BASICS OF AVIATION 2

INSTRUMENTS
INSTRUMENTS

1. Pitot-static Instruments

2. Gyroscopic Instruments

3. Compass

4. Garmin G5

5. VHF Radio

6. Transponder
FUNDAMENTALS (PRESSURE)
• Pressure = force per unit area
• Total pressure = static pressure + dynamic pressure
• Static pressure -> ambient pressure
• Dynamic pressure -> from the movement of a gas
• Units
• Pounds per square inch [psi]
• Inches of mercury [inHg]
• Bar [bar]
• Pascal [pa]
THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA)
• Model (idealized) atmosphere for aviation
calculations, instrument calibration, performance
calculations
• Conditions at mean sea level (MSL)
• Temperature: 15 °C
• Pressure: 1013,25 mb (29,92 inHg, 1013 hPa)
• Density: 1,225 kg/m3
• Characteristics
• Temperature lapse rate: 2°C/1000ft until 36 000 feet
(tropopause)
• Pressure lapse rate: 1 mb/30ft
• All instruments are calibrated using ISA
PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM
• Air pressure measurement
• Total Pressure
• Static Pressure
• (Dynamic Pressure)

Static Only Pitot and Static

Altimeter Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
ALTIMETER
• Pressure Altimeter
• Displays the outside pressure as altitude (static
pressure)
• Need to be compensated for different ambient
pressures (due to pressure zones), adjustment
knob
• Static pressure is introduced
into the instrument casing,
sealed aneroid capsules cause
the movement of the needles
ALTIMETER DEFINITIONS
• Pressure Setting for ambient pressure compensation, reference level (comparison
of the current ambient pressure to the reference pressure set):
• STD – 1013 hPa reference pressure
• QNH – Mean Sea Level reference (altimeter will show altitude above mean sea level – AMSL)
• QFE – Ground Level reference (Altimeter will show altitude above the ground reference –
above ground level, AGL)
• Normally a local QNH is used so every airbourne plane uses the same reference
(separation)
• Above a certain level instead of the local QNH the Standard (1013) setting is used
• Transition Altitude
• 10 000 ft in Hungary
ALTIMETRY
• Average pressure drop: 1 hPa / 27 ft
• For every-day use: 1 hPa / 30 ft

980

ALT: 0000 ft
SET: 1013

1013

1000 ft
Mean Sea Level (MSL)
ALTIMETRY
• QNH – Calculated air pressure value to give altitude above Mean Sea Level

967

ALT: 0390 ft
SET: 1013

1000

1000 ft
Mean Sea Level (MSL)

13 hPa
Reference Level (1013)
ALTIMETRY
• QNH – Calculated air pressure value to give altitude above Mean Sea Level

967

ALT: 0000 ft
SET: 1000

1000

1000 ft
Mean Sea Level (MSL)
ALTIMETRY
• QNH – Calculated air pressure value to give altitude above Mean Sea Level

ALT: 0990 ft
SET: 1000
967

1000

1000 ft
Mean Sea Level (MSL)
ALTIMETRY
• QFE – Pressure setting for field elevation, ground is 0

ALT: 0000 ft
SET: 0967
967

Reference Level (967)

1000

1000 ft
Mean Sea Level (MSL)
ALTIMETER DEFINITIONS
• Height
• Airplane height above the ground
• Elevation
• Ground elevation above mean sea level
• Altitude
• Airplane altitude above mean sea level
• Pressure Altitude
• Altitude with 1013 subscale setting
(regardless of local QNH)
• True Altitude
• Altitude of levels of equal pressure
changes with temperature variations.
• Altitude corrected for temperature
THE VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (VSI)
• Displays rate of climb or descend
• Senses rate of change of static by comparing the
present static pressure with the static pressure
measured a few seconds earlier
THE VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (VSI)
• Delay
• The actual vertical speed is readout is delayed due to the working principles of the
instrument
• Takes a few seconds for the VSI to display accurately
• Scale
• Linear
• Linear up to a point, then exponential
• Unit
• Feet/minute
THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR
• Measures dynamic pressure
• Total pressure – static pressure
• Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
• Calibrated in speed (mph, kts)
• Only accurate in ISA conditions at sea level
• Aerodynamic forces however are the same
for indicated speeds, regardless

