Parts of Speech

What is a noun?
A noun is a word that refers to a person, place, or thing. The category of “things” may sound super vague,
but in this case it means inanimate objects, abstract concepts, and activities. Phrases and other parts of
speech can also behave like nouns and can be the subject in a sentence, as in Jogging is a fun exercise.
Here, the verb jogging acts like a noun and is the subject of the sentence.

Different types of nouns

1) Common nouns
Common nouns are words that refer to undefined or generic people, places, or things. For example,
the country is a common noun that refers to a generic place while the word Canada is not a common
noun because it refers to a specific place. Common nouns are only capitalized when they begin
sentences or are used in the names or titles of something, as in Grand Canyon or Iron Man.
 common nouns:
house, cat, girl, foot, country
2) Proper nouns
Proper nouns help distinguish a specific person, place, or thing. These words should be capitalized. The
names and titles of things are always proper nouns, such as the brand name Starbucks and the personal
name Jenny.
 proper nouns:
Spain, Fido, Sony
3) Singular nouns
Singular nouns are nouns that refer to only one person, place or thing. For example, a cat is one animal
and a banana is one fruit.
 singular nouns:
house, cat, girl, foot, country
4) Plural nouns
A plural noun refers to more than one of something. Many singular nouns just need an S added at the
end to make them plural (e.g., bee becomes bees). For some nouns that already end with an S, you may
need to add -es to the end to make their plural forms (e.g., classes and buses). Some singular nouns also
change spelling when made plural (e.g. countries and babies).
 regular plural nouns:
houses, cats, girls, countries
Not all nouns follow this pattern. Those that become plural in other ways are called irregular plural
nouns. Some examples are man and men, wolf and wolves, foot and feet, and sheep and … sheep.
 irregular plural nouns:
person and people
life and lives
mouse and mice
tooth and teeth
5) Concrete nouns
A concrete noun is something that can be perceived through the five senses. If you can see, hear, touch,
taste, or smell something, it uses a concrete noun.
 concrete nouns:
table, apple, rabbit, ear
6) Abstract nouns
Abstract nouns are intangible ideas that can’t be perceived with the five senses, such as social concepts,
political theories, and character traits. For example, the abstract noun anger refers to an emotion and the
abstract noun courage refers to a quality a person has.
 abstract nouns:
love, creativity, democracy
7) Collective nouns
A collective noun is a noun that functions as a singular noun while referring to a group of people or things.
A collective noun refers to a group that functions as one unit or performs the same action at the same
time. For example: the team plays in the main gym.
 collective nouns:
crowd, flocks, committee, a sum of money

8) Compound nouns
A compound noun combines two or more words into one. Compound nouns can appear as a single word,
multiple words used separately, or words connected by hyphens.
 compound nouns:
dry-cleaning, jack-in-the-box, toothpaste, haircut, output, ice cream, potato chip
9) Countable nouns
A countable noun (also known as a count noun) is one that you can count. When you have three
books or 10 pennies, you are describing a noun that is countable.
 countable nouns:
table, apple, rabbit, ear
10) Uncountable nouns
An uncountable noun (also known as a mass noun) is one that cannot be counted. For
example, happiness cannot be counted. You don’t say that you have “a happiness” or “three
happinesses.” Uncountable nouns typically don’t have plural forms.
 uncountable nouns:
salt, seafood, luggage, advice

What is a pronoun?
A pronoun is a word that can replace a noun in a sentence. The noun that is replaced by a pronoun is
called an antecedent. For example, in the sentence I love my dog because he is a good boy, the
word he is a pronoun that replaces the noun dog.
Generally speaking, pronouns allow us to shorten our sentences and make them sound less repetitive.
For example,

 The construction workers are building the office. The construction workers are making good
progress. The construction workers should finish the project in no time.
 The construction workers are building the office. They are making good progress. They should
finish the project in no time.
Pronoun list
 He
 It
 You
 I
 They
 We
 Who
 Him
 Them
 Whoever
 Anyone
 Something
 Nobody
We use a bunch of different pronouns in our writing and in speech. Listed below are just some of the
pronouns that we use every day:

 I
 me
 you
  he
 she
 it
 we
 they
 us
 them
 who
 what
 this
 that
 anyone
 nobody
 something
Pronoun examples
The following examples show how we use pronouns in sentences.

 We looked for Britney at her house, but she wasn’t there.

