For Cleanliness
In the field, the biggest use for microscope inspection of
connectors is to determine if the connectors are clean enough
to use. For cleanliness inspection, lower magnification is
preferred because it allows viewing more of the end of the
connector ferrule.

Here are some photos of connectors needing to be cleaned.

Connector with large amounts of surface dirt

Connector contaminated by oily residue

Connector smudged by oil on fingertip

Many connectors will have both dirt and residue on the ends
that need cleaning. The type(s) of contamination and dirt will
only be known if the connector is inspected visually.

Cleaning Fiber Optic Connectors

Going all the way back to the technician we mentioned

cleaning a connector on his shirt, the recommended procedure
was to use reagent-grade 99% isopropyl alcohol and a lint free
wipe. Isopropyl alcohol (IPA) was recommended because it
was an effective solvent to remove most oily contamination
and was not harmful to the epoxies used in termination.
However it was hard to find and if bought in bulk, it absorbed
water from the air (hygroscopic) and became easily
contaminated.

Alco-Pads being used to clean connector for testing

A better solution was to buy prepackaged lint-free alcohol-

soaked pads called "Alco-Pads." The sealed packages kept the
alcohol pure and proper use of the pads made for easy "wet-
dry" cleaning. The recommended method was to open one
corner of the sealed package and start cleaning on the
exposed pad while it was wet. The alcohol evaporated quickly
leaving dry sections of the pad, so the two steps of cleaning
were to clean on a wet section and dry on a dry section of the
pad. This generally produced acceptable results.

Often you will see techs with a tabletop bottle of IPA and some
wipes. The IPA rapidly becomes contaminated by moisture and
wipes will attract dirt or pick dirt up from the tabletop. Even in
patchcord manufacturing facilities, these processes may be
used and connectors are often only superficially clean. Always
remember to inspect and clean brand new patchcords out of
their sealed bags before using them.

As the need for proper cleaning of fiber optic connectors

became better known, manufacturers of cleaning products
began to do research on how to clean connectors properly and
created products aimed at special applications. They
developed dry connector cleaners, using treated lint-free tapes
in cassettes, boxes or small hand-held tools (probes) that
could reach into a mating adapter and clean a connector at the
far end. Some of the probes can even clean inside the mating
adapter, although that is usually best done with a special
swab. Special cleaners also addressed the issue of static
electricity which can attract dirt to freshly cleaned
connectors.
Probe type cleaner used with SC connector

Probe type cleaner used on the wide ferrule of a multifiber

MPO connector

Cassette style fiber cleaner moves new cleaning tape into

opening for each connector

These dry cleaners are very convenient and fairly effective.

One drawback of the dry cleaners is they may generate a
static charge on the end of the fiber optic connector ferrule
that attracts airborne dust. Rubbing a glass rod with a silk
cloth is a classic method of demonstrating static electricity.
Some of the dry cleaners now have been designed to be
conductive to prevent static buildup.

Wet/dry cleaning is generally the preferred method of cleaning

connectors. The wet part of the process will loosen dirt and
contamination and the dry process will remove them. Much
research has gone into developing cleaning solutions that are
better at removing dirt, do not generate static and are safer.
IPA and many cleaners, including that in typical "canned air"
are flammable! They are not safe for use in all environments
(remember fusion splicers use an electric arc) and often
cannot be legally shipped.

The wet/dry process works with a fairly large wipe or the

boxes of cleaning wipes shown below. You wet on end of the
cleaning wipe with a cleaner solution then wipe the connector
from the wet to the dry side of the wipe. This quick process
should get the connector clean but only visual inspection will
confirm the connector has been properly cleaned.

Wet to dry cleaning in one swipe

You can do wet/dry cleaning with the probe type cleaners too
by dampening the end of the probe and following the cleaning
process, then make a second cleaning with a dry probe. Those
that click advance the cleaning strip automatically, so you can
just click once with the wetted end then click again and it will
have a dry tape.

Protecting And Cleaning Test Equipment And Cables

While we have been mostly discussing cleaning cables, a

process that applies to any cable, the fiber tech also needs to
apply these cleaning guidelines to their reference test cables
and equipment to ensure that dirt and contamination do not
adversely affect testing.

Obviously, reference test cables need special handling. They

should be cleaned before use and every cable they test must
be cleaned before use. Mating a perfectly clean reference
cable to a dirty connector on a cable under test will likely not
only cause high loss but the dirty connector may contaminate
the connector on the reference cable and the mating adapter
used. Consistent cleaning is very important.

The same advice about cleaning cables apples to test

equipment. The connector receptacles on test equipment
should be cleaned in the same manner as transceivers. Dirt
here will affect the output power of the test source and input
of the meter, and changes in the cleanliness will change the
calibration of test setups.

Of course sources should be cleaned before attaching a

(cleaned) connector on a launch reference cable. Of course
that cable should not be disconnected or the 0 dB reference
will be lost and have to be recalibrated.

Meters that have removable adapters on the detector should

be cleaned periodically. This can be done by removing the
adapter and cleaning it like a mating adapter, then wet/dry
cleaning the surface of the detector on the meter with
connector cleaning pads.

Both source outputs and meter inputs should have protective

caps to keep dust from entering the receptacles when cables
are not attached.

The same advice holds for connector inspection microscopes.

Imagine how dirty they must get since dirty connectors are
inserted into their adapters all the time.

VISUAL INSPECTION

Visual tracing
Continuity checking makes certain the fibres are
not broken and to trace a path of a fibre from one
end to another through many connections. Use a
visible light "fibre optic tracer" or "pocket visual
fault locator". It looks like a flashlight or a pen-like
instrument with a light bulb or LED source that
mates to a fibre optic connector. Attach a cable to
test to the visual tracer and look at the other end to
see the light transmitted through the core of the
fibre. If there is no light at the end, go back to
intermediate connections to find the bad section of
the cable.

A good example of how it can save time and money

is testing fibre on a reel before you pull it to make
sure it hasn't been damaged during shipment.
Look for visible signs of damage (like cracked or
broken reels, kinks in the cable, etc). For testing,
visual tracers help also identify the next fibre to be
tested for loss with the test kit. When connecting
cables at patch panels, use the visual tracer to
make sure each connection is the right two fibres!
To make certain the proper fibres are connected to
the transmitter and receiver, use the visual tracer
in place of the transmitter and your eye instead of
the receiver (remember that fibre optic links work
in the infrared so you can't see anything anyway).
Visual fault location
A higher power version of the tracer uses a laser
that can also find faults. The red laser light is
powerful enough to show breaks in fibres or high
loss connectors. You can actually see the loss of the
bright red light even through many yellow or
orange simplex cable jackets except black or grey
jackets. You can also use this gadget to optimise
mechanical splices or prepolished-splice type fibre
optic connectors. In fact, don't even think of doing
one of those connectors without one; no other
method will assure you of high yield with them.

Visual connector inspection

Fibre optic microscopes are used to inspect
connectors to check the quality of the termination
procedure and diagnose problems. A well made
connector will have a smooth, polished, scratch-
free finish and the fibre will not show any signs of
cracks, chips or areas where the fibre is either
protruding from the end of the ferrule or pulling
back into it.

The magnification for viewing connectors can be 30

to 400 power but it is best to use a medium
magnification. The best microscopes allow you to
inspect the connector from several angles, either
by tilting the connector or having angle illumination
to get the best picture of what's going on. Check to
make sure the microscope has an easy-to-use
adapter to attach the connectors of interest to the
microscope.

Optical Return Loss -An Important

Test
This is the ratio of light that is reflected back to the
source of the light over the entire fiber link. This is
always measured in dB (decibels) and will typically
be a negative number. The closer the number is to
zero, the higher the reflectance (a poor connection)
Optical Return Loss -
When talking about fiber, Optical Return Loss (ORL) is one of the number one
things that is tested. This is the ratio of light that is reflected back to the
source of the light over the entire fiber link. This is always measured in dB
(decibels) and will typically be a negative number. The closer the number is to
zero, the higher the reflectance (a poor connection). There are many different
reasons that can cause this in a fiber optic system. We will look at some of
these and give you a better idea of what to do to help you have the least
amount of return loss in your network. We will touch base on what tool is used
to measure this, as well as some different types of loss such as insertion loss
and what is reflectance in a link.
What contributes to Optical Return Loss?
Here is where we discuss several of the factors that contribute to high return
loss. In fiber optics, it is imperative that you make sure you are
always cleaning the fiber optic connectors before you mate them together. Dirt
in a network is the number one cause of return loss, and it is the easiest to
prevent if done properly. We all know that wiping a fiber connector on a shirt
may seem like a viable and quick option; however, it is not the proper or
correct way to clean your connector. With how small the core is of singlemode
fiber, even the tiniest dust particle can wreak havoc on your optical signal.
Using 99% reagent grade isopropyl alcohol and lint free tissues is one way to
clean properly. There are also one click cleaners that assist in cleaning the
end face of a connector.
Another thing that will have high return loss is a broken piece of fiber. Some
pieces of fiber can have a small crack that will give you very little insertion
loss. This can actually show on return loss and help to avoid a bigger
headache down the line.
Poorly mated connectors are another cause of high return loss that can lead
to other problems if not corrected. If the connectors are not fully inserted into
the mating sleeve, this can lead to air between the two end faces, which in
turn will lead to higher loss. This type of problem can have low insertion loss
but will be a problem if the loose connectors become misaligned or even
disconnected. If the mated connectors become disconnected, it can cause a
complete loss of signal that will take your network down. So when you see a
high return loss at a pair of mated connectors this should be checked out.
What is Insertion Loss?
Insertion loss is the measurement of the light that is lost between two fixed
points in the fiber. This can occur when optical fibers are spliced together,
mated, or when they are sent through other passive components. You can
have low insertion loss but high return loss. This is important in a network
since most networks have several points that may have both insertion loss
and return loss. One main spec that is always asked when dealing with optical
connectors is what is the typical insertion loss of the connector? This refers to
how much light should you lose when two connectors are mated together
using a coupler. By knowing this, it will assist you in putting your link budget
together. The link budget is the amount of loss that is allowed over a run of
fiber including splice points, mated connectors, and the loss in the fiber itself.
Knowing that the typical insertion loss on a mated pair is 0.5 dB, allows you to
incorporate that into a budget. So if you have three mated pairs in your link
then you know that you will have at least 1.5dB of loss just in the connection
points alone.
Optical Reflectance
When looking at your overall Optical Return Loss, you have several events
that have happened in a link. These events as individual occurrences are
known as the reflectances. So a mated pair of connectors is a reflectance that
happens in a network. The type of polish that a connector end face has will
affect the amount of return loss and insertion loss for that particular event.
When you are looking at these, the closer to zero your measured test result,
the poorer the connection is, which results in more insertion loss and higher
return loss. Below are some different types of reflectance and the amount of
reflection in the negative dB levels.
• Fiber end with flat cleave: -14 dB
• Good multimode PC (Physical Contact) connection: -35 dB or lower
• Good single mode UPC (Ultra Physical Contact) connection: -55 dB or
lower
• Good APC (Angled Physical Contact) connection: -60 dB or lower
• Good fusion splice: -60 dB or lower
So we know that the closer to zero a reflectance event is, the worse it is for
return loss. Let's look at angle polish connectors as compared to a fusion
splice. When doing single mode long haul applications, having low return loss
is very important so the fiber link will be able to cover the distance that is
needed. So looking at the APC connector we see that typical reflection is -
60db, which is the furthest away from zero, meaning that it has very little
reflection causing the amount of loss to be less. Compared to the fusion splice
which has the same value as the angled polish connector which is why in a
long distance application splicing and APC connectors are used.
Importance of Measuring Return Loss
Why is all the information above important and relevant to your network and
fiber optic links? In all networks the end goal is to be able to carry your signal
by transmitting light over fiber. If you have high return loss, this may cause
distortion of your signal, interruption of transmission or even worse - shut
down your network completely. The tool that everyone should have to take
optical return loss measurements is an Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
(OTDR). An OTDR allows you to measure your entire link, and will even give
you a map that will tell you at what distance is the pair of connectors that need
to be cleaned or just to make sure they are not loosely mated together. It is a
key piece of equipment and will be discussed in detail in a couple of our other
blogs.

