FEB 423 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 2

1.1 WHAT IS HEAT TRANSFER? ................................................................................................................................................. 2

1.2 WHY WE SHOULD LEARN HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER?................................................................................................ 2

1.3 MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER .................................................................................................................................... 2

2 CONDUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 2

2.1 RATE EQUATION FOR CONDUCTION................................................................................................................................ 2

2.2 SOME IMPORTANT PARAMETERS IN CONDUCTION ........................................................................................................ 4

Thermal conductivity ........................................................................................................................................................................... 4

2.3 WHY WE SHOULD KNOW K OF EACH MATERIAL ............................................................................................................ 5

2.3.1 Thermal equilibrium ............................................................................................................................................................ 6

3 CONVECTION ........................................................................................................................................... 6

3.1 RATE EQUATION FOR CONVECTION ................................................................................................................................ 6

3.2 TYPES OF CONVECTION ...................................................................................................................................................... 7

4 RADIATION................................................................................................................................................ 8

4.1 RATE EQUATION FOR RADIATION .................................................................................................................................... 8

4.2 RADIATION IN AN ENCLOSURE ......................................................................................................................................... 9

4.3 EXAMPLES ........................................................................................................................................................................... 10

5 INTRODUCTION TO MASS TRANSFER............................................................................................... 12

5.1.1 Definition of concentration ................................................................................................................................................. 12

5.2 EXAMPLE OF MASS TRANSFER PROCESSES ................................................................................................................... 12

5.3 MODES OF MASS TRANSFER: ............................................................................................................................................. 13

5.4 MASS TRANSFER PROCESS EXAMPLES ............................................................................................................................. 13

5.5 EVAPORATIVE COOLING ........................................................................................................................................ 13

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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 What is heat transfer?
Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a spatial temperature difference. Whenever a
temperature difference exists in a medium or between media, heat transfer must occur. Heat always
moves from a warmer place to a cooler place. Hot objects in a cooler room will cool to room
temperature while cold objects in a warmer room will heat up to room temperature.
1.2 Why we should learn Heat and mass transfer?
As engineers, it is important that we understand the physical mechanisms which underlie

the heat transfer modes and that we be able to use the rate equations that quantify the

amount of energy being transferred per unit time.

1.3 Mechanisms of heat transfer
There are 3 mechanisms of heat transfer, namely:

1. Conduction - heat transfer that will occur across the medium. (Surface to surface)
2. Convection - heat transfer that will occur between a surface and a moving fluid when they
are at different temperatures (surface to fluid)
3. Radiation - All surfaces of finite temperature emit energy in the form of electromagnetic
waves. Hence, in the absence of an intervening medium, there is net heat transfer by
radiation between two surfaces at different temperatures. (Direct exchange across space)

2 CONDUCTION
Conduction is the mechanism of heat transfer that occurs across the medium. (Surface to surface) i.e.,
direct transfer of heat. Heat is transferred as a result of the energy imparted between adjacent
molecules. Heat transfer through conduction is affected by the ability of the touching objects to
-1

conduct heat that is called thermal conductivity, and is denoted by letter k. It’s Expressed as W m
-1

K and is a physical property for gas, liquid and solid.

Conduction also arises from the movement of free electrons in the metals which accounts for the
high thermal conductivities. In fluids, it occurs as a result of the kinetic energy transfer between one
molecule to another.
2.1 Rate equation for conduction
Heat transfer processes can be quantified in terms of appropriate rate equations. These

equations may be used to compute the amount of energy being transferred per unit time.

For heat conduction, the rate equation is known as Fourier’s law.

The Fourier law of heat conduction is written as:

2
Where;

T is the Temperature difference: T and T in Kelvin, K

1 2

-1 -1
k is the Thermal conductivity, W m K
2
A is the heat transfer area in m

x is the Thickness of the material in m

Q is the heat transfer rate by conduction (Quantity of Heat)

Heat transfer by conduction occurs from a high temperature region to the low temperature region.
The driving force of this heat transfer is the temperature gradient, Q = -kAdT/L and R =L/KA, V
= IR, I = V/R

Considering the finite slab of material shown in Figure below,

Since T2< T1, the heat flows from left to right

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The one-dimensional conduction temperature gradient is:

Hence for this situation the transfer law can also be written

q is the Heat flux: q=Q/A

The heat flux, q is the heat transfer rate in the x-direction per unit area perpendicular

to the direction of transfer, and it is proportional to the temperature gradient, dT/dx.