Conversion
1 knot = 1,852 km/h
1 mph = 0,87 knot
1 knot = 1,15 mph
SPEEDS
• IAS – Indicated Airspeed IAS TAS

• Aircraft stall and stress are determined by dynamic

pressure 5000 ft
• IAS is a direct function of dynamic pressure
• Aircraft IAS listed speed values are almost always the
same irrespective of altitude, temperature, density
• TAS – True Airspeed IAS TAS

• IAS corrected for altitude and non-standard Sea Level

temperature
• Because air density decreases with an increase in
altitude, an aircraft has to be flown faster at higher IAS TAS
altitudes to cause the same pressure difference
between pitot impact pressure and static pressure.

Altitude
• TAS is not measured, it is always calculated based on
ambient parameters

Relationship of IAS and TAS in standard atmosphere

SPEEDS
• Ground Speed
• TAS +/- wind component

17kts -> HWC = Headwind component

10kts 30°

GS=TAS-HWC
GS=120-17=103 kts
100 KIAS
120 TAS

• GS=TAS-HWC
• GS=TAS+TWC
 AIRCRAFT LIMITING SPEEDS
VS0 – Stall speed in the landing
configuration
VNE – Never exceed speed

VS1 – Stall speed in a specified

configuration (clean)

VFE – Maximum Flap Extension

Caution Range – Only in smooth air speed

VNO – Maximum Normal

Operating speed
Normal Operating Range
BEST ANGLE OF CLIMB VS. BEST RATE OF CLIMB SPEEDS
• Vy – Best Rate of Climb Speed
• Most altitude gained over time
• Vx – Best Angle of Climb Speed
• Most altitude gained over distance
• Frequently used after take-off to clear from obstacles
PITOT-STATIC INSTRUMENT ERRORS
• Mechanical errors
• Friction and manufacture imperfections within the instrument
• Can be corrected
• Example calibrated airspeed (CAS)
• Position (pressure) errors
• Caused by the position of pressure ports on the airframe
• Interference
• Manoeuvre-induced Error
• The angle at which pressure is sensed
(especially total pressure) can change
depending on the manoeuvre
• Temperature error
• Non-standard temperature
PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM BLOCKAGE
Blocked pitot tube, free static port

3. What happens to the indication of Free pitot tube, blocked

these instruments? static port

Causes of blockage
• Foreign object
• Ice 2. What happens to the indication of
• Improper pre-flight the ASI? What about the other
inspection instruments?
1. What can cause blockage?
SUMMARY ON PITOT-STATIC INSTRUMENTS
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdFGbUouE_4&ab_channel=ERAUSpecialVF
R
INSTRUMENTS

1. Pitot-static Instruments

2. Gyroscopic Instruments

3. Compass

4. Garmin G5

5. VHF Radio

6. Transponder
GYROSCOPES
• A mechanical gyroscope, or gyro, is comprised of a wheel or rotor with its mass
concentrated around its perimeter. The rotor has bearings to enable it to spin at
high speeds.
• Powered by air or electricity
 GYROSCOPE’S PROPERTIES
• Rigidity
• The gyro’s property of maintaining its axis in a fixed
direction in space unless subjected to an external force.
• Precession
• An applied force to the axis of the spinning gyro does not
cause the axis to tilt
• The gyro responds as though the force was applied 90°
around in the direction of rotation of the gyro rotor