Methods for Measuring Return

Loss
There are three established reflectometry techniques used for measuring RL as a
function of location along an optical fiber assembly or network: optical time domain
reflectometry (OTDR), optical low coherence reflectometry (OLCR) and optical
frequency domain reflectometry (OFDR)

What is Insertion Loss?

Insertion loss is the amount of energy that a signal loses as it travels along a cable link.
It is a natural phenomenon that occurs for any type of transmission—whether it's
electricity or data. This reduction of signal, also called attenuation, is directly related to
the length of a cable—the longer the cable, the greater the insertion loss. Insertion loss
is also caused by any connection points along a cable link (i.e., connectors and splices).
Insertion Loss Formula
A key performance parameter for both copper and fiber applications, insertion loss is
measured in decibels (dB). It is typically a positive number that is calculated by
comparing the input power of the signal at the source to the output power at the far end.
The lower the insertion loss, the better the performance. If insertion loss is too high, it
can prevent the signal from properly being received and interpreted by active equipment
at the far end of a link. Because insertion loss is directly related to distance and the
number of connection points, industry standards call out insertion loss limits and specify
the number of connections and distance limitations for specific applications.

Insertion Loss vs. Return Loss vs. Reflectance

Like insertion loss, return loss is another parameter that is important in both copper and
fiber systems. Rather than measuring the amount of loss over a link, return loss
measures the amount of power injected from the source compared to the amount
reflected back toward the source. Like insertion loss, return loss is also a positive
number. However, unlike insertion loss, the higher the number, the better the
performance. Decreased reflections result in a higher return loss. In other words, if none
of the signal was reflected, there would be an infinite return loss. A higher return loss
also generally correlates to a lower insertion loss. It’s important to note that in optical
fiber applications, the inverse of return loss is reflectance, which measures the amount
of back reflection created by a reflective event (i.e., connector) compared to the amount
of light injected. Also expressed in dB, reflectance is a negative number. Learn more in
our article about the difference between return loss and reflectance.

Insertion Loss in Optical Fiber

Insertion loss in optical fiber cabling systems is much less than copper, which is why
fiber supports much greater distances and long-haul backbone applications. For
example, multimode fiber loses only about 3% (0.3 dB) of its original signal strength
over a 100-meter distance while a Category 6A copper cable loses about 94% (12 dB)
of its signal strength over the same distance. Still, there are limits on the amount of
insertion loss that specific fiber applications can handle, and higher bandwidth
applications have more stringent loss requirements. For example, the 10 Gb/s
application 10GBASE-SR over 400 meters of multimode fiber allows a maximum
channel insertion loss of 2.9 dB, while the 100 Gb/s application 100GBASE-SR4 allows
a maximum of just 1.5 dB.
Fiber Insertion Loss Budgets
Based on the maximum insertion loss values published by industry standards for
specific applications, loss budgets are determined early in the design phase to ensure
that the cable plant does not exceed the maximum specification. Based on
manufacturer specifications for the fiber and connectors, as well as the maximum
specified loss of any splices or splitters, fiber insertion loss budgets are calculated by
adding the insertion loss for the length of fiber and for each planned connection point in
the channel. The active equipment also needs to be considered per the equipment
manufacturer’s specifications based on any differences between transmitters and
receivers, as well as some margin to account for loss of power over time that can occur
due to transmitter age. Learn more about calculating and ensuring loss budgets.

How to Test Insertion Loss in Optical Fiber Systems

Because insertion loss is the primary performance parameter that impacts the ability of
a fiber link to support a given application, it is required for fiber certification testing per
industry standards. An Optical Loss Test Set like Fluke Networks’ CertiFiber®
Pro provides the most accurate insertion loss measurement on a link by using a light
source on one end and a power meter at the other to measure exactly how much light is
coming out at the opposite end. Both TIA and ISO standards use the term “Tier 1” to
describe testing with an OLTS.

Some projects will also specify extended “Tier 2” testing that requires an Optical Time
Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) to characterize the loss of individual splices and
connectors. An OTDR achieves this by transmitting light pulses into a fiber and
measuring the amount of light reflected from each pulse. An OTDR is also typically
required for calculating return loss of specific connectors and is therefore essential for
applications like short-reach single-mode where maximum insertion loss is based on the
number and return loss of connectors in a channel. It’s important to note, that the use of
an OTDR in Tier 2 testing does not replace the OLTS because the total insertion loss
measurement achieved with an OTDR is an inferred calculation that does not
necessarily depict the total loss that will occur on a link once it is live. So even if a
specification requires extended Tier 2 testing, Tier 1 insertion loss testing via an OLTS
is still required. In these scenarios, it is also recommended that OTDR characterization
be done before OLTS insertion loss testing since it is required for final proof of
compliance. Read about using both an OLTS and an OTDR for a complete testing
strategy.

Insertion Loss Testing Procedure for Optical Fiber

Insertion loss testing in today’s multimode fiber optic systems requires the use of
encircled flux (EF) launch conditions to reduce measurement uncertainty. This method
controls how the light is launched into a fiber under test to prevent an overfilled launch
that can potentially cause a pessimistic result or an underfilled launch that can result in
an optimistic result. Fluke Networks only provides EF-compliant testers and test
reference cords for 850 nm and 1300 nm for all multimode fiber types. Learn more
about EF compliance.

The default testing procedure for insertion loss testing is the 1-jumper method that
includes the loss of the connections at both ends, which is ultimately how the cabling
plant will be used. To accurately test the loss of the first and last connectors, they must
be mated to a similar, known quality connector using Test Reference Cords (TRCs).
TRCs are high quality test cords that are terminated with reference grade connectors
and optical alignment of fiber cores that exhibit an extremely low loss of less than 0.2
dB for single-mode and less than 0.1 dB for multimode. Typical fiber jumpers used for
normal day-to-day patching range between 0.3 dB and 0.5 dB and should not be used
for testing.

To account for the loss of the TRC, an OLTS must be calibrated to 0 dB of loss by
setting a reference—a concept similar to placing a bowl on a scale and then calibrating
the scale to zero to achieve an accurate weight for whatever is in the bowl. Setting the
reference is easy with Fluke Networks’ CertiFiber Pro’s Set Reference Wizard that takes
users step by step through the process. Learn how to set a fiber tester reference using
the Set Reference Wizard.
 Insertion Loss Example
Testing insertion loss with a Fluke Networks’ CertiFiber Pro OLTS provides an easy
pass/fail indication based on the type of fiber under test and the application test limits,
indicating the overall loss of the link and the length. As shown in the insertion loss
example below, the dotted line indicates what’s included in the measurement and the
“Detail” window shows the margin and allowable limits for the fiber at both wavelengths.

Insertion Loss Example

Insertion loss testing results for each fiber link can also be uploaded and managed
via LinkWare™ Live, a cloud-based service that allows for generating certification
reports and sharing, tracking, and managing all project test results. In addition to the
insertion loss results, a LinkWare insertion loss certification report includes information
about the fiber being tested, the cable ID, connector type and test limits, date and time,
and even calibration and software information about the tester.

Causes of Insertion Loss in Optical Fiber Systems

Exceeding the insertion loss for a given application can be a result of inferior quality
components or poor field termination such as connector misalignment or dirty fiber end
faces. In fact, end face contamination remains the primary cause of insertion loss. If the
system has undergone moves, adds and changes without properly cleaning and
inspecting the fiber end faces, what may have been clean at the time of installation may
now be dirty and adding insertion loss to the channel. Other causes can include
miscalculations when determining the insertion loss budget or the chance that
something changed during installation, such as a connection being added or the link
being longer than planned. Post installation issues can also be caused by the customer
upgrading to a higher-speed application that has more stringent insertion loss
requirements than what was used in the original insertion loss budget calculations.
Learn more about causes of insertion loss.

As previously mentioned, good return loss performance is also a good indication of

good insertion loss performance. While insertion loss is the primary performance
parameter needed to ensure support for an application, there are some applications
more susceptible to reflectance where the number and return loss values of connectors
can impact allowed maximum insertion loss. This is the situation low-cost, low-power
transceivers used in newer short-reach single-mode applications. Learn more about
insertion loss requirements in short-reach single-mode.

Troubleshooting Insertion Loss in Optical Fiber

When insertion loss fails certification testing with an OLTS, the best way to pinpoint the
problem is to use an OTDR that can measure the loss of specific events such as
breaks, bends, splices and connectors. This can allow technicians to determine the
cause and exact location of the loss event. An OTDR provides a graphical trace that
characterizes each loss even along a fiber link.

While experienced OTDR users will recognize events for tester connectors, launch
cords, connectors, mechanical splices, fusion splices, mis-matched fibers, and the end
of the link, not everyone is a trace analysis expert. Thankfully, advanced OTDRs
like Fluke Networks OptiFiber™ Pro include an easy-to-read graphical Event Map that
analyzes loss events using advanced logic that automatically interprets the trace. Get
more information about troubleshooting insertion loss.
 2.Carrying out splicing in optica fibres

SPLICERS

Splices can be defined as a permanent connection between two fibre and the
process involves cutting of the rwo fibres to be spliced and fixing them permanenty
in a butt position. The rwo commonly used methods are:

(a) By using Mechanical Splice

(b) By using Fusion Splice.

SPLICING PROCESS

Splicing is a joinrng technique by which we connect two fibres. Splicing is a major

work in an optical fibre cable network installation. We have generally cable drum
of lengths 2, 3 or 4 km, so to make a long haul communication link splicing is
required. Nowadays following types of splicing techniques are used:

Mechanical splicing
Fusion splicing

Mechanical Splicing

This aligns the axis of the two fibres to be joined and physically hold them
together. This technique can be used for temporary splicing, where no need or
requirement of permanent splicing. As this spilcing is poor in performance.
Suppose we have to ace out a bare fibre of a link, then a bare fibre adaptor may be
used to couple the fibre with OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectomerer).

Fusion Splicing

This is a permanent splicing (jointing) technique. Fusion splicing is accomplished

by applying well- localized heating (Le., by electric arc or flame) at the interface
between two butted, pre-aligned fibre ends, causing them to soften and fuse
together The fusion splicing is adopted by whole world due to its simplicity and
performance on fields. One such Fusion Splicer X76 is explained in Module 2.
JOINTING OF OFC

There are various types of joint enclosures available in the marker. Its size and
shape are according to number of fibre and the type of cable. Few general steps
involved for jointing are as
follows:

1. Preparation of cable for jointing

2. Stripping/cutting the cable
3. Preparation of cable and joint closure for splicing
4. Stripping and cleaving the fibres
5. Fusion Splicing of Fibre
6. Organizing fibre and finishing joint
7. Sealing of joint closure
8. Placing joint closure in pit.