2.2 Some important parameters in conduction
Thermal conductivity -is the ability of the touching objects to conduct heat. It’s denoted by letter k
-1 -1

and expressed as W m K and is a physical property for gas, liquid and solid. The numerical value of
k indicates how fast heat will flow in a given material. If molecules move fasters (gas), the faster they
will transport energy. So, value of k depends on the molecules structure (gas, liquid or solid)

Thermal conductivity in:

Gas
• If temperature is higher, the molecules have higher velocities
• Molecules are in continuous random motion and will colliding with one another and
exchanging the energy and momentum
• The random motion of gas molecules happen whether/ not a temperature gradient exist in
gas
• If molecules move from higher temperature region to low temperature region, it transport
kinetic energy to lower temp. part of system (through collisions molecules)
• The faster molecules move, the faster they will transport energy.

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 Liquid
• The molecules are move closely space
• Exchange energy in collision process

Solid
• Thermal energy conducted in solid by 2 modes: lattice vibration and transport by
free electron

2.3 Why we should know k of each material

• Design of Heat Exchangers

• Food and Process Eng.: To design the equipment in process especially in storage and
transport. Heat Exchangers
• Environmental Applications: Cooling Waste Water Before Discharge to Environment

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2.3.1 Thermal equilibrium

A body is said to be in thermal equilibrium when temperature doesn’t change with time. If any
unbalance occurs the body will try to balance with environment.

3 CONVECTION
Convection is the Transfer of heat between an object and fluid (Surface to fluid). Transfer of heat by
bulk transport and mixing of macroscopic elements of warmer portions with cooler portion in a gas
or liquid. Transfer is affected by

i) the speed with which the Fluid is moving

ii) the ability of the object to conduct heat

• The velocity, u reduce to 0 at the plate as a result of viscous action. Because of that, heat
must be transferred only by conduction at that point (wall).
• Convection heat transfer depends on the viscosity and the thermal properties of the fluid
(k, cp, ρ)
• Viscosity influences the velocity profile
• Boiling & condensation example of convection phenomena
3.1 Rate equation for convection
Heat transfer processes can be quantified in terms of appropriate rate equations. These

equations may be used to compute the amount of energy being transferred per unit time. For heat
convection, the rate equation is known as Newton’s law of cooling and is written as:

Where;

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T is the Temperature difference between wall and fluid: Tw and Tf [K]

-2 -1
h cv is the Convective heat transfer coefficient in W m K
2
A is the Heat transfer area in m

Qcv is the Heat transfer rate by convection

3.2 Types of convection

1. Forced convection: Fluid is forced to flow past a solid surface by a mechanical means.
2. Natural (free) convection: Heat circulation due to fluid density difference resulting from
the temperature variation throughout a region of the fluid

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4 RADIATION
Radiation is the transfer of energy across the space by means of electromagnetic waves. This is the
same way as the electromagnetic light waves transmitting light (Direct exchange across space)

• Electromagnetic radiation which is propagated because of temperature different called

thermal radiation
• Ideal thermal radiation/ black body radiation will emit energy at a rate proportional to
the fourth power of the absolute temp. of the body and directly proportional to its surface
area
• Black-body is a Black surface (a piece of metal recovered with carbon black)
4.1 Rate equation for radiation
Heat transfer processes can be quantified in terms of appropriate rate equations. These

equations may be used to compute the amount of energy being transferred per unit time. For heat
convection, the rate equation is known as Stefan-Boltzmann Law and is written as:

4 4

Q = σ A (T – T )
emitted 1 2

Where;
-8 2 4
Emissivity, σ, and relates the radiation on the ‘gray surface’, the value of σ = 5.669 x 10 W/m . K

T is the Temperature difference

2
A is the Heat transfer area in m

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Q is the Heat transfer rate by radiation

Stefan-Boltzmann Law governs only radiation emitted by black-body. The net radiant exchange
between 2 surface proportional to the different in absolute temperature to the fourth power.