 I took my car to the mechanic to get it fixed.
 This is the best birthday ever!
 Someone donated $500 to our charity.
 Andy thinks that mayonnaise goes well with anything.
Types of pronouns
There are many different types of pronouns that we use in writing and speech. For now, we will briefly
look at each of these different types. If you want to explore each one in more detail, we have provided an
extensive guide to each type of pronoun in the links below:

Common types of pronouns

Possessive pronouns
A possessive pronoun is a pronoun that expresses possession, ownership, origin, relationship, etc.
Possessive pronoun examples
 mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs
Possessive pronouns used in sentences
 That toy on the shelf is mine.
 All of the houses in our neighborhood look the same, but ours is the only one with a satellite dish.
 Wendy and Ronald separated the french fries into two piles: the left one was hers and the right one
was his.
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns are pronouns that we use to refer to people and, sometimes, animals. The
pronouns it, they, and them can also apply to objects.
Personal pronoun examples
 I, you, she, he, it, we, they, me, us, them
Personal pronouns used in sentences
 I am afraid of mice.
 The toaster gets really hot when it heats bread.
 My cats are friendly, so you can safely pet them.
Do you know the history behind using they and themself as singular pronouns? Find out more
and why they are making a comeback now.
Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns connect dependent clauses to independent clauses.
Relative pronoun examples
 who, whom, which, what, that
Relative pronouns used in sentences
 I need to find a person who can read Swedish.
 She doesn’t want to eat a meal that is too spicy.
 This book, which ends on a cliffhanger, is really exciting.
Reflexive pronouns
A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun used as an object of a verb that refers to the same person or thing as
the subject of the verb.
Reflexive pronoun examples
 myself, yourself, itself, herself, himself, ourselves, themselves
Reflexive pronouns used in sentences
 Ken looked at himself in the mirror.
 I like to cheer myself up with desserts.
 The silly clowns made fools of themselves.
Intensive pronouns
Intensive pronouns refer back to the subject in order to add emphasis. Intensive pronouns are identical in
appearance to reflexive pronouns.
Intensive pronoun examples
 myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, themselves
Intensive pronouns used in sentences
 I built my house myself.
 The children made the cookies themselves.
 Often, the stress of giving a speech is worse than the speech itself.
Indefinite pronouns
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that doesn’t specifically identify who or what it is referring to.
Indefinite pronoun examples
 some, somebody, anyone, anywhere, nothing, everybody
Indefinite pronouns used in sentences
 This note could have been written by anybody.
 Someone ate my lunch.
 The water splashed everywhere.

Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns are used to point to specific things.
Demonstrative pronoun examples
 this, that, these, those
Demonstrative pronouns used in sentences
 This is my favorite shirt.
 I don’t know what that is, but it definitely isn’t friendly.
 I need you to fix these.
Interrogative pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are pronouns used to ask questions about unknown people or things.
Interrogative pronoun examples
 who, whom, what, which, whose
Interrogative pronouns used in sentences
 Who wrote this letter?
 What is an amphibian?
 Which is the correct answer?
Reciprocal pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns express mutual relationships or actions.
Reciprocal pronoun examples
 each other, one another
Reciprocal pronouns used in sentences
 My sister and I love each other.
 The members of the team support one another.
 The two fishermen love to compete with each other.

Singular and plural pronouns

Like nouns, pronouns can either be singular or plural.

Singular pronouns
Singular pronouns refer to a single person or thing. Like singular nouns, singular pronouns must use
singular verbs.

Singular pronoun examples

 I, he, she, it, one, this, someone, something, anyone, nobody
Singular pronouns used in sentences

 Melanie is so good at movie trivia that she never gets a single question wrong.
 Somebody is standing next to the window.
 This is the best cake I have ever eaten.
Plural pronouns
Plural pronouns refer to multiple people or things. Plural pronouns must use plural verbs.
Plural pronoun examples
 we, they, us, them, ourselves, themselves, those, these, many, several, others
Plural pronouns used in sentences
 We go to the gym every day.
 These paintings aren’t as old as those are.
 Several of the ducks know that children like to feed them bread.

What is an adjective?
An adjective is a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun. In general, adjectives usually give us more
information about a noun or pronoun by describing it or providing more information about it. For example,
the adjective funny is used to say something causes fun or laughter.
We are going to look at types of adjectives that we commonly use in everyday writing and speech. Before
we do, though, there are a couple things we need to address first.