1. Preparation of Cable for Jointing

During the installation a minimum of 10 metre cable of each end is coiled in the
jointing pit to provide for jointing to be carried out at convenient location as well
as spare length to be available for future use in case of failures,
The pit size must be chosen carefully to ensure the length of the wall on which
ioint is mounted is greater than closure length plus twice the minimum bending
radius of the cable. A pit length of 1 metre is sufficient for most of the cable and
joint closure,
The cabie is then coiled on 10 the pit wall in the same position as required after the
joint is complete. The marking is done on all the loops so that it will be easier to
install it later

2. Stripping/Cutting the Cable

We should observe carefully the cable ends of both the sides, because manual
pulling may damage ends or fibres may be strained at close 10 end. So normally
we cut 1 metre at each end.
The distance from the last centre to the end of the cable must be at least 1.8 metre,
This is being the minimum to be stripped for preparation of joint.

The cables are stripped of their outer and inner sheath. Proper care must be taken
when removing the inner sheath to ensure the fibres are not scratched or cut with
the stripping knife or tool.
The loose tubes are then removed from cable one by one and each fibre is cleaned
individually using acetone or kerosene to remove the Jelly. Then afier we should
mark each loose tube carefully (here we have six loose tubes each tube contains 4
fibres),

3. Preparation of Cable and Joint Closure for Splicing

The type of preparation work performed by the cable prior to splicing differs on
the type of joints closure and fibre organiser used. However, the following steps
are usually common.
The sealing compound or heat shrink sleeve is applied to the cable and closure or
prepared for application after splicing is complete.
The strength member of each cable are Joined each other and/or the central frame
of the Joint closure,
Now loose tubes should remove carefully, and clean the fibres. It should be noted
that colour of fibre is its identiny, so it should nor he removed. Tags, which
identify the fibres no. are attached at suitable location on the fibre,
Splice protectors (splice protection sleeve) are slipped over each fibre in readiness
for placing over the bare fibre after splicing,

4. Stripping and Cleaving the Fibre

Prior to splicing each fibre must have approximately 50 mm of its primary

protective UV cured coating removed. Using fibre stripper which are manufactured
to fine tolerances and only score the coating without contacting the glass fibre.
The bare fibre is then wiped with a lint free tissue doused with ethyl alechol or lso
propanol. Cleaving of fibre is then performed with cleaver (diamond cutter) to
obtain as close as possible to perfect 90 degree face on the fibre,

5. Fusion Splicing of Fibre

We utilize splicing machine microprocessor controlled full automatic after

performing above all steps. There are some general steps during splicing are as
follows:
Wash hands thoroughly prior to commencing this procedure.

Wel! cleaned and cleaved bare fibre insert in V groove of the splicing machine by
opening clamp handle such that fibre end is in between V groove and electrodes. It
should be noted that at this placing time face of the fibre must be protected from
any damage otherwise it may cause high loss in splicing.
Repeat the same process for other fibre. And press start button on the splice
controller. The machine auromatically will prefuse, set alignment in X, Y, Z
direction and then finally fuse the fibre.

If estimated splicing loss by the machine is satisfactory then remove the spliced
fibre from the machine very carefully and heat the splice protection sleeve in
heater. Repeat the same process for next fibres.

6. Organizing Fibre and Finishing Joint

After each fibre is being spliced and the heart shrink protection sleeve must be
slipped over the bare fibre before any handiing of fibre takes place, as uncoated
fibres are very brittle and cannot withstand small radius bends without breaking.
The fibre is then placed into the tray by coiling the fibre on each side of the
protection sleeve using the full ray size to ensure the maximum radius possible for
fibre coils,
The trays are placed in the proper position. OTDR reading taken for all splices in
this organized state and recorded on the test sheet to confirm that all fibres
attenuation are within specification. After this the joint can be closed with
necessary sealing etc., and ready for placement in the pit.

7. Sealing of Joint Closure

If losses are under limit then joint closure can be packed permanently by heating
the heat shrinkable sleeves. It should be noted that during heating cable and joint
closure should be protected from fire. Packing should be aimghr.

8. Placing the Joint Closure in Pit

Complete joint must be handled carefully; no jerks or pulling should be done.
Loop the cable first such that no tension or strain on that into the pit. Tape these
loops together at the top of coil.
The joint closure then placed comfortably into the pit.

What is the Splicing of Optical Fibers?

Optical Splicing is a method of connecting two optical fibers permanently. This process
becomes important when the optical fiber cables are laid for long distances.
ince it is not possible to go for the single long line, generally more optical fiber cables
are joined together from source to destination. There are some basic requirements for
optical fiber splicing which are mentioned below.

Basic Requirements of Optical Fiber Splicing

The basic requirements of optical fiber include the following.

 Splicing of Optical Fibers Should Cause Minimum Loss: It should be noted

that, while splicing two fiber cables, the loss in the continuity should be minimum.
The loss of the data must be completely avoided. The loss in the cable material
may be compensated in the overall calculation.
 Easy Installation: The installation should be easy. People are trained in this
aspect and made sure that, after installation, it doesn’t cause any data loss.
 Low Attenuation: It should not cause any reduction in the signal strength or
frequency. The splicing process should be efficient enough to maintain the
attenuation of the transmitted signals. Attenuation in the signal strength causes
loss of data and poor receiving end modulation. Attenuators can not be
maintained at every point in the span of optical fiber length to avoid data
transmission.
 Mechanically Strong: The splicing of the cables should be mechanically strong.
In most cases, the fibers are transported over a long distance for physical laying.
In such scenarios, the cables should not be fragile. In every transportation
process, the most vulnerable points are the splicing joints. Hence it is ensured
that the joints are mechanically strong.
 Less Weight: The splicing factor should not cause the addition of weight to the
overall cable. Therefore the splicing should be light in weight.

Splicing Techniques of Optical Fiber

There are fundamentally two methods for the splicing of the optical fibers.

 Fusion Splicing
 Mechanical Splicing

Both the methods are explained in detail below.

Fusion Splicing

As shown in the figure, for fusion splicing the optical fiber is held between two
electrodes. The major equipment used for this arrangement is, an optical fiber, holding
clamp, primary coating stripped back to expose the cladding and the mounting blocks.
In the olden days, a V-shaped grove was used in place of mounting blocks.
The main purpose of mounting blocks is to hold the cable firm while splicing. It is made
sure that the fiber is easily fixed in the mounting block. Two electrodes are placed at the
top and bottom of the fiber. The main functionality of the electrodes is to provide heat at
the surface of the cable. Since the electrodes are provided heat, electric supply must be
provided to the electrodes. Generally, they are excited by DC source voltage for the
generation of heat. Because of the heat generated, the fiber is spliced at the joint.

The other important points to be noted in fusion splicing are, the two ends of the cable
are initially cleaned and polished. This makes the spicing process easy. The optical
fiber cables are placed on the mounting blocks. It must be ensured that the fiber must
be firmly held during the splicing process.

Otherwise uniform distribution of heat won’t happen, the fiber would be spliced
improperly. It would also cause a loss in data and attenuation. The clamps are used to
hold the cable firmly during the fusion process. Those are called holding clamps. In
some cases, the holding clamps are used to fix it in the tooling fixture. Then the heat
from the electrodes is applied to the surface of the cable for joining it.

Advantages of Fusion Splicing

1. The various advantages of fusion splicing are

2. It gives low attenuation. Due to the elementary technique, i.e. heat which is used to join
the fiber, the attenuation caused is very low. Due to this, the data loss in the cables is
also very low. This improves the overall efficiency of the system.
3. This method improves the overall quality of the joint. The quality is judged in terms of
data transfer efficiency and attenuation factor.
4. Fusion splicing also causes the small size of the splice. This increases the overall
mechanical strength of the fiber, and in fact, reduces the weight which are the desirable
characteristics of the splicing.
 5. This method is cost-efficient and easy to install.

Disadvantages of Fusion Splicing

1. One biggest drawback of fusion splicing is the heat may make the optical fiber weak. To
overcome this factor, it is made sure that, the heat is uniformly distributed over the
surface of the cable. This will avoid the weakening of the cable.
2. One more drawback of fusion splicing is after the splicing process, the tensile strength of
the fiber may decrease. This is also overcome by the uniform distribution of the heat.

Mechanical Splicing

In this method of splicing, first, the fibers are aligned, and then they are locked in
position using various positioning devices. Fundamentally two optical fibers are joined
by first aligning the cables, and then locking them. In mechanical splicing also we have
different types which are mentioned below.

Precision Tube Splice

In this process, two fiber cables are inserted in the precision tube and locked. Before
that, the fiber ends needs to be cleaned. The splice has a compound that has the
same refractive index as fiber, so the two fibers are inserted into the tube and the outer
jacket is crimped. Because of crimping, the fiber is fixed inside.

Loose Tube Splice: In this method, a rectangular tube is used for splicing. An adhesive
material is used to join the fiber cable. In this process also, the ends need to be
polished before splicing. The adhesive material will have the same refractive index as
that of the fiber.
 V Groove Splice

It is also known as a surface groove splice. For this process, a metal with a V shape
groove is taken. The dimension of the groove is taken such that, the fiber is easily fixed
in the groove. After placing the fiber, adhesive epoxy material is placed on the V groove
such that, the fiber is joined. After placing the adhesive, one metal plate is turned or
aligned on the other with the help of a groove and the fiber is joined.

Elastomeric Splice

This is another version of V groove splice. Two elastomeric materials are used which
gives compression on the fibers aligned in the V groove.

Precision Pin Splice

In a precision pin splice, a heat shrink tube is used to hold three steel pins together. The
fiber pins are inserted in the opening between the three pins. And using the index
matching epoxy, the splicing is done. The three steel pins are held together using a heat
shrink tube.

Spring Groove Slice

In this process, two cylindrical pins are used for alignment guiding of the optical fiber.
Using the spring technique, the fiber is pressed into the groove. Epoxy resin is used for
the splicing. The spring provides bracing of the fiber between the cylindrical pins.

Please refer to this link to know more about fiber-optic communications MCQS

Hence we have seen the different methods of splicing the optical fiber. As mentioned
earlier, all the basic requirements of optical fiber spicing must be achieved before the
process. And one important feature is attenuation must be avoided. One interesting
aspect to be seen is that in which units, the loss in attenuation is evaluated during
the fusion splicing or mechanical splicing in the process of optical fiber splicing? And
how do we take measures to avoid the loss is also important.
 Testing of splicing, Splice problem troubleshooting

This is intended as an overview and installation checklist for all

managers, engineers and installers on the overall process of testing
and troubleshooting a fiber optic communications system.