It can also be noticeable with propellers

DIRECTIONAL GYRO
• Provides stable directional reference (Heading)
• No magnetic element
• Must be synchronised with the magnetic compass
• Needs to be reset after some time (wander)
THE VACUUM SYSTEM
• Used to spin gyroscopes inside instruments (which are not electrically powered)
• A vacuum pump is connected to the engine (engine-driven) that sucks
air form the cabin through a filter
• The lower pressure causes the air to move that is directed through the
instruments and makes the gyroscopes spin fast
• System is not affected by electric
failure
• Pilot is able to assess the system
operation by looking at the
suction gauge
• With low vacuum pressure the
instruments will become inaccurate
TURN COORDINATOR
• Indicates direction and magnitude of a turn
• Rate 1 turn
• 3° of heading change per second
• Also contains a slip indicator (Inclinometer)
• Gives a direct indication of the state of balance of
the turn
• The heavy ball behaves like a pendulum, with the
centre of curvature of the tube acting as the
effective point of suspension
SLIP INDICATOR
• Slipping Turn

• Skidding Turn
 ATTITUDE INDICATOR (ARTIFICIAL HORIZON)
• Replicates real horizon
• Provides information about the aircraft’s attitude (pitch and roll)
• Allows for precise attitude flying with marking for pitch and bank

Airplane
Symbol

Electronic Attitude Indicator

ATTITUDE INDICATOR DISPLAY EXAMPLES
SUMMARY ON GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hVsx4XWafXg&ab_channel=ERAUSpecialVFR
INSTRUMENTS

1. Pitot-static Instruments

2. Gyroscopic Instruments

3. Compass

4. Garmin G5

5. VHF Radio

6. Transponder
DIRECT READING MAGNETIC COMPASS
• Work based on terrestrial magnetism using a freely suspended magnet
• Indicates aircraft heading (the airplane’s longitudinal axis) in relation to
the magnetic north pole
• The magnet is suspended in liquid A freely suspended magnet in
• Indication is subject to turbulence, vibrations the Earth’s magnetic field will
align itself roughly north-south.
• Turning and accelerating errors
• Only reliable in straight unaccelerated
flight
• Indication check before take-off

North-seeking pole
 MAGNETIC VARIATION
• The Earth’s magnetic and geographic poles are not aligned
• North magnetic pole = Magnetic North
• Geographic pole = True North
• The angle between magnetic and true north is called
magnetic variation and its magnitude depends on the
geographical location
• Local magnetic variation is printed on aeronautical charts
• Aeronautical maps are oriented true north, however in flight
navigation is based on magnetic directions

Variation WEST, compass BEST

Variation EAST, compass LEAST
MAGNETIC DEVIATION
• Error caused by magnetism on board the aircraft
• Permanent magnets
• Electronic equipment
• Radio, Running engine
• Can be corrected up to a degree by maintenance with compensation magnets
(compass swing)
• Compass card
• Show what compass heading to turn for a given
magnetic heading
DIRECTIONS
• Heading – Angle of aircraft’s longitudinal axes in relation to North
• Track – Angle of flight path in relation to North

VAR: 4°E

True Heading: 290

Magnetic THeading: 286

20°
True Track: 270
Magnetic Track: 266
SUMMARY ON COMPASS
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4dDKjdj_Dvc&ab_channel=ERAUSpecialVFR
INSTRUMENTS

1. Pitot-static Instruments

2. Gyroscopic Instruments

3. Compass

4. Garmin G5

5. VHF Radio

6. Transponder
GARMIN G5
• Electronic flight instrument
• Combines multiple instruments in one
equipment
• Primary Flight Display (PFD)
• Attitude Indicator, Airspeed Indicator,
Altimeter, VSI…
• Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator
(EHSI)
• Electronic compass with heading, bearing
and distance information

• Contains a built-in backup battery

GARMIN G5 Altitude Bug

• Turn knob
• Altimeter pressure setting
• Navigation inside the menu
• Changing a value in the menu
• Altitude bug
• A pre-selected altitude for reminder

ON/OFF

Selection of altimeter
Selection of altimeter
setting / value change
setting
in menu Menu access /
Enter a menu
option
GARMING G5 – PRIMARY FLIGHT DISPLAY
Heding Altitude
Rate 1 turn Heading Bug
bank angle Bug