Not all the radiation leaving on surface will reach the other surface since electromagnetic radiation
leaving straight line & some be lost to the surroundings. Because of that, 2 new factors will be
considered

(i) F : Emissivity function and

ϵ
(ii) (ii) F : Geometric “view factor’ function
G
4.2 Radiation in an enclosure
Simple radiation problem is encountered when a heat transfer surface at temp., T completely enclosed
1
by a much large surface maintain at temp. T . So that, the net radiant exchange:
2

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4.3 Examples
Example 1

Calculate the heat conducted through a 0.2 m thick industrial furnace wall made of fireclay brick.
Measurements made during steady-state operation showed that the wall temperatures inside and
outside the furnace are 1500 and 1100 K respectively. The length of the wall is 1.2m and the height is
1m

(The thermal conductivity for fireclay brick is 1.7 W/m K)

Example 2:

One face of copper plate 3 cm thick is maintained at 400 °C, and the other face is maintained at 100
°C. How much heat is transferred through the plate?
2

Ans: 3.7 MW/m

Example 3:

Air at 20 °C blows over a hot plate 50 by 75 cm maintained at 250 °C. The convection heat transfer
2

coefficient is 25 W/m .K. Calculate the heat transfer.

Ans: 2.156 kW

Example 4:

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An electric current is passed through a wire 1 mm diameter and 10 cm long. The wire is submerged
in liquid water at atmospheric pressure, and the current is increased until the water boils. For this
2
situation h = 5000 W/m .K, and the water temperature will be 100°C. How much electric power must
be supplied to the wire to maintain the wire surface at 114 °C?

Ans: 21.99 W

Example 4:

Two infinite black plates at 800 °C and 300 °C exchange heat by radiation. Calculated the heat transfer
per unit area.
2

Ans: 69.03 kW/m

Exercise 1:

Calculate the rate of heat flow through a 0.5 m wide, 0.3 m high and 3 mm thick steel plate, having a
thermal conductivity of 45 W/m.k when the temp. of the surface at x=0 is maintain at a constant
temp. of 198 °C and its temp. at x=3 mm is 199.7 °C.

Exercise 2:

A refrigerator stands in a room where the air temp. is 20 °C. The surface temp. on the outside of the
refrigerator is 16 °C, the sides are 30 mm thick and have an equivalent thermal conductivity of 0.1
2
W/m.k. The heat transfer coefficient on the outside is 10 W/m .k. Assuming 1D conduction through
the sides, calculate the heat flow through refrigerator and the surface temp. on the inside

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5 INTRODUCTION TO MASS TRANSFER
Mass transfer may occur in a gas mixture, a liquid solution or solid. Mass transfer occurs whenever
there is a gradient in the concentration of a species. The basic mechanisms are the same whether the
phase is a gas, liquid, or solid.
5.1.1 Definition of concentration

• Number of molecules of each species present per unit volume (molecules/m3)

• Molar concentration of species i = Number of moles of i per unit volume (kmol/m3)
• Mass concentration = Mass of i per unit volume (kg/m3)

Whenever there is concentration difference in a medium, nature tends to equalize things by forcing a
flow from the high to the low concentration region.

Before After

The molecular transport process of mass is characterized by the general equation:

Rate of transfer process = driving force/resistance

5.2 Example of Mass Transfer Processes

• Consider a tank that is divided into two equal parts by a partition.

• Initially, the left half of the tank contains nitrogen N gas while the right half contains O
2 2
at the same temperature and pressure.
• When the partition is removed the N molecules will start diffusing into the air while the
2
O molecules diffuse into the N .
2 2
• If we wait long enough, we will have a homogeneous mixture of N and O in the tank.
2 2

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5.3 modes of mass transfer:

- Molecular diffusion
- Convective mass transfer
5.4 Mass transfer process examples

1. Drying of a solid using heat or dry gas

2. Adsorption of gas or liquid using a solid
3. Distillation using heat to create a vapour phase
4. Gas absorption using a liquid absorbent
5. Extraction of liquid or solid using a solvent that creates immiscible phases
6. Crystallization using cooling to create a solid phase

5.5 EVAPORATIVE COOLING

• Cooling through the evaporation of water is an old and effective method of lowering
temperature.
• Both plants and animals use this method to lower their temperatures.
• Trees, through the process of evapotranspiration, for example, remain cooler than their
environment.
• People accomplish the same thing when they perspire.
• For both trees and people, the underlying scientific principle is the same: when water
evaporates, that is, changes
from a liquid to a gas, it takes heat energy from the surrounding environment, thus leaving
its environment cooler.

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