1. Once a fiber optic cable plant, network, system or link is installed,

it needs to be tested for four reasons:
a. to insure the fiber optic cable installation was properly installed to
specified industry standards.
b. to insure the equipment intended for use on the cable plant will
operate properly on the cabling
c. to insure the communications equipment is working to
specifications
d. to document the cable plant and network for reference in case of
future problems

2. Tools and Test Equipment Needed

The following tools are needed to test and troubleshoot the fiber optic
cable plant,system or link properly.
a. Optical Loss Test Set or power meter and test source with optical
ratings matching the specifications of the installed system (fiber type
and transmitter wavelength and type) and proper connector adapters.
An OLTS that merely tests cable plant loss may not include a
calibrated power meter needed for testing transmitter and receiver
power, so a calibrated power meter and source are a better choice for
link or system testing.
b. Reference test cables with proper sized fiber and connectors and
compatible mating adapters of known good quality. These do not need
to be “reference quality” but only in good condition, generally defined
as having connector losses of less than 0.5 dB.
c. Visual fiber tracer and/or visual fault locator (VFL)
d. Optional: OTDR with long launch cable (100 m for Multimode, 1 km
or more for singlemode)

3. Testing And Troubleshooting The Installed Cable Plant

All fiber cable plants require certain basic tests to insure they were
installed correctly and meet expected performance values. These are
guidelines for testing and troubleshooting the cable plant itself. The
most valuable data one can have for troubleshooting is the installation
documentation.

3.1. What Can Go Wrong

There are a number of possible problems with fiber optic cable
installations that are caused by installation practice. These include:
a. Damage to the cable during installation caused by improper pulling
techniques (such as not pulling the fiber cable by the strength
member,) excess tension, tight bends under tension, kinking or even
too many bends. Most of these problems will be seen on all fibers in
the cable.
b. Damage to the fibers in the cable during cable preparation for
splicing or termination. Fibers may be broken or cracked during cable
jacket or buffer tube removal or fiber stripping. This may affect all
fibers in the cable or buffer tube or just one fiber.
c. High loss splices caused by improper splicing procedures,
especially poor cleaving on mechanical splices or improper
programming of fusion splicers. Most fusion splicers give feedback on
most problems if the operator is properly trained. Individual fibers can
be damaged when being placed in splice trays or tubes of fibers
damaged during placement in splice closures.
d. High loss connectors may be caused by bad processes or damage
after termination. Adhesive/polish connectors may have poor end
finishes or cracks in the fiber at the end of the ferrule or internally.
Prepolished/splice connectors are generally high loss due to poor
mechanical splicing processes during termination causing high
internal loss.

3.2. Testing And Troubleshooting Steps For Installed Cable Plants

3.2.1. Before installation, it is advisable to test all cable as received on

the reel for continuity using a visual tracer or fault locator. Cables
showing signs of damage in shipment may need OTDR testing to
determine if the cable itself is damaged. Obviously, no cable showing
damage should be installed.

3.2.2. Test insertion loss after installation

a. After installation, splicing (if applicable) and termination, all cables
should be tested for insertion loss using a source and meter or OLTS
(optical loss test set) according to standards OFSTP-14 for multimode
fiber, OFSTP-7 for singlemode fiber.
b. Generally cables are tested individually (connector to connector for
each terminated section of cable and then a complete concatenated
cable plant is tested “end-to-end”, excluding the patch cords that will
be used to connect the communications equipment which are tested
separately.
c. It is the concatenated cable test that is used to compare to the link
power budget and communications equipment power budget to insure
proper operation.
d. Insertion loss testing should be done at the wavelength of intended
operation if known or at two wavelengths with appropriate sources
(850/1300 nm with LEDs for multimode fiber, 1310/1550 nm with lasers
for singlemode fiber, 1490 for FTTH.)
e. Unless standards call for bi-directional testing, double-ended testing
with both launch and receive cables (OFSTP-7/14) is adequate.
f. Data on insertion loss of each fiber should be kept for future
comparisons if problems arise or restoration becomes necessary.
Recording data on a label inside the patchpanel or enclosure is
common practice.
g. Long cables with splices may be tested with an OTDR to confirm
splice quality and detect any problems caused during installation, but
insertion loss testing with an OLTS (light source and power meter) is
still required to confirm end-to-end loss. Cables with insertion loss
near expected values do not also need OTDR testing. Cables tested
with an OTDR should have the data kept on file for future needs in
restoration.

3.2.3. Troubleshooting
a. First determine if the problem is with one or all the fibers in the
cable. If all fibers are a problem, there is a likelihood of a severe cable
installation problem. If all fibers are broken or have higher than
expected loss, an OTDR will show the location of the problem on
longer cables but premises cables may be too short and need physical
inspection of the cable run. If the problem is caused by kinking or too
tight a bend, the cable will have to be repaired or replaced. Generally
OSP cables will be spliced as in a restoration and if the cable is a
short OSP cable or a premises cable, replaced.
b. High loss fibers have several potential causes, but bad splices or
terminations are the most likely cause for field terminated cables. In
some cases, using improper termination practices will result in high
loss for all fibers, just as in kinking or bending losses, not just one
fiber.
c. Cables with a fiber or fibers showing very high loss or no light
transmission at all should be tested for obvious breaks in the pigtail
fiber or cable, generally at the splice or connector, with a visual fault
locator or OTDR if of sufficient length (>100m)
d. Testing for high loss should start with microscope inspection of
terminations for proper polish, dirt, scratches or damage.
e. If dirt appears to be the problem, clean the connectors and retest.
f. If other connector damage is found on visual inspection,
retermination will probably be necessary. Sometimes scratches can be
polished out with diamond film by an experienced technician.
g. Prepolished splice connectors with internal splices will generally
look OK when inspected with a microscope unless damaged after
installation. The most likely cause of loss with these connectors is
high splice loss in the internal splice. They can be tested with a visual
fault locator coupled into the fiber at the far end. High light loss will be
seen as an illumination of the connector ferrule. Some connectors
have translucent backs hells and can be tested with a VFL coupled
directly into the connector.
h. If the reason for high loss is not obvious and the connectors are
adhesive/polish style, the problem may be a fiber break in the back of
the connector. A VFL may help in finding fiber breaks, depending on
the connector style and the opacity of the cable jacket.
i. Splice loss problems can be pinpointed during OTDR testing.
Confirmation with a VFL should be done if the length from the end of
the cable is short enough (~2-3km) where a VFL is usable. The VFL can
find high loss splices or cracks in fibers caused by handling problems
in the splice tray.
j. High loss links where the excessive loss is only a few dB can be
tested with a FOTP-171 type single-ended test with a source and
power meter. When tested in this manner, a high loss connector will
show high loss when connected to the launch cable connector but not
when connected directly to the power meter detector which picks up
all the light from the fiber.

3.2.4. Hints for troubleshooting

a. Having access to design specifications and installation
documentation and specifications will greatly assist troubleshooting.
b. If possible, interview the installer to help uncover processes that
may lead to issues in installation, such as pulling methods, lubrication,
intermediate pulls, splicing or termination methods (like improper field
termination of singlemode which can lead to high loss and reflection
even when connectors look OK in a microscope.)

3.2.5. Testing And Troubleshooting Patch cords

Patch cords are short factory-terminated cables usually with standard
heat-cured epoxy/polish connectors on each end. They are used to
connect equipment to the cable plant and as reference cables for
testing insertion loss.

3.2.5.1. Likely Problems

Most patch cord problems are connector problems, caused by damage
due to handling or numerous matings when used as reference cables
for testing other cables. Connectors may also be damaged by breaking
fibers at the back of the connector due to excess stress during
handling or by placing other equipment on top of them in enclosures or
patch panels.

3.2.5.2. Testing And Troubleshooting Steps

a. All patch cords, especially those used as reference cables for
insertion loss testing, should be tested for insertion loss.
b. Patch cords should be tested with an optical loss test set (optical
power meter and source) using single-ended FOTP-171 methods with
one reference cable used as a launch cable.
c. This will test the connector mated to the reference cable and the
fiber in the patch cord, which is short enough it should have no
measurable loss.
d. Since the connector connected to the power meter will not be
connected to fiber but presented directly to the detector of the power
meter, it effectively has no loss.
e. After testing in one direction, reverse the patch cord and test the
other end.
f. In both directions, factory-made patch cords should have a loss of
less than 0.5 or whatever performance the user has specified with
patch cord vendors.
g. High loss connectors should be inspected with a microscope for dirt
or damage.
h. If other connector damage is found on visual inspection,
retermination will probably be necessary but may not be cost
effective, so the patch cord should be replaced. Sometimes scratches
can be polished out with diamond film by an experienced technician.
i. Some optical loss test sets include fiber interfaces on both source
and meter ports, so all testing is done double-ended, even if the cable
under test is directly connected to an input port. A test set such as
this makes reverse testing less effective since reversing test direction
may not have any significant effect. Test ports on an OLTS like this
should be kept covered when not in use and cleaned periodically.
Damaged fibers inside an OLTS will require factory repair.

3.Follow safety in handling tools

Fiber Optic Cable Safety Procedures to Protect Your Health

Safety precautions in handling optical fibre,

Fiber optic cables are an impressive form of technology, but you must follow a few
safety procedures while installing and maintaining them.
These long, hair-thin strands of glass are arranged in bundles and used to transmit light
signals over long distances. The strands are smaller than a hypodermic needle and
have a higher tensile strength than steel.
Check out these fiber optic safety procedures based on information from the Fiber
Optic Association.

Wear safety glasses or googles

Fiber optic shards and splinters can be dangerous if they get into your eyes. Treat fiber
optic splinters the same as glass splinters. Always wear safety glasses when working
with fiber optics and use side shields for full protection.
Keep food and beverages away from work areas
Fiber particles can easily get into food or drink and be swallowed. If ingested, they could
become embedded in your digestive system and cause internal hemorrhaging.
Even if you keep your work area clean, the particles can easily be transferred from
clothes to food and drinks. You can protect yourself by wearing disposable aprons to
prevent fiber particles from getting on your clothing.

Never look directly into the end of fiber cables

It’s important to be positive there isn’t a light source at the other end of the cable, so
make sure the fiber is at least 6 inches away from your eyes. A fiber optic power meter
can help you make sure the fiber is dark.
Additionally, if you’re using a microscope, make sure it’s electronic so you can see the
image on a small screen instead of needing to look directly at it.
Also, if you’re using a tool to examine installed fiber connectors or ensure terminations
are smooth and clean, be mindful about what you touch. There’s a chance oil from your
fingertips could heat up and burn the ceramic.

Don’t touch your eyes

Until your hands have been thoroughly washed, it’s important to not touch your eyes
while working with fiber optic systems. On that note, contact lens wearers must not
handle their lenses until they have thoroughly washed their hands.

Properly dispose of fiber and cable scraps

A big part of disposing of fiber and cable scraps involves keeping track of these
materials. When you cleave fiber (generally in the fusion or termination process), small
scraps of glass are produced. These scraps are very dangerous and can easily
penetrate your skin.
Fiber glass shards can be hard to see, so it helps to work on black work mats and wear
disposable lab aprons. This way, finding scraps is easier.
 Other fiber optic safety procedures from the Fiber Optic Association
include:

 Only work in well-ventilated areas.

 Keep all combustible materials safely away from fusion splicers.
 When finished with a fiber optics lab, dispose of all scraps by placing them in a properly
marked container for disposal.
 Thoroughly clean your work area.

Check out these fiber optic safety procedures based on information from the
Fiber Optic Association.
 Wear safety glasses or googles. ...
 Keep food and beverages away from work areas. ...
 Never look directly into the end of fiber cables. ...
 Don't touch your eyes. ...
 Properly dispose of fiber and cable scraps

Insertion loss tests in optical fiber

Cable installation professionals face safety hazards when they work on optic fiber cables. Even though these cables

do not carry electricity, they do transmit light which damages the eye. Hence while handling these fibers, stringent

occupational and safety regulations need to be kept in mind.

Note that all optical cables are sensitive to damage during handling and installation. Below are parameters

that need attention during installation:

Bending Radius
Optical fiber cables are designed with a particular minimum bending radius and must never be bent beyond the limit.