Cumulative and coordinate adjectives

These two terms for adjectives have more to do with good writing practices than grammatical concepts.
The terms cumulative adjectives and coordinate adjectives are often used in guides or advice covering
writing, proper adjective order, or punctuation. The term coordinate adjectives is used to refer to
adjectives that can be written in any order and are usually separated by a comma or the word and. For
example, the words heavy and huge are the coordinate adjectives in the sentence He was carrying a
huge, heavy stone. The term cumulative adjectives is used to refer to adjectives that fall under different
categories, often don’t use commas, and follow adjective order as in the adjectives used in the
sentence He was a young French man.
Determiners
Unlike nouns and verbs, the types of adjectives are not as strictly defined. For this reason, style guides
and grammar resources may not consider some of the types of adjectives you are about to learn about to
actually be adjectives at all. In particular, a style guide may consider words that act as possessives,
demonstratives, interrogatives, and quantifiers to either be their own parts of speech or a type of word
known as determiners, which also often includes articles. While we will treat these words as adjectives,
you shouldn’t be surprised if you see them referred to as a different part of speech.

Common types of adjectives

We are going to briefly examine 13 different types of adjectives. If you’d like to learn about each type of
adjective in more detail, you can check out all of our amazing guides to the different kinds of adjectives!

1. Comparative adjectives
Comparative adjectives are used to compare two different people or things to each other. Some examples
of comparative adjectives include words such as smaller, faster, more expensive, and less reasonable.
Comparative adjective examples
 Whales are larger animals than dolphins.
 We moved to a cheaper apartment.
 The sequel was even more incredible than the first movie.
2. Superlative adjectives
Superlative adjectives are used to compare more than two people or things by indicating which one is the
most supreme or extreme. Some examples of superlative adjectives include words such
as smartest, loudest, most impressive, and least valuable.
Superlative adjective examples
 Adrian is the fastest member of our team.
 Out of all of my books, this one is the oldest.
 We are trying to figure out the least confusing way to explain the lesson to the new students.
3. Predicate adjectives
Predicate adjectives are adjectives that appear in the predicate of a sentence as a subject
complement rather than directly next to the nouns or pronouns that they modify. Predicate adjectives
follow linking verbs in sentences and clauses.
Predicate adjective examples
 Andrea is tall.
 Freddy became angry.
 The steak looks delicious.
Understand the difference between subjects and predicates here.
4. Compound adjectives
Compound adjectives are adjectives that are formed from multiple words, which are usually connected by
hyphens. Some examples of compound adjectives include never-ending, cross-eyed, and run-of-the-mill.
Compound adjective examples
 She had enough of the double-dealing salesman.
 My happy-go-lucky daughter loved our trip to Disneyland.
 The better-off members of the city live by the river.
5. Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives are often used to express possession or ownership. The most commonly used
possessive adjectives are my, your, its, her, his, our, their, and whose.
Possessive adjective examples
 My favorite food is pizza.
 Sydney spent the day with her parents.
 Canadians celebrated their team’s victory at the Olympics.
6. Demonstrative adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives are used to express relative positions in space and time. The most commonly
used demonstrative adjectives are this, that, these, and those.
Demonstrative adjective examples
 This watch is cheaper than that one.
 This weekend is going to be really fun.
 Watch out for those prickly rose bushes next to you.
7. Proper adjectives
Proper adjectives are adjectives formed from proper nouns. In general, proper adjectives are commonly
used to say that something is related to a specific person or place. Proper adjectives include words such
as African, Napoleonic, and Shakespearian.
Proper adjective examples
 He was reading a Russian newspaper.
 I think Haitian food is tasty.
 We studied the history of Victorian England in school today.
8. Participial adjectives
Participial adjectives are adjectives that are based on participles, which are words that usually end in -
ed or -ing and derive from verbs. Participial adjectives include words like amazing, impressed,
and fascinating.
Participial adjective examples
 Travis was late for his swimming lessons.
 Please hand me my reading glasses.
 The silly clown cheered up the bored children.
Take part in this discussion on the forms and uses of participles if you want to learn more.
9. Limiting adjectives
Limiting adjectives are adjectives that restrict a noun or pronoun rather than describe any of its
characteristics or qualities. Limiting adjectives overlap with other types of adjectives such as
demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives. Limiting adjectives include words such
as these, your, and some.
Limiting adjective examples
 I bought some eggs at the store.
 She found three pennies under the couch cushions.
 Take a look at that house over there.
10. Descriptive adjectives
Descriptive adjectives are adjectives that describe the characteristics, traits, or qualities of a noun or
pronoun. Most adjectives are descriptive adjectives. Words such as purple, friendly, and attractive are
examples of descriptive adjectives.
Descriptive adjective examples
 A lot of interesting people visit this park.
 She told a scary story.
 The leaves turned orange and red.
11. Interrogative adjectives
Interrogative adjectives are adjectives that are used to ask questions. The interrogative adjectives
are what, which, and whose.
Interrogative adjective examples
 What color is your favorite?
 Which button turns off the lights?
 Whose turn is it to wash the cat?
12. Attributive adjectives
Attributive adjectives are adjectives that are directly next to the noun and pronoun that they modify.
Usually, attributive adjectives come directly before nouns and pronouns but they modify. But they can
sometimes appear after them.
Attributive adjective examples
 She has beautiful handwriting.
 The hungry gorilla ate the fresh mangoes.
 Keith gave his dad something special for his birthday.
13. Distributive adjectives
Distributive adjectives are used to refer to members of a group individually. Examples of distributive
adjectives include each, every, either, and neither.
Distributive adjective examples
 Each puppy got their own little doghouse.
 Every member of the team scored a goal.
 I’ll be happy if either candidate wins the election.
Verb conjugation
Verbs can change form depending on subject, tense, mood, and voice. This is called conjugation.
Subject
There are six subject forms in English:

I First person singular

You Second person singular

He/she/it Third person singular

We First person plural

You Second person plural

They Third person plural

Verbs and subjects must agree in number. If the subject is singular, the verb must also be singular.
Similarly, if the subject is plural, the verb must be plural. This is called subject-verb agreement.

Examples: Subject-verb agreement

 She talks a lot.

 She talk a lot.

 We talk a lot.

 We talks a lot.

Tense
Verbs are also conjugated based on tense. There are three main tenses in English:

 Past (an action has taken place)

 Present (an action is taking place)
 Future (an action will take place)

Each tense has a simple, progressive, perfect, and perfect progressive aspect with its own rules for
conjugation.

The forms a verb takes in each aspect depend on the subject and on whether the verb is regular or
irregular. Below is a table illustrating the various forms the regular verb “look” takes in the first person
singular when conjugated.
 Present Future
Past

Simple I looked at the painting. I look at the painting. I will look at the painting.

Progressive I was looking at the I am looking at the I will be looking at the

painting. painting. painting.

Perfect I had looked at the I have looked at the I will have looked at the
painting. painting. painting.

Perfect I had been looking at the I have been looking at the I will have been looking at
progressive painting. painting. the painting.

Mood
The mood of a verb indicates the tone and intention of a sentence. There are five grammatical moods in
English:

Grammatical Function Example

mood

Indicative Express a fact “Tony likes chocolate.”

Imperative Express a command or a request “Wash the dishes.”

Interrogative Ask a question “Did you do your homework?”

Conditional Express a condition “If you want to borrow that book,

you can.”

Subjunctive Express a wish, demand, doubt, or hypothetical “If I were rich, I would buy an island.”
situation

Active and passive voice

Most sentences can use either the active or the passive voice. An active sentence is one in which the
subject performs the action.
Example: Active sentenceLucas broke a chair.

A passive sentence is one in which the subject is acted upon. Passive sentences are constructed using
a form of the auxiliary verb “be” (e.g., “was,” “is,” “were”) followed by the past participle of the main verb
(e.g., “eaten,” “taken”).

Passive sentences are useful for emphasizing the outcome of an action rather than the action itself.

Example: Passive sentenceA chair was broken (by Lucas).

Participles
Participles are formed from verbs. There are two types of participles:

 Past participles are typically used in combination with an auxiliary verb (e.g., “has,” “have,”
“had”) for perfect tenses (connecting a past action or event to a later time). Past participles are
typically formed by adding the suffix “-ed” (e.g., “worked”).

 Present participles are used for continuous tenses (describing an action that is ongoing). They
are formed by adding the suffix “-ing” (e.g., “reading”).

Participles are often used as adjectives (e.g., “running shoes”).

Regular vs. irregular verbs

Regular verbs follow the standard conjugation rules for English verbs—most verbs are regular. A verb is
considered regular if its simple past and past participle are formed by adding the suffix “-ed” (or “-d” if
the word already ends in the letter “e”).

Example: Past simple and past participle of “finish” in a sentenceSarah finished her work.

Claude had finished his dinner when James called.

Jock has finished writing in his journal.

Tina will have finished her course by the end of next month.
Irregular verbs form their simple past and past participles in some way other than by adding the suffix “-
ed.”

Example: Past simple and past participle of “swim” in a sentenceAndre swam in all five of the Great Lakes last
summer.

I had swum almost a mile when the island came into view.

Melissa has swum every Saturday for the last three years.

If he succeeds next week, Antonio will have swum the English Channel ten times!

What is an adverb?
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, a clause, or another adverb. Adverbs provide more
information in a sentence by modifying another word. For example, the adverb quickly in the
sentence Jeremiah ran quickly tells us that Jeremiah ran with high speed. As another example, the
adverb really in the sentence The movie was really boring tells us that the movie wasn’t just boring but
that it was a colossal snooze-fest.