Aircraft
Symbol
Trend
Vector Vertical
Speed
Indicator
Airspeed
Indicator Altimeter
Ground
Speed Course
Deviation
Turn Rate Indicator
Indicator Slip/Skid
Indicator QNH
GARMIN G5 – HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR

Magnetic Magnetic
Track Heading

Distance to
the next Heading
waypoint Bug

Aircraft
Ground
Speed
INSTRUMENTS

1. Pitot-static Instruments

2. Gyroscopic Instruments

3. Compass

4. Garmin G5

5. VHF Radio

6. Transponder
VHF RADIO
• Voice radio is the primary form of communication
• Separate frequencies for regions, airports, airspace sectors etc…
• Simplex system -> only one user can transmit at a time on a given frequency
• If someone transmits on the frequency everyone on that frequency can hear them but no
one else can transmit
• Radio waves
• Electromagnetic waves that carry information
• VHF radio waves propagate with line-of-sight (if theoretically the receiver and transmitter
could see each other a successful transmission can be made)
• Frequency
• Number of oscillations per second of a radio wave
• Carrier frequency
• A designated frequency used to put information
on it
 VHF RADIO EQUIPMENT
• Pilots should be on the correct frequency to be able to participate in the
communication
Status codes:
• Communication (COM) frequency band: 118,000-137,000 MHz • TX – Transmission
• Separation of the channels by 8,33 kHz (0,008 MHz) • RX - Reveive

Standby Frequency that can

Active Frequency be selected with the knob Transmitting is done by
holding down the transmit
button on the yoke

Change button – Puts the standby ON/OFF and volume knob

frequency to active, and the active
to standby
RADIO COMMUNICATION
• Callsign
• Aircraft Registration
• Ground facility (tower, AFIS, FIC)
• Calling a station
• [Called Callsign]* [Message] [Our Callsign]
• Responding to a call
• [Response message] [Our Callsign]
• Read-back items
• QNH
• Runway-related items
• Transponder codes
• Instructions related to altitude, heading, speed
• (Clearances)

*The called callsign may be omitted after

communication has been established
INSTRUMENTS

1. Pitot-static Instruments

2. Gyroscopic Instruments

3. Compass

4. Garmin G5

5. VHF Radio

6. Transponder
TRANSPONDER
• Also known as secondary radar
• Used by air traffic controllers to identify aircraft
• Used by collision avoidance systems on more sophisticated aircrafts
• Device that transmits a pre-selected code (given by ATC and set by the pilot) and
altitude information*
• The ATC system links the code to the plane’s flight plan to display identification information
on the radar of the controller
• Altitude and other information also displayed
• Transponder is usually switched to active mode
before take-off and stays in that mode until the
airplane leaves the runway

*Advanced transponders can transmit multiple flight parameters.

TRANSPONDER OPERATION
• Modes Altitude information is
• SBY – Standby (No transmission) received from an altitude
encoder (separate altitude
• ON – Transmit identification number only (mode Alpha)
measuring device for the
• ALT – Transmit SQUAWK number and ALT (mode transponder).
Charlie)
• Mode Sierra – Transmit many type of data
• IDENT – Identification on request by ATC (highlights the
aircraft on the radar screen)
• 4 digit code
• Given by ATC if a flight plan was submitted
• The code is in octal base (0-7)
• Special codes
• 7500 – Unlawful interference
• 7600 – Communication error (radio error)
• 7700 – Emergency VFR button – resets The code received from ATC
the code to the default is referred to as the
VFR code ’7000’ ’squawk’ code.
SUMMARY ON FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
• https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak/m
edia/10_phak_ch8.pdf
Address: PHARMAFLIGHT Zrt. 4030 Debrecen Szatke Ferenc u. 1. Hungary
Tel: +36 52 870 270
Fax: +36 1 870 271
Email: [email protected]