Exceeding the minimum radius can cause internal breaks and damage to the fibers, which are not outwardly visible.

The cables are designed for a particular pulling tension, tensile strength and twisting.

It is advisable to use grips with swivel, lubricants compatible with cable jacket and duct material to achieve

maximum pulling distance.

Laser Precaution

Laser beams used in optical communication are invisible. Installers that are unfamiliar with the technology may look

at the fiber’s end to verify light transmission which is hazardous. Although direct viewing does not cause any pain,

severe damage can be done as the iris of the eye doesn’t close involuntarily to protect the retina.

To determine if the visible light is present, view from an angle at least 6 inches away from your eye. In case of

accidental exposure to the laser beam, immediately rush for medical assistance.

Handling precautions

Glass-fiber scraps generated during termination and splicing (joining of fiber cables) pose a safety hazard. Since

they are tiny and transparent, they easily penetrate the skin and are difficult to extract. Most cases they need to be

extracted via a pair of tweezers and magnifying glass. However, many times splinters cannot be spotted until the

area becomes inflamed. Any delay in removal could spread infection which could be fatal.

A few safety measures to keep in mind:

– Always wear safety goggles, safety belts, protective helmets and gloves.

– Wear disposable aprons to minimize fiber particles on your clothing.

– Fiber optic works are to be done in well-ventilated and well-lit areas, away from combustible materials.

– Ensure the insulation tools and equipment are in proper condition, which could otherwise damage cables or cause

injury to personnel.
Fire Safety

Fusion splicing process can cause electric sparks. It is advisable not to be done near manholes where flammable

gases can accumulate due to leaking pipelines. To ensure good splicing, the cables should be brought to the surface

into a temperature-controlled splicing trailer for fiber work, which should be kept spotlessly clean.

In addition, do not smoke near fiber optic work. The ashes from smoking contribute to the dust problem and risk the

danger of an explosion due to the presence of combustible substances.

Aerial Installation Safety

Before climbing a pole, inspect it for issues like splintering, insect nests, sharp protrusions. The use of leather gloves

is necessary when climbing or getting down and while using sharp instruments. However, rubber gloves should be

used when working near exposed electrical circuits to avoid electric shock.

Cable Pulling Safety

An ideal distance should be maintained from the area during the cable pulling around a stationed hardware. Limit

the number of people to skilled workers during tensioning operations to minimize the risk of injury. It should also be

noted that no one should be allowed to climb on intermediate poles and all passersby on the ground should be

diverted from poles during tensioning with suitable warning / safety display boards at the site.

Practice all safety measures near the installation site and keep hands free from tools when climbing the pole or

ladder.

Following these simple safety practices can safeguard employees and keep the work environment safe.

Electric Way supplies a comprehensive range of fibre optic cables, manufactured in accordance with international

standards including IEC 60332-1. Our team is well trained and experienced to take care of both indoor and outdoor

optical fiber cable installations for transmitting telephone calls, transferring data over vast computer networks and
other varied applications. Get in touch with us on +971 4 817 0777 or [email protected] for your cable

requirements.

Safety in the lab or on the job site must be the number one
concern of everyone. Besides the usual safety issues for
construction, generally covered under OSHA rules, fiber optics
adds concerns for eye safety, chemicals, sparks from fusion
splicing, disposal of fiber shards and more. Before beginning
any installation, safety rules should be posted on the
classroom wall, lab wall or on the job site and reviewed with
all onsite personnel. All personnel must wear the usual
construction safety gear plus everyone must wear eye
protection whenever working with fiber.

Eye Safety
Many people are concerned that the most dangerous part
of fiber optic work was the chance you might get your eyeballs
burned out by laser light in the fiber. They had confused
optical fibers to the output of high powered lasers used in labs.
Or perhaps they had been going to the doctor to get warts
burned off their skin using lasers with fiber optic probes or
even seen too many science fiction movies.

Light In Most Fiber Optic Networks Is Invisible To The Human

Eye

First, there is an issue of wavelength. Your eye cannot see

many of the wavelengths used in fiber optics because the eye
is sensitive to light in the blue to red region of the spectrum
while fiber optic systems operate in the infrared. If there is
dangerous levels of power in a fiber, you cannot see it in time
to avoid it; you must test for power with a power meter or
some some device that measures infrared light or converts it
to visible light. The liquid in your eye which is mostly water,
which absorbs light in the infrared heavily. Light from most
fiber optic sources will be absorbed by this liquid, so any
potential harm is likely to come to the lens or cornea, not the
retina.

Power In Fiber Optic Networks

Most fiber optic systems communications do not have
sufficient power to cause harm to your eyes and the light
coming out of a fiber is expanding so the farther you are away
from the end of the fiber, the lower the exposure. Having said
that, consider yourself warned. In more recent times, some
fiber optic systems are carrying sufficient power to be
dangerous and some fiber optic inspection techniques
increase the chance of harm (see below). Let’s look at the
issues.

The key to understanding the power issue is

understanding power levels, wavelength of the light and the
nature of light transmission in optical fiber.

Fiber optic medical laser systems used for surgery and

laser machining systems certainly have enough power to
cause harm to your eyes, as well as burn off warts or machine
some types of materials. Those systems use very high power
lasers, often CO2 lasers, which emit radiation at a wavelength
that is really heat not light, around 10 microns wavelength.
This wavelength is readily absorbed by materials and can heat
them quickly, cutting those materials easily.

In medical applications, the heat not only cuts tissue, but

it cauterizes, stopping bleeding, a major advantage. It also
cuts more precisely with a small focused spot, allowing more
exacting work to be done.

Laser machining also takes advantage of the smaller

focused spot of the laser, making it possible to create smaller
holes or parts more precisely than conventional machining.
The smaller spot size also reduces local heating, reducing the
need for cooling and preventing thin materials from warping.

Some of these high power systems use fiber with focusing

lenses on the end for delivery, allowing use of a flexible probe
that increases the flexibility of the machine’s use. However,
the power is so high that any dust or dirt on the end of the
fiber may be vaporized, causing damage to the end of the fiber
probe.

Fiber optic communications systems use much less

power. First of all, most sources used in fiber optics are
optimized for modulation speed, not absolute power. In fact, in
most telephone links, the laser has too much power, so much
it needs an attenuator at the receiver to prevent overloading.
Secondly, it you put too much power in a fiber, it creates some
types of secondary light emission that can add to the noise in
the system, causing problems.

Premises cabling with multimode fiber and LED sources

has very low power levels, too low to be a hazard. Higher
speed premises links use VCSEL lasers, which are still quite
low in power levels, and generally harmless.

Safety In High Power OSP Links

Two types of links have high power, as much as 100 times
more than other communications systems, and they are CATV
or video links at 1550 nm and telco long distance links using
dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM.) The CATV or
video links used in fiber to the home (FTTH - read more) may
use fiber amplifiers (read more) that boost the power to very
high levels, potentially dangerous the eye. Telco DWDM links
are used on extremely long distance links (read more). They not
only use fiber amplifiers for boosting the power, but they have
many different signals operating at different wavelengths
carried in one singlemode fiber. Any one wavelength may not
be a problem, but the sum of 16, 32 or 64 individual
wavelengths can be very powerful.

WDM (wavelength division multiplexing) networks have many

wavelengths of light and the total power in the fiber is the sum
of all the power from all the wavelengths.

Fiber amplifiers used in many WDM networks can increase the

power by 20 dB - 100 times - or more.

Is it safe for fiber techs repairing cut fiber optic cables to

splice OSP networks that use fiber amplifiers as
repeaters? The answer is not a simple yes/no! The short
answer is YES; the long answer is more technical and includes
details that every OSP tech needs to know.

Fiber amplifiers have been around for decades, replacing

electronic repeaters that convert a signal from the optical
domain back into the electrical domain, remove some noise
and retransmit it as an optical signal. Fiber amps replaced
them because they used too much power and were
unreliable. Fiber amplifiers are used in WDM systems where
there can be power from a number of different wavelengths,
increasing the total power, or in analog systems like CATV
HFC systems where high power DFB lasers are used.

The most common fiber amp (EDFA - erbiun-doped fiber

amplifier) uses some complex physics that allows light
entering a special fiber (generally erbium-doped fiber) to be
amplified by the light from a high power "pump laser" at a
different wavelength (980 or 1480 nm). Pump lasers can be as
powerful as 10 watts, +40 dBm! Fiber amplifiers have gains of
around 20 dB, so a "0 dBm" laser (1 mw) input will be amplified
to +20 dBm (100 mw). That is a LOT of optical power.

A second type of fiber amp (RAMAN) uses the transmission

fiber to amplify the signal using high-power pump lasers,
sometimes at both ends of the fiber, at particular wavelengths.
These are less common.

The problem that field techs need to worry about is whether a

fiber amp will shut down if the link is broken. Transmission
equipment generally shuts down the transceiver if the receive
sees no input and initiates an alarm. If there are fiber amps in
the link, will they shut down if there is no input? The answer is
maybe.

The problem seems to be a lack of standardization in fiber amp

design. Some amps have sensors on the input that shuts down
the pump laser when there is no input. Those should be safe.
But most designs, it seems, do not have that feature. We
talked to two manufacturers and two users and the consensus
is that fiber amps will have the output of the pump laser on the
output fiber even with no signal at the input.

One user tested a unit with an input sensor. With a range of

inputs from -12 to -4 dBm, the output was a constant at around
+20 dBm. Below, -12 dBm, the output was zero - no light at all -
even though the EDFA was switched on. However, when the
EDFA was switched off, the unit was simply a passive
component and would transmit signals at 1490 nm but not at
1550 nm, probably due to a WDM component in the output.

We talked to a manufacturer who mentioned that some EDFAs

are designed this way and some are just amps. For example,
he told me their products will produce ~20 dB gain, so an input
of 1 mw will yield ~100 mw output. But if you remove the input,
the amp will amplify the noise and transmit the pump laser on
the output which will be about 30 mw, with the bulk of the
power in the pump laser wavelength. A WDM will filter out the
pump laser, but if a tech looks at a broken fiber with this fiber
amp as an input, he will still be looking at a 30 mw optical
output.

It appears that the fiber tech doing restoration on broken OSP

fibers needs to have assurance that either the network does
not have any fiber amps in the link being repaired or the
network has been completely powered down - including the
amps.

 Never look into a fiber end or get it near your eye since a
broken fiber can emit light at an angle.
 Before working on any fiber, test it with a power meter to
see if power is present.
 And the tech probably should wear special laser safety
glasses, but we have not found any yet that cover the
entire wavelength range needed.

Focusing Light Into The Eye Can Be Dangerous

The next issue is focusing the light from a fiber into your
eye. Light exiting an optical fiber spreads out in a cone, the
angle of which is determined by the transmission
characteristics of the fiber as defined by the numerical
aperture. As your eye is further from the end of the fiber, the
amount of radiation it receives is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance – double the distance and cut the power
by 1/4, ten times the distance reduces the power to about 1%.
You do not have to be far away from the fiber for the power to
be reduced to low levels.
 Because the light is exiting the fiber in a cone-shaped
beam, your eye cannot focus it on the retina. This is unlike the
typical lab laser or laser pointer that shines a narrow,
collimated beam that does not spread out; a beam your eye
can easily focus on the retina, causing temporary blindness.