Different types of adverbs

Like other parts of speech such as nouns and verbs, there are several different types of adverbs. For the
most part, adverbs are usually separated by what kind of questions they answer or what kind of
information they provide to us. Right now, we are going to look at six common types of adverbs:
 Conjunctive adverbs
 Adverbs of frequency
 Adverbs of time
 Adverbs of manner
 Adverbs of degree
 Adverbs of place
1. Conjunctive adverbs
Unlike the other types of adverbs we will look at, conjunctive adverbs play an important grammatical role
in sentences. Basically, a conjunctive adverb is an adverb that acts like a conjunction; a conjunctive
adverb is used to connect two clauses or two sentences together. For example:
 I went to the store to buy new shoes. However, the store was already closed when I got there.
In the second sentence, the conjunctive adverb however tells us that this sentence is related to the one
immediately before it. The adverb however acts like a conjunction by linking these two sentences
together.
We can also use conjunctive adverbs with a semicolon rather than a period:

 Tina wasn’t too confident about her answers; nevertheless, she passed the exam easily.
Examples of conjunctive adverbs used in sentences
 Joey was playing in the sandbox. Meanwhile, his brother Noah was sleeping in a hammock.
 Candy isn’t a healthy breakfast. Instead, you could eat fruit.
 Delilah is the most popular member of the band; therefore, her name is always first on the posters.
Don’t fall behind on this topic. Instead, learn more about conjunctive adverbs.
2. Adverbs of frequency
A number of adverbs are used to describe the frequency of an event. By doing so, these adverbs
describe how often something happens.

Examples
 constantly, frequently, occasionally, sometimes, usually, never, always, rarely, daily, weekly,
monthly, yearly
Examples of adverbs of frequency used in sentences
 I usually put butter and syrup on my pancakes.
 She never drives on icy roads.
 Sometimes, Mark gets coffee for his coworkers.
3. Adverbs of time
Some adverbs tell us when something happens. Adverbs of time include words that refer to specific times
and more general time periods.

Examples
 today, yesterday, tomorrow, tonight, soon, later, now, eventually, forever, still, yet, early, late,
recently, since
Examples of adverbs of time used in sentences
 We are going to see a movie tomorrow.
 My daughter hasn’t learned how to tie her shoes yet.
 Recently, Trevor got a job as a construction worker.
4. Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens. A huge number of adverbs fall under this type and
many of the -ly adverbs formed from adjectives fit into this group.
Examples
 angrily, cautiously, hungrily, nicely, slowly, deftly, precisely, unknowingly, loudly
Examples of adverbs of manner used in sentences
 The clown skillfully made animals out of balloons.
 She bravely rescued a kitten from a tree.
 Natalie wisely took an extra umbrella with her.
5. Adverbs of degree
Generally, adverbs of degree describe the intensity of an action or quality. These adverbs are often used
as intensifiers to describe adjectives and other adverbs.

Examples
 very, really, extremely, incredibly, too, quite, barely, deeply, fairly, greatly, hardly, highly, intensely,
somewhat, totally, little, less, least, much, more, most
Examples of adverbs of degree used in sentences
 It is really hot in the basement.
 That book is much too expensive.
 He barely knew how to cook at all.
6. Adverbs of place
Adverbs of place tell us where something happens.
Examples
 here, there, everywhere, nowhere, somewhere, anywhere, in, out, inside, outside, wherever, on, off,
over, under, away, left, right, north, south, east, west
Examples of adverbs of place used in sentences
 I can’t find my keys anywhere.
 She loves to spend sunny afternoons outside by the pool.
 The lost travelers went north until they found a small town.

A preposition is a word or group of words used before a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to show direction,
time, place, location, spatial relationships, or to introduce an object. Some examples of prepositions are
words like "in," "at," "on," "of," and "to."
Prepositions in English are highly idiomatic. Although there are some rules for usage, much preposition
usage is dictated by fixed expressions. In these cases, it is best to memorize the phrase instead of the
individual preposition.
A Few Rules

Prepositions of Direction
To refer to a direction, use the prepositions "to," "in," "into," "on," and "onto."

 She drove to the store.

 Don’t ring the doorbell. Come right in(to) the house.
 Drive on(to) the grass and park the car there.

Prepositions of Time
To refer to one point in time, use the prepositions "in," "at," and "on."
Use "in" with parts of the day (not specific times), months, years, and seasons.

 He reads in the evening.

 The weather is cold in December.
 She was born in 1996.
 We rake leaves in the fall.

Use "at" with the time of day. Also use "at" with noon, night, and midnight.

