Structure of the Earth – 7 p211

NB: Earth is about 4500 million years old

The Earth’s structure:

Core:
 Inner most part
 Made of Nickel & Iron
 Inner part of the core is solid
 Outer part of the core is molten
 Core has high thermal heat which was
 left over during formation of earth
 Due to:
 friction inside the Earth
 exothermic reactions that occurred in the rocks
NB: Core’s temperature is over 5000 0C

Mantle:
 Beneath Earth crust
 Temperature is about 1200 0C
 This Heats the mantle
 Keeping the mantle as a molten liquid rock
Conventional currents in Mantle
 The heat makes mantle to expand
 Become less dense
 This rises towards crust where it cools
 Gets denser
 And sinks again

Crust:
 Solid rock
 Made of metals & non-metals (mostly silicon)
 Resting on a fluid mantle
 Two types of crust are :
1. continental crust &
2. oceanic crust

Page 1 of 19 Tuesday, December 19, 2023

 Tectonics – 9 p233-237
NB: Long time ago people thought the Earth has always been the way it is now

In 1912 Alfred Wegener (a German scientist)

 Suggested that millions of years ago all the land was one piece
 Called Pangea “all land” – a supercontinent
 That broke into pieces which have been drifting apart
 For Several millions of years
 This is called Continental Drif

Continental Drift:
 The one huge piece of land mass broke up
 Into large irregular pieces of land
 called continental plates
 which then have been slowly drifting apart

Page 2 of 19 Tuesday, December 19, 2023

 Tectonics – 9 p233-237
Wegener’s continental Drift theory was not believed by some people;
Because Wegener could not explain how the continents drifted apart;

NB
Wegener also did not know that it is not only the continental plates that move/drift;

But we now know that:

 Earth’s crust is made of large pieces called
 tectonic plates
 some are:
 continental plates – form continents
 oceanic plates – covered by oceans
 the tectonic plates drifted apart
 due to the conventional currents in the liquid mantle (magma)
 Which is beneath the tectonic plates
 At a slow speed of about 0.6 cm – 10 cm per year
 (average 4 cm per year- about the speed at which your finger nails grow!)

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 Tectonic continued ….
Wegener’s Evidence of continental Drift:

Continental coast lines have:

1. Similar types of rocks e.g rocks in sedimentary layers
2. Shapes that can fit together (can interlock)
like a jigsaw puzzle;
3. Similar fossils – its unlikely that the similar fossils crossed the oceans
NB: remains of dead organisms that have turned to stones
Shapes of continental coasts lines can fit Fossil evidence (You don’t have to know their names)

Lab: Model of Drifting Plate tectonics Analysis

Materials: In your model for continental drift, state what the following
 Large cooking pot represents:
 Pieces of Polystyrene
 Water a) The polystyrene: ……………………………………………………………….
 Bunsen burner flame / heater
 Safety glasses b) the heat source: ……………………………………………………………….

Method c) the water: …………………………………………………………………………

1. Pour water in the cooking pot
2. Place it on tripod and above 2. Explain the strengths and weaknesses of this model of
Bunsen burner / continental drift.
cold electric heater
3. Place few pieces of polystyrene Strengths: …………………………………………………………………………
in the water
4. Wait for them to stop moving …………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Light the Bunsen burner
6. Reduce the flame to heat gently Weaknesses: …………………………………………………………………….
7. Observe while heating
………………………………………………………………….……………………..

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 Evidence of Tectonic plates:
NB:
 In the mid – ocean ridges, magma comes up
 From mantle
 Solidify to new rocks
 This pushes continents apart
NB:
 Direction that the magnetic crystals point is called alignment (line up in a particular way);

Magnetic Polarity evidence (molten then solidified magnetic crystals):

 Magnetite is a magnetic material – basal lava;

 which when it changes from molten to solid;
 The magnetitic field around its solid crystal align to point at North pole
 At the time the solid crystals were formed;

Crystals of solid magnetic rocks in same continent:

a) Formed in recent times point at current magnetic north

in all continents
b) Formed years ago in all continents, pointed in same direction
but different from current magnetic north;

Crystals of solid magnetic rocks in oceans:

a) Mid-ocean ridges have their crystals are aligned facing the current north pole;
this suggest the rocks were formed recently

b) further from mid-ocean ridges crystals in magnetic rocks face in different direction:

This suggest these rocks are older;

and were formed when magnetic north was not where it is currently;

NB:
Explanation to all these is:
 Earth’s magnetic north has remained where it is but tectonic plates keep moving
Further explanation:
 If the magnetic polarity hypothesis of moving tectonics was correct;
 we would expect a lot of earthquakes and volcanoes at the tectonic plate boundaries;
 And this is the case;

NB:
 Earth’s magnetic poles keep swapping places;
 In the lass 100 million years it has happened 200 times;
 The needle of a magnetic compass that points towards north today;
 Would have pointed south 780 000 years ago;

Page 5 of 19 Tuesday, December 19, 2023

 Quiz: Continental Drifts & Plate tectonics
1. What evidence did Wegener have for his idea of continental drift?

…….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

…….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

…….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

…….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2. Why did some people reject Wegener’s continental drift Theory?

…….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

3. Which tectonic plate do you live on?

…….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. What causes the tectonic plates to move?

…….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Quiz: Structure of the Earth & Earth Movements

1. Name part of the earth that forms

the centre.

…….…………………………………………….

Name metals found in this part.

…….…………………………….…………….

2. Name the most common non-metal

in the Earth’s crust.

…….……………………………………………….

4. Name the most common metal in the

Earth’s crust.

…………………………………………………….

5. What makes the conventional currents in the Earth’s mantle?

…….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Page 6 of 19 Tuesday, December 19, 2023

 Quiz: Structure of the Earth and Earth Movements Continued ….
6. What is a tectonic plate?

…….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

7. Continents of the Earth appear to be able to fit together like a jigsaw.

Explain how this provides evidence for the tectonic plates.

…….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

…….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

8. Describe how each of these provides evidence for the movement of tectonic