Finally, there is an issue of wavelength. Your eye cannot

see many of the wavelengths used in fiber optics because the
eye is sensitive to light in the blue to red region of the
spectrum while fiber optic systems operate in the infrared. The
liquid in your eye which is mostly water, which absorbs light in
the infrared heavily. Light from most fiber optic sources will be
absorbed by this liquid, so any potential harm is likely to come
to the lens or cornea, not the retina.

While the expanding beam of the light exiting the fiber

makes it less of an issue for direct viewing, using a fiber
inspection microscope can be a problem. We’ve tested this
hypothesis ourselves, and can confirm that a microscope will
focus virtually all the light back into the eye. Many
microscopes used in fiber optics, therefore, have filters to
absorb any infrared (IR) light that could be harmful. Be wary of
inexpensive microscopes like the one shown, however, which
may not have IR blocking filters.

To be certain fibers are safe to inspect or work with,

always check fibers in an operating network with a fiber optic
power meter to ensure no light is present before inspecting
any connector with a microscope.

Hint: The camera in many early cell phones is sensitive to

light in the infrared. So if you think a fiber has light being
transmitted through it, use an old cell phone to take a picture
of it. But try your cell phone first - here are photos of a test
source taken with an older Motorola Razor phone from the
early 2000s. Here is a video showing how it works.

So to sum up what we have said: 1) Most fiber optic links

are harmless to eyes 2) Some links may be harmful, however,
3)Never take a chance – check the link before inspecting it!

Bare Fiber Safety

Fiber optics installation, however, is not without risks. The
more common problem is getting scraps of fiber in your eye
when working with fiber. While few fiber optic systems have
harmful levels of power, every termination and splice produces
shards (scraps) of optical fiber which is potentially very
harmful to your eyes and skin or may stick in your clothing and
be carried to other locations where it may be harmful to
others.

These shards of fiber are tiny, thin and often very sharp where
they broke off the fiber. They can easily puncture your skin,
burying themselves deep enough to be difficult to pull out, if
only you could see them. Being transparent they practically
disappear once imbedded in your skin. In most parts of your
body, they merely become a nuisance, perhaps infecting or
causing an irritating bump, until they may eventually work
themselves out.

X-Ray showing fiber shard imbedded in finger.

Photo courtesy Brian Brandstetter, Mississauga Training
Consultants, www.fiberoptictraining.com

Around your eye, however, they can be much more difficult to

find and remove. The tears that wet your eyes make the
transparent glass shards practically impossible to find and
remove. The sharp ends of the fiber may cause it to imbed
itself in the eye or surrounding tissue, making it even more
difficult to remove. Unlike metallic particles, they cannot be
removed with magnets,

It is imperative to follow procedures that minimize the dangers

to the eye. Always wear protective eyewear with side shields,
even if you normally wear glasses, to prevent any flying shards
from getting near your eyes. Do not trust normal eyeglasses,
since taking them off for a second allowed a fiber shard to
land on my lower eyelash, where luckily, I found and removed
it.

Be extremely careful whenever handling fibers, especially

when stripping fiber or scribing and breaking fiber extending
out of an adhesive connector. Instead of breaking it, scribe it
gently, then slide your fingers up the connector ferrule,
grasping the fiber and pulling it off. Then dispose of it
carefully.

Most cleavers used for splicing or terminating

prepolished/splice connectors hold the fiber after cleaving, so
the only problem is disposing of it. We recommend using
disposable containers like those used for soups at carry-out
restaurants. Use it for all your fiber scraps and then seal it and
dispose of it properly.

You can also set up your workplace to make it easier to avoid

problems. Use a black plastic mat for a work surface. The dark
background will make it easier to see the fibers you are
working with and handle them more carefully. Any broken
fibers that fall on the mat are easily found for disposal.

Some techs like to place a length of double stick tape or a loop

of black electrical tape on the mat and stick fibers to the
adhesive surface, then dispose of the tape when finished. I
prefer to simply use a disposable container and place every
fiber scrap into that container rather than leave them exposed
on the work surface.

Other Considerations for Safety

Chemicals: Fiber optic splicing and termination use various
chemical cleaners and adhesives as part of the processes.
Normal handling procedures for these substances should be
observed. Even simple isopropyl alcohol, used as a cleaner, is
flammable and should be handled carefully. Manufacturers will
supply "material safety data sheets" (MSDS) on request or they
may be found on the Internet.

Splicing hazards: Fusion splicers use an electric arc to

make splices, so care must be taken to insure no flammable
gasses are present in the space where fusion splicing is done.
No Smoking: Smoking should also not be allowed around
fiber optic work. The ashes from smoking contribute to the dirt
problems with fibers, in addition to the possible presence of
combustible substances (and, of course, the health risks.)

This is all very important – important enough to have a few

workplace rules for all fiber optic techs that can prevent
workplace accidents:

Fiber Optic Installation Safety Rules

 Keep all food and beverages out of the work area. If fiber
particles are ingested they can cause internal
hemorrhaging.
 Work on a black work surface as it helps to find fiber
scraps.
 Wear disposable aprons to minimize fiber particles on
your clothing. Fiber particles on your clothing can later
get into food, drinks, and/or be ingested by other means.
  Always wear safety glasses with side shields and
protective gloves. Treat fiber optic splinters the same as
you would treat glass splinters.
 Never look directly into the end of fiber cables until you
are positive that there is no light source at the other end.
Use a fiber optic power meter to make certain the fiber is
dark. When using an optical tracer or continuity checker,
look at the fiber from an angle at least 6 inches away
from your eye to determine if the visible light is present..
 Only work in well ventilated areas.
 Contact lens wearers must not handle their lenses until
they have thoroughly washed their hands.
 Do not touch your eyes while working with fiber optic
systems until your hands have been thoroughly washed.
 Keep all combustible materials safely away from the
curing ovens.
 Put all cut fiber pieces in a properly marked container for
disposal.
 Thoroughly clean your work area when you are done.
 Do not smoke while working with fiber optic systems.

Fiber Optic Installation Safety Rules:

1. Keep all food and beverages out of the work area. If fiber
particles are ingested they can cause internal hemorrhaging
2. Wear disposable aprons to minimize fiber particles on your
clothing. Fiber particles on your clothing can later get into
food, drinks, and/or be ingested by other means.
3. Always wear safety glasses with side shields and protective
gloves. Treat fiber optic splinters the sarne as you would glass
splinters.
4. Never look directly into the end of fiber cables until you are
positive that there is no light source at the other end. Use a
fiber optic power meter to make certain the fiber is dark. When
using an optical tracer or continuity checker, look at the fiber
from an angle at least 6 inches away from your eye to
determine if the visible light is present..
5. Only work in well ventilated areas.
6. Contact wearers must not handle their lenses until they
have thoroughly washed their hands.
7. Do not touch your eyes while working with fiber optic
systems until they have been thoroughly washed.
8. Keep all combustible materials safely away from the curing
ovens.
9. Put all cut fiber pieces in a safe place.
10. Thoroughly clean your work area when you are done.
11. Do not smoke while working with fiber optic systems.

20 most important safety rules in the workplace

1. Follow the dress code

It is important to dress according to the workplace dress code. This

may prohibit jewelry or open-toe shoes, for example. Often a
workplace may require employees to wear specific footwear and long
sleeves and pants in order to protect against common workplace
accidents. Dress codes can promote professionalism and also help
keep employees safe.

Related: How To Ask About Dress Code (With Tips for Your First Day)

2. Wear safety gear

Safety gear is necessary in labs, around machinery and on

construction sites, for example. Companies include safety gear in the
dress code when it is necessary for your job. Safety gear is a
precaution against hazardous materials and potentially dangerous
working conditions.

Related: Protective Gear for Construction Workers (With Examples)

3. Maintain personal hygiene

Maintain your personal hygiene, such as cleanliness, to help prevent

illness at work. Good hygiene can also help promote health and self-
esteem, which reduces risks.

4. Take responsibility for your personal safety

To take responsibility for your personal safety means ensuring that

you follow safety procedures. If employees rely on themselves to keep
the workplace safe, this can create a safe environment for all.
Responsibility also prevents negligence, which can limit on-the-job
accidents.

5. Maintain a clean workspace

It is important to keep your desk or other personal workspaces clean.

Be sure to put away supplies when they are not in use. Gathering
necessary materials before starting a task can help keep a clean
workspace. Maintaining your work area promotes organization and
attentiveness, both aspects of promoting safety in the workplace.

Related: How To Organize Your Office (With Instructions and Tips)

6. Follow work procedures

A company creates work procedures to help comply with safety

protocols and best practices, so if you follow work procedures, safety
standards are likely met. It is important to follow procedures even if
you think performing a task differently might save time. Often there'll
be an employee handbook or safety station where the company
provides their work procedures.

7. Learn how to act in an emergency

Learn emergency protocols including where to go in case of a fire or

during a natural disaster such as a tornado. Much like work
procedures, companies design emergency protocols with strong
consideration for safety regulations. Knowing where to go or how to
behave during an emergency protects you as well as your coworkers.
Related: What Is an Emergency Action Plan? (With Tips)

8. Report accidents if they occur

Report accidents to the managers or other personnel when they occur.

If you injure yourself or cause an accident, be sure to report it and
follow procedure immediately to help reduce the risks of further harm
or endangering coworkers. This helps to get proper treatment for your
injury and addresses the possible causes of the incident to prevent it
from happening again. It is important to follow company policy and
report even minor incidents. Your employer may require a written
report of the incident as well.

Related: How Does Workers' Comp Work? A Complete Guide

9. Report unsafe conditions

If you observe an unsafe practice or condition such as faulty

equipment, it is helpful to report this so that personnel can address
the situation and make corrections to prevent an incident. Unsafe
conditions pose a threat to your coworkers and to you, so reporting a
potentially dangerous situation is in the best interest of all employees.
Consider marking any unsafe condition to protect others who may
encounter it while you go to report it.

10. Lift objects carefully

Professionals advise lifting by squatting and using your knees when

picking items up instead of bending at your waist because this can
cause strain on your back and may result in injury. Use equipment if
necessary or ask for help in lifting heavy items. Back pain is a common
workplace injury that you can avoid with proper posture and using
caution in actions that you often repeat at work, such as carrying
materials.

11. Operate machinery that you are familiar with

Only operate machinery that employers authorize you to use. Some

types of workplace equipment, such as forklifts, require training.
Training can prevent misuse and provide proper safety knowledge and
skill for machines. It is important to become familiar with all
equipment that is in regular use at work.

Related: Heavy Equipment Operator Skills: Examples and How To

Improve

12. Use break times

Taking breaks can maximize employee attentiveness because they are

well-rested. Breaks provide other benefits, such as time to relax and
reduce stress. During breaks, you may need to sit or stretch to
maintain personal safety and prevent muscle injury.

13. Stay in your work zone

While working, try to stay in your designated work area. This allows
you to be familiar with your surroundings and increases the likelihood
that you understand the rules of conduct in the area. If you visit
another working area, try to find a professional who can help you
navigate the area so you are confident in your surroundings.

14. Stay alert and attentive

Being alert and attentive to your surroundings in a work environment

helps identify risks. It is important to limit distractions as well and
ensure you focus on tasks at work. Taking care to be mentally present
while working helps you actively follow procedures and practice
caution.