 I go to work at 8:00.
 He eats lunch at noon.
 She often goes for a walk at night.
 They go to bed at midnight.

Use "on" with days.

 I work on Saturdays.
 He does laundry on Wednesdays.

To refer to extended time, use the prepositions "since," "for," "by," "during," "from…to," "from…until,"
"with," and "within."

 I have lived in Minneapolis since 2005. (I moved there in 2005 and still live there.)
 He will be in Toronto for 3 weeks. (He will spend 3 weeks in Toronto.)
 She will finish her homework by 6:00. (She will finish her homework sometime between now and
6:00.)
 He works part time during the summer. (For the period of time throughout the summer.)
 I will collect data from January to June. (Starting in January and ending in June.)
 They are in school from August until May. (Starting in August and ending in May.)
 She will graduate within 2 years. (Not longer than 2 years.)

Prepositions of Place
To refer to a place, use the prepositions "in" (the point itself), "at" (the general vicinity), "on" (the surface),
and "inside" (something contained).

 They will meet in the lunchroom.

 She was waiting at the corner.
 He left his phone on the bed.
 Place the pen inside the drawer.

To refer to an object higher than a point, use the prepositions "over" and "above." To refer to an object
lower than a point, use the prepositions "below," "beneath," "under," and "underneath."

 The bird flew over the house.

 The plates were on the shelf above the cups.
 Basements are dug below ground.
 There is hard wood beneath the carpet.
 The squirrel hid the nuts under a pile of leaves.
 The cat is hiding underneath the box.

To refer to an object close to a point, use the prepositions "by," "near," "next to," "between," "among,"
and "opposite."

 The gas station is by the grocery store.

 The park is near her house.
 Park your bike next to the garage.
 There is a deer between the two trees.
 There is a purple flower among the weeds.
 The garage is opposite the house.

Prepositions of Location
To refer to a location, use the prepositions "in" (an area or volume), "at" (a point), and "on" (a surface).

 They live in the country. (an area)

 She will find him at the library. (a point)
 There is a lot of dirt on the window. (a surface)

Prepositions of Spatial Relationships

To refer to a spatial relationship, use the prepositions "above," "across," "against," "ahead of," "along,"
"among," "around," "behind," "below,"
"beneath," "beside," "between," "from," "in front of," "inside," "near," "off," "out of," "through," "toward,"
"under," and "within."

 The post office is across the street from the grocery store.
 We will stop at many attractions along the way.
 The kids are hiding behind the tree.
 His shirt is off.
 Walk toward the garage and then turn left.
  Place a check mark within the box.

Prepositions Following Verbs and Adjectives

Some verbs and adjectives are followed by a certain preposition. Sometimes verbs and adjectives can be
followed by different prepositions, giving the phrase different meanings. To find which prepositions follow
the verb or an adjective, look up the verb or adjective in an online dictionary, such as Merriam Webster, or
use a corpus, such as The Corpus of Contemporary American English. Memorizing these phrases instead
of just the preposition alone is the most helpful.

Some Common Verb + Preposition Combinations

About: worry, complain, read

 He worries about the future.

 She complained about the homework.
 I read about the flooding in the city.

At: arrive (a building or event), smile, look

 He arrived at the airport 2 hours early.

 The children smiled at her.
 She looked at him.

From: differ, suffer

 The results differ from my original idea.

 She suffers from dementia.

For: account, allow, search

 Be sure to account for any discrepancies.

 I returned the transcripts to the interviewees to allow for revisions to be made.
 They are searching for the missing dog.

In: occur, result, succeed

 The same problem occurred in three out of four cases.

 My recruitment strategies resulted in finding 10 participants.
 She will succeed in completing her degree.

Of: approve, consist, smell

 I approve of the idea.

 The recipe consists of three basic ingredients.
 The basement smells of mildew.

On: concentrate, depend, insist

 He is concentrating on his work.

  They depend on each other.
 I must insist on following this rule.

To: belong, contribute, lead, refer

 Bears belong to the family of mammals.

 I hope to contribute to the previous research.
 My results will lead to future research on the topic.
 Please refer to my previous explanation.

With: (dis)agree, argue, deal

 I (dis)agree with you.

 She argued with him.
 They will deal with the situation.

A conjunction is a word that is used to connect words, phrases, and clauses. There are many
conjunctions in the English language, but some common ones include and, or, but, because, for, if,
and when.

There are three basic types of conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating, and correlative.

Because the popstar caught a terrible cold, her upcoming performances in Boston and Chicago were
indefinitely postponed. The tour organizers provided neither rescheduled dates nor refunds for the
tickets, causing much discontent among the fans.