Related: Tips To Help You Focus When You're Distracted Easily at

Work

15. Keep exits clear

Try to keep walkways clear and take care not to block exits. This
prevents falls and helps people leave the room or building safely and
quickly in the event of an emergency. In small spaces keeping
walkways clear can be difficult but it may be useful to practice a walk-
through to ensure that employees can maneuver safely around
equipment.
16. Ask for help

If you require assistance, ask for help. This greatly reduces the risk of
having an accident and helps foster a safe work environment by
setting an example. Refer to company protocol when performing tasks
or operating equipment, and if protocol suggests doing a task with
another employee, do not attempt the task alone.

17. Use caution signs

Use caution signs when applicable. For example, wet floor signs
prevent slips on a floor after you mop or after a spill. Areas at work
may require barriers or signs when equipment such as forklifts are in
use. Another example is road signs to notify drivers of workers or
highway cleanup crews. It is important to place caution signs while
working and read and obey caution signs placed by others.

Related: Guide to Safety Colors in the Workplace

18. Use proper equipment

Use the equipment a procedure recommends to help prevent an

accident. Companies usually provide equipment to limit strain on
employees and to comply with safety regulations. It is also important
to learn how to operate any equipment that is available before using it
for work.

19. Eat in designated areas

Employers sometimes restrict food and drink to specific areas at work

to prevent spills, contamination and unsafe conditions. Having liquids
around machines risks spills that can cause malfunctions, and eating
where you work can cause contamination and possibly result in
illness. If your workplace requests employees eat in a certain place or
restrict food and drinks in a work environment, it is important to
observe this rule.

20. Follow safety guides

Follow all safety guides put in place to protect you and your
coworkers. Companies design safety rules to prevent incidents.
Sometimes rules result from a previous accident which is why it is
important to report your injuries as well as unsafe conditions. If you do
not understand why a safety rule exists, you can ask your employer for
clarification.

Unit 4: Site Visit and Optical Networking

Read and interpret OFC route plan

Route Planning for Optical fiber cable
laying

It is recommended that a survey of the cable route should be conducted.

Manholes and ducts should be inspected to determine the optimum splice
point locations and duct assignments. Potential problems with inner duct and
cable placement should be identified at this time.

Manholes in which cable will be spliced should be inspected and plans made
for closure and cable slack racking. Accessibility of manholes to splicing
vehicles should be considered.

Fibre optic cable must be protected in intermediate manholes. Racking space

should be carefully chosen so that it will provide maximum bend radius.

Based upon the cable route survey and the equipment/manpower resources
available, a cable pull plan should be developed. Reel and winch location
should be inspected for suitability and plans should be made for installation
techniques such as back feeding or use of intermediate assist winches.

Factors to consider in developing the full plan include changes in elevation

and locations of bends and offsets. For ease of installation, cable should be
pulled from higher elevation manholes to lower ones whenever possible.
Bends describe pronounced turns in the routing of a duct system. Offsets in a
duct system are more gradual variations from the ideal straight path of a duct
section. Offsets can substantially increase the pulling tension.

When placing fibre optic cable in duct, the fill ratio of the duct should not
exceed 50%.

Following are the pre installation consideration:

1. Inspect Right of way

- Verify Duct/ location
- Note obstacles and accessibility
.
2. Verify splice point locations
- Accessibility
- Slack storage
3. Accomplish pre-installation construction
- Duct
- Inner duct
- Conduit/ pull Box.
4. Plan the installation
- Cable reel set up
- Winch set up
- Pull direction

SITE VISIT AND ROUTE INSPECTION

The cable installation means laying the cable between the transmitter andthe receiver. This
cable acts as a medium to transfer the data or informationin case of wired communication as
discussed in chapter1. Cable can becopper cable, coaxial cable or optical fibre cable. Installation of
cables is notan easy work. It requires skilled labours, technicians and lot of investmentof money. Hence proper
planning is done, area is surveyed, and instruction

manuals are made for do’s and don’ts. Proposal or contract is given to the

company who handles whole process of cable laying in a specified time.Agreement is made on the paper
following the Indian government laws ofcourt. Finally, cable is layered following the set of protocols discussed in
thechapter. Cables can be installed indoor or outdoor using various installationmethods. Outdoor
cable can be directly buried or installed aerially betweenpoles. Indoor cables can be installed in cable trays
above ceilings or underfloors. The installation process will depend on the type of cable being
usedand the nature of the installation. Installation of both copper wire andoptical fibre cables are similar.
The only difference between them is that oncopper cables greater pressure can be applied but
optical fibre cablesrequire careful handling. Since fibres are made up of glass hence carefully ithas to be
installed. Otherwise it can damage the cable. It cannot sustain thestress like copper wires. There are some
general rules that should befollowed while laying the cable. The steps involved includes following
steps.1.

11.2 Site Visit

Before installation of any job, site visit or project tour is required to be done.A site visit will determine
approximate idea of the area where cable has to belaid and how much overall area to be covered, what all
obstacles have to befaced like somewhere building or trees are encountered. It
providesarchitectural diagrams of the area. You may find obstruction which mayprevent transportation of
various equipment to the site. Existing gas pipesor water pipes should not be damaged. It also
determines overall cost basedon the area covered. Site visit is essential before making any plan of
action. The visit gives the necessary information about the changes to be needed forthe ideal plan.
By doing effective site visit one could avoid ambiguities and

ake the best plan of installation. Transportation of various equipment’s

can create obstruction to the site. Start from layout view while performingsite visit it is necessary to
note down all the points observed. Site visit willmake us understand actual equipment locations, routing for
conduits, andproper elevations. It will help you to apply methods to overcome thechallenges by
applying the architectural drawings/ layouts. If found Sitedrawing details incomplete, then update it by site actual
data.

11.2.1 Different site conditions:

Laying pipelines in very steep slopes (>70°), on rocky ground in themountains, in hilly landscapes,
environmentally critical terrain (e.g. rainforests) and many other areas require special solutions to
transport pipes,position them and to do pre- and post-construction services such asearthworks (digging,
trenching and reinstatement
works). The cables shall be laid direct in ground, pipe, closed or open ducts, andcable trays or on
surface of wall etc.

1. Laying direct in ground

This method shall be adopted where the cable route is through open ground,along roads/lanes,
etc. and where no frequent excavations are likely to beencountered and where re-excavation is easily possible
without affectingother services.

2. Laying in pipes / closed ducts

In locations such as road crossing, entry in to buildings, paved areas etc.cables shall be laid in pipes or closed
ducts. Metallic pipe shall be used asprotection pipe for cables fixed on poles of overhead lines.

3. Laying into the building

Pipes for cable entries to the building shall slope downwards from thebuilding. The pipes at the building end shall
be suitably sealed to avoidentry of water, after the cables are laid.

4. Laying in open ducts

Open ducts with suitable removable covers (RCC slabs or chequered plates)are generally provided in sub-
stations, switch rooms, plant rooms,workshops etc. for taking the cables. The cable ducts should be of
suitabledimensions for the number of cables involved.

5. Laying on surface

This method may be adopted in places like switch rooms,workshops, tunnels, rising (distribution) ma
ins in buildings etc. Thismay also be necessitated in the works of additions and/oralterations to th
e existing installation, where other methods oflaying may not be feasible.

6. Laying on cable tray

This method may be adopted in places like indoor substations,air-conditioning plant rooms,
generator rooms etc. or where long horizontalruns of cables are required within the building and where
it is notconvenient to carry the cable in open ducts. This method is preferred whereheavy sized cables or a
number of cables are required to be laid. The cabletrays may be either of perforated sheet type
or of ladder type.
11.3 Route Inspection:

Route inspection will give you an insight of the job to be performed. You canfind obstructions, issues or gaps
which you would have not known unless

you conducted this ‘inspection’.

Following are the steps for route inspection

Obtain an OFC route plan.

Verify the plan through a Route Walk.

Take corrective actions

11.3.1 Obtain an OFC Route Plan

Obtain a layout describing the proposed OFC route from the planning teamso as to identify the:

Physical locations (premises or outside plant) along the route.

Other utilities, cables etc. so that damages are avoided.

Departments involved

electricity, water, municipality, etc.

Permission(s) required to carry out the entire activity.

Physical obstacles & health hazards along the route.

Verify the plan through a route walk

Preliminary survey shall be carried out for finalizing the drawing for theroute of optical fibre cable as a part
of project planning and execution.Following main items of work shall constitute the survey.

Plan the Installation.

Create a detailed, written plan of installation. Majority of the problems(approx. 95%) can be eliminated by
creating a proper planning of thesite.
Planning should incorporate equipment’s to be used while executing

the job, suppliers or companies who provide those equipment,technical datasheet of the cable, installation
guidelines, problemsassociated in the total area to be covered, safety measures to beincorporated,
total budget or cost involved.

To work with heavy tools and equipment’s (like vehicle c

arrying fibre

cable) availability of the road should be decided so that equipment’s

can be placed and worked with it.

Type of soil, embankments, water logged areas, major bridges, major yards need to be
considered and accessed.

Avoid laying of cable close to a laid track of gas pipes or water pipes.

Avoid laying of the cable adjacent to the cultivated Fields.

Avoid areas which are prone to water logging.

Avoid laying of the cable inside the ground where soil is composed ofcinders, coal ashes, etc.

Avoid the areas near river where heavily fertilized soils contain acids,electrolytes and decomposable organic
materials promoting bacterialactivity because it can damage the cable.

Avoid the areas near industry of chemical because such industriesdischarge poisonous chemicals and if cable is
laid then they react withchemical and damaged.

Avoid the areas which require large rock cutting, thick jungles withtrees. It is difficult to approach such
areas

Carefully decide the route of the cable in order to avoid built up areasincluding those areas where
building, etc. are likely to come up infuture.

In order to protect the cable from corrosion determine the compositionof the soil and based on it special
protection required for cable.
The requirement of transport vehicles like jeeps, Lorries, motortrolleys, etc. for the execution
of the work is considered

Verify the ‘plan’ for accessibility and availability as per design.

Verify construction methods, special tools, splice locations, etc.

Verify ground characteristics including subsurface investigation; ithelps allay fears related

to trenching / ploughing

Draw and mark bends, conduit size, splice locations, manholes, etc.,so as to begin any

Preparatory or co-ordination work (Ref. next page)

Mark the proximity to AC power areas to avoid possibility of damages/accident

Check for material storage areas, ventilation, etc.

OFC Route WalkSourceAvoid proximity to AC power areas to avoid any accidents. Although the
fibredoes not conduct electricity yet, fibre could be means to conduct electricity,installer should
take precautions with live electrical wires in working whenclose to AC power. Mark other utility lines so as to
avoid damage. Thereafter

make a sketch as per the route walk. It is called the ‘Route Walk Sketch’.

OFC Route Walk sketch

Take corrective actions

Prepare the site so that it is ready for installation by taking correctiveactions with the help of labourers:

Take permissions from other departments, etc., if required.

Revise routes
Arrange for the availability of any special tools, if required.

Remove or circumvent any obstruction / conflict along the route.Prepare the site thoroughly and
properly for better productivity.

If the route contains sections where the optical cable is subject to hightemperatures, provide necessary
protection.

Take measures to prevent optical cables from direct stress.

Determine locations where reels are to be positioned during theinstallation.

Fig.11.7: Corrective for route plan

11.4 Benefits of route inspection

Following are the benefits of a detailed route inspection:

Improved quality of network is the biggest gain.

Plan is verified with the actual physical location to identify gaps.

Helps in meeting manufacturer’s specification regarding “bend ratios.”

Plan is designed keeping in mind the health and safety standards.

Any re-work due to lack of plan is avoided.

Accidents are avoided due to proper planning.

Warning

11.5 Route inspection report

 The Contractor shall submit the survey report with the most suitable routesfor all the fibre optic
links along with details described above for

owner/employer’s approval FO cable route. The owner/employer will give

the preliminary approval for the route, subject to obtaining

therequired clearances. Up on approval contractor shall carry out detailsurvey for the selected
routes and submit the final survey report forapproval before implementation. The final survey report
shall include at least the following:a.

A drawing of the proposed route indicating all details of the routeincluding relevant details of soil strata, bridges,
culverts, causeways,rail over/under bridges, defence area, underground gas / oil / waterpipe line,
power and communication cables routes, other importantlandmarks etc.b.

The distance of the fibre optic cable route from the centre of theroad/rail/river/bridge/culvert etc.
shall be indicated on the routemaps as well as documented in tables.c.

Location and number of permanent and temporary manholes.d.

Location of all turns, bends and major landmarks.e.

Type, quantity and location of all the joint boxes. Care must be takento minimise the number of
splicing and joint boxes.f.

Section lengths of the underground fibre optic cable, total length ofeach link and drum scheduling for all the links.

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM DESIGN

A fibre optic communication system consists of optical transmitter, Fibres and

Optical receiver, as shown in figure 9.5 (a) as point-to-point optical transmission
link. This is used for transmission over shor distances when the transmission
distance is long it becomes necessary to amplify and re-transmit the signal at
intermediate points. Such repeaters are made of O/E and E/O convertors
in a back-to-back configuration and amplification is done optically now-a-days
with the use of Erbium Doped Fibre Amplifier as shown in figure 9.5 (b).

Figure A point-to-point (a) Short and (b) Long-haul Optical Fibre Link
Following specifications must be taken into account for such a system:
7. Transmission distance (Short haul/Tong haul)
8. Type of transmitted signal (voice, video or data/Analog or Digital)
9. Data rate or Channel Bandwidth
10.Required repeater spacing
11. Minimwn bir error rate (For Digital system) or the allowable signal
degradation in terms of SNR (For analog system)
12.Cost, reliability, expandability etc.

To meet these system requirements, the system designer has to suitably select the
following components. Since the operation and design of such system depend on
several interdependent variables so as to achieve an optimum performance, an
iteration would be needed. Because of the involvement of several factors a trade-
off is, therefore, required while designing system, the following parameters should
be kept in mind for the choice of components:

Optical Sources
10.Emission wavelength
11.( Response time
12.( Spectral width
13.(Reliability
14.Operating life
15.Bias and moduladon drcuit
16.Quantum efficiency
17.Output power
18.Radiation pattern

(B) Optical Fibres

(i) Material (Silica/Plastic/Plastic clad silica)

(if) Multimode or Single mode

(ii} Core size

(iv) Core refractive-index profile

(v) Bandwidth or dispersion

(vi) Attenuation

(vii) Numerical aperture or mode-field diameter

Photodetactors
(i) Responsivity
(ii) Operating wavelength
(iii) Speed
(iv) Sensitivity
V)Noise

LINK DESIGN

A basic block diagram of a simple point-to-point optical fibre link is shown in

figure . The transmission distance upto which a fibre optic link will work well is
dependent greatly on three fibre parameters Le, numerical aperture (NAY, core
size and attenuation, The optical power that finally falls on photodetector will
decide the system's ultiinate level of performance NA, together with core size, will
decide the level of optical power that can be launched into a fibre from optical
sources. Fibre's attenuation will indicate how much power will reach the receiving
end of an unspliced link. The analog system operation is evaluated in terms of SNR
while digital system operation is evaluated in terms of BER fe, Bit error rate,

Figure A simple poinl-to-point link

The importance of a fibre’s NA, core size and attenuation are highlighted by
the dramatic decrease in BER for small increases of received optical power. To
maximize coupling at fibre input, values must be as high as possible not only for
NA and core diameter but also for profile parameter. For a given bandwidth,
however, increasing the profile parameter lowers the NA. Then again raising the
NA over its optimum value in any glass fibre increases scattering loss, thereby,
degrading the fibre performance, Hence, a tradeoff is needed and it requires some
analysis to ensure the desired system performance. Two analyses are usually
carried out to ensure that the desired system performance can be met:

 Link power budget.

 System rise time budger.

WDM Couplers

WDM ie. wavelength division multiplexing devices are a specialized coupler

designed to permit light from two or more optical sources of differing nominal
peak optical wavelength to be transmitted in parallel on a single fibre. WDM
couplers either combine the different wavelength optical signal on to the fibre Le,
multiplex or separate the different wavelength optical signals output from the
fibre ie., demultiplex as shown in figure.

Figure -Wawelength dwision multiplexing and demultiplexing couplers.

The important optical parameters associated with the WDM coupler are the
attenuation of the light over a particular wavelength band, the interband isolation
and the wavelength band or channel separation. Ideally, the device should have a
low loss transmission window for each wavelength band giving a low insertion
loss. The device should exhibit high interband isolation, thereby, minimizing
crosstalk. And the channel separation should be as small as can be by taking
into account light source availability and stability together with crosstalk
considerations.
At optical wavelength multiplexer and demultiplexer are same units. There are two
major varieties developed for the implementation of WDM devices namely the
angularly dispersive devices such as prisms or gratings and filter-based devices
such as multilayer thin film interference filters or single mode integrated optical
devices. The angularly dispersive devices may be used as both
multiplexer and demultiplexer but because of certain advantages the demultiplexer
action is preferable. Figure 5.12 shows demultiplexer action using two lenses and
an angularly dispersive element. Light signal coming out of the fibre is incident
upon collimating lens and then passed through an angularly dispersive element
which separates the various wavelength channels into different spatially oriented
beams focussing lens then focusses these beams.

Figure Working of angularly dispersive element as demuliiplexer

A large number of channels may; thus, be combined or separated with such

angularly dispersive multiplexing elements. These angular dispersive elements
may be either grating or prism. Insertion losses are in the 1-to-3 dB range and
crosstalk level is between -20 and -30 dB. These devices are not very useful for
broad spectral sources such as LEDs.

The filter type multiplexing element may be used both as multiplexers as well as
demultiplexers. The device has a flat glass substrate upon which multiple layers of
different dielectric films are deposited for wavelength selectivity. These films work
like filters in the sense that each film or filter is transparent to only vne wavelength
and reflects all others. While using it as multiplexer, each wavelength is brought to
the device by a fibre whose output is collimated by a rod assembly of variable
focal length. The collimated beam comesponding to the inpur wavelength passes
through its own filter and is refocussed to the output fibre. All other wavelengths
undergo one or more reflections and are eventually refocussed onto the output
fibre. In the demultiplexer operation the ourput fibre becomes the input fibre while
all the other fibres provide the cutpur wavelengths of interest. We will consider
one specific filter WDM coupler design. i.e, edge filter which are used
in devices requiring the separation of two wavelengths. In this configuration, the
fibre is cleaved at a specific angle as shown in figures 5.13.

sFigure Two wavelength infederence filter demuttiplexer

Features and Advantages of WDM

A powerful aspect of optical communication link is that optic beam with different
wavelengths can be propagated without interfering with one another over a single
fibre simultaneously This technology of combining a number of wavelengths on to
the same fibre is called wavelength- division multiplexing or WDM. By this
several channels of information each having a different carrier wavelength can be
transmitted simultaneously over a single fibre wavelength selective
optical multiplexers and demultiplexers are used at the star and end of the
transmission route. This is an optical method and the optical devices should ensure
low loss while combining or separating light of various wavelengths. The WDM is
similar to Frequency Division Muluiplexing (FDM) used in microwave radio and
satellite systems. WDM transmission has many advantages:

1. WDM allows simultaneous transmission of various types of signals such as

digital and analog.

2. WDM increases the information carrying capacity of a fibre.

3. WDM makes possible to upgrade the capacity of existing point-to-point fibre
optic transmission links. Because if each wavelength supports an independent
network signal of say few Gbps, then WDM can increase the capacity of fibre
network dramatically.

4. WDM allows easy system expansion.

What is Fibre to the X (FTTx)?

Fibre to the X is a collective term that is used to describe various types of

broadband network architectures, depending on wherever they terminate. The
‘X’ in ‘FTTx’ represents a particular object. It could be a home, a cabinet or
any end-user premise. Resultantly, FTTx could be Fibre to the Home (FTTH),
Fibre to the Building (FTTB), Fibre to the Premises (FTTP) and Fibre to the
Curb (FTTC). FTTx is used to drive next-generation access by a significant
upgrade to the broadband available by making a step-change in the speed
and quality of the service.

Fibre to the X (FTTx) network architecture finds its use in Last-mile

connectivity. The network is spread out from the end-user premise to the
carrier network edge. It can deliver faster and better connectivity to homes
and enterprises around the world.

FTTx has many benefits related to speed and capacity and that is the reason
legacy copper-based networks are being replaced with Fibre to the X (FTTx).
Other advantages include higher transmission rates and lower energy
consumption. Fibre to the X network takes fibre closer to the end-user. This
helps in leveraging the latest construction, connection and transmission
techniques.

With the development of cloud computing, smart cities and 5G, requirements
for higher bandwidth and network speed have increased. Fibre to the X offers
a low-latency, high-bandwidth fibre network that can fulfil all these
requirements. In addition, it also helps in achieving high capacity and
consistent connectivity. It also helps in providing long-distance signal
transmission, a lightweight form factor, and immunity against electromagnetic
interference.
What are the different types of FTTx and FTTx Network Design?
Fibre to the X architecture can be categorised into two broad groups – Fibre to
the Premises (FTTP) and Fibre to the Cabinet (FTTC). These could be further
divided into multiple sub-groups.
Fibre to the Premises (FTTP)
In this type of architecture, optical fibre runs in an optical distribution network
(ODN). It is usually from the central office to the subscriber premises.

FTTP may be categorized based on the endpoint of the fibre:

Fibre to the Home (FTTH)
In this type of network architecture, fibre reaches directly to the living space.
Most of the times, it is used for home broadband setup. The fibre network is
spread from central offices to the living spaces. The optic fibre cables
terminate at the boundary of the living space. This way individual homes, as
well as offices both, can utilise the network more efficiently. FTTH network
structures could be home run, active star networks and passive optical
networks (PON). At present, it is one of the fastest-growing applications
worldwide.

FTTH – Home Run – This architecture uses a fibre running from the central
office (CO) directly to the home/customers. This is primarily used in some of
the small setups like gated communities with 2 fibres; one digital for Internet
and VoIP, the other for analogue CATV. This is also known as a point-to-point
or P2P network.
FTTH – Active Star
This type of network leverages fibre from the central office to a local active
node carrying multiplexed signals. These signals are then distributed to all the
customers. It contains a multi-fibre cable leading from the central office to a
local network switch.

FTTH – PON
This architecture comprises a Passive Optical Network (PON). Multiple
customers can share the same connection, without the need to involve any
active components (i.e., components that transform or generate light through
an optical-electrical-optical conversion). A PON Splitter is required for this
type of architecture. A PON splitter’s directionality can be described as bi-
directional. It can send signals downstream from the central office, sent as a
broadcast to users. Finally, users can also send signals upstream. These can
then be combined into one fibre to communicate with the central office again.
The PON splitter cuts the cost of the links significantly by sharing.