Table of contents

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Coordinating conjunctions
This type of conjunction is used to connect items that are grammatically equal: two words, two phrases, or
two independent clauses. There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English, and you can remember
them using the mnemonic device FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.

A conjunction of this type is placed between the items that it links together.

Words
Coordinating conjunctions can join two nouns, verbs, adjectives, or other types of word.

 The data was gathered through questionnaires and interviews.

 I don’t like to run or swim.
 He was clever but lazy.

Phrases
They can also join different types of phrases.
  The dog wagged his tail and panted excitedly.
 The results were undeniably intriguing yet ultimately inconclusive.
 She usually studies in the library or at a cafe.

Independent clauses
A clause is a group of words that contains at least a subject and a verb. An independent clause can stand
on its own as a full sentence, expressing a complete thought.

 Today Jane Austen is one of the most widely read English novelists, but she achieved little fame
during her lifetime.

In the sentence above, the coordinating conjunction but creates a relationship between two independent
clauses. Therefore, you place a comma before but. Notice that the two clauses also work as sentences
on their own.

 Today Jane Austen is one of the most widely read English novelists. She achieved little fame
during her lifetime.

Punctuating coordinating conjunctions

When joining two words or phrases with a coordinating conjunction, do not use a comma.

 Comma error  Correction

Data was gathered through questionnaires, and interviews. Data was gathered through questionnaires and interviews.

She usually studies in the library, or at a cafe. She usually studies in the library or at a cafe.

In these examples, the conjunction joins two words or phrases that are connected to a single verb
(gathered and studies), so you shouldn’t place a comma before and.

When joining two independent clauses, however, use a comma before the conjunction.

 Comma error  Correction

Data was gathered through questionnaires and selected Data was gathered through questionnaires, and selected
respondents participated in interviews. respondents participated in interviews.

She usually studies in the library but when it is too busy she She usually studies in the library, but when it is too busy she goes to
goes to a cafe. a cafe.

In these examples, the clauses before and after the conjunction could both stand as full sentences on
their own, so a comma is required.

Subordinating conjunctions
This type of conjunction includes words like because, if, although, since, until, and while. A subordinating
conjunction is used to introduce a dependent clause.

In contrast to an independent clause, a dependent clause (also known as a subordinate clause) is a

group of words that contains a subject and a verb but cannot stand as a complete sentence on its own. A
dependent clause does not express a complete idea, so it must always be attached to an independent
clause.
  Because I woke up late this morning. I went to school without eating breakfast.
 Because I woke up late this morning, I went to school without eating breakfast.
 I went to school without eating breakfast because I woke up late this morning.

I woke up late this morning is an independent clause, but the subordinating conjunction because turns
it into a dependent clause: Because I woke up late this morning does not finish a complete thought. It
must be joined to an independent clause to form a grammatically correct sentence.

The subordinating conjunction defines the relationship between the clauses. The table below shows some
common subordinating conjunctions and the relationships they express, but note that this is not a
complete list.

Relationship

Cause and

Place where, wherever

Condition if, unless, in case

Contrast although, though, whereas

Punctuating subordinating conjunctions

When a subordinating conjunction follows an independent clause, a comma is often not necessary. In general, when the de
contains essential information about the independent clause, don’t use a comma.

 Correction
 Comma error

She will receive a major bonus, if she succeeds in closing the She will receive a major bonus if she succeeds in closing the
corporate partnership deal. corporate partnership deal.

John’s friends snuck into his apartment to set up a surprise John’s friends snuck into his apartment to set up a surprise
party, while he was at work. party while he was at work.

However, when the subordinating conjunction comes at the beginning of the sentence, use a comma at the end of the depe

 Correction
 Comma error

If she succeeds in closing the corporate partnership deal she will If she succeeds in closing the corporate partnership deal, she will
receive a major bonus. receive a major bonus.
Relationship

 Correction
 Comma error

While John was at work his friends snuck into his apartment to set While John was at work, his friends snuck into his apartment to se
up a surprise party. up a surprise party.

Check for common mistakes

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Correlative conjunctions
This type of conjunction always comes in a pair and is used to join grammatically equal elements in a sentence. Common p
or, neither … nor, not only … but also, and both … and. In most cases, no comma should be used between the two elemen

 Her book on the Vietnam War drew not only from interviews with other survivors but also from her own experienc

Correlative conjunctions must use parallel structure, which means the two elements should take the same grammatical form

 She planned to collect data by either using an online survey or phone interviews.
 She planned to collect data by either using an online survey or conducting phone interviews.

Starting a sentence with a conjunction

Beginner writers are often taught that sentences should not begin with a coordinating conjunction. However, it is not strictly
sentence with a conjunction, and you may find it used effectively by skilled writers to create emphasis.

Governments often seek to gain favor from voters by prioritising economic development over environmental sustainability.
planet and future generations?
Relationship

While such usage has become acceptable in popular and literary language, it is generally best avoided in academic writing

A subordinating conjunction can come at the start of a sentence, but only if the dependent clause is followed by an indepen

Until the company reaches a satisfactory agreement with the union, the workers will remain on strike.

A dependent clause on its own is known as a sentence fragment.

How long will the strike go on for? Until the company reaches a satisfactory agreement with the union.

Although fragments are often used in speech and informal writing, they should generally be avoided in academic writing.

effect

Time

An interjection is a word or phrase used to express a feeling or to request or demand something. While
interjections are a part of speech, they are not grammatically connected to other parts of a sentence.

Interjections are common in everyday speech and informal writing. While some interjections such as
“well” and “indeed” are acceptable in formal conversation, it’s best to avoid interjections in formal
or academic writing.

Examples: Interjections in a sentenceWow! That bird is huge.

Uh-oh. I forgot to get gas.

We’re not lost. We just need to go, um, this way.

Psst, what’s the answer to number four?

How are interjections used in sentences?

Interjections add meaning to a sentence or context by expressing a feeling, making a demand, or
emphasizing a thought.

Interjections can be either a single word or a phrase, and they can be used on their own or as part of a
sentence.

Examples: Uses of interjections Phew!

Shoot, I’ve broken a nail.

Oh really? I didn’t know that.
As interjections are a grammatically independent part of speech, they can often be excluded from a
sentence without impacting its meaning.

Examples: Sentences with and without interjections

 Oh boy, I’m tired.

 I’m tired.
 Ouch! That hurts!
 That hurts!

Primary interjections
A primary interjection is a word or sound that can only be used as an interjection. Primary interjections
do not have alternative meanings and can’t function as another part of speech (i.e., noun, verb,
or adjective).

Primary interjections are typically just sounds without a clear etymology. As such, while they sometimes
have standard spellings, a single interjection may be written in different ways (e.g., “um-hum” or “mm-
hmm”).

Examples: Primary interjections in a sentenceUgh! That’s disgusting.

Um-hum. I think that could work.

We won the game. Yippee!

Secondary interjections
A secondary interjection is a word that is typically used as another part of speech (such as
a noun, verb, or adjective) that can also be used as an interjection.

Examples: Secondary interjections in a sentenceGoodness! That was a close one.

Shoot! My flight has been canceled.

Awesome! Do that trick again.

Volitive interjections
A volitive interjection is used to give a command or make a request. For example, the volitive
interjection “shh” or “shush” is used to command someone to be quiet.

Examples: Volitive interjections in a sentenceShh! I can’t focus when you’re singing.

Psst. Pass me an eraser.

Ahem. Please pay attention.

Emotive interjections
An emotive interjection is used to express an emotion or to indicate a reaction to something. For
example, the emotive interjection “ew” is used to express disgust.

Curse words, also called expletives, are commonly used (in informal contexts) as emotive interjections to
express frustration or anger.
Examples: Emotive interjections in a sentenceEw. I’m not eating that.
Yay! I’m so excited to see you.

Yum! This apple pie is delicious.

Cognitive interjections
A cognitive interjection is used to express a thought or indicate a thought process. For example, the
cognitive interjection “um” can express confusion or indicate that the speaker is thinking.

Examples: Cognitive interjections in a sentenceUm, can you explain it once more?

Wow! I wasn’t expecting that.

Eureka! I’ve solved the puzzle.

Greetings and parting words

Greetings and parting words/phrases are interjections used to acknowledge or welcome someone or to
express good wishes at the end of a conversation.

Examples: Greetings and parting words/phrases in a sentenceHey!

Hello! It’s good to see you.

Bye!

See you soon! Drive safe.

Interjections and punctuation

How an interjection is punctuated depends on the context and the intensity of the emotion or thought
being expressed.

Exclamation points are most commonly used along with interjections to emphasize the intensity of an
emotion, thought, or demand.

When the emotion or thought being expressed is less extreme, an interjection can also be followed by a
period. If an interjection is used to express uncertainty or to ask a question, it should be followed by
a question mark.

Examples: Interjections and punctuationOh. I don’t know.

We’ve just won the lottery. Hurray!

Hmm?
When an interjection is used as part of a sentence, it should be set off from the rest of the sentence
using commas.

Examples: Interjections within a sentenceHmm, how are we going to do this?

It was an interesting lecture, indeed.

The project is, uh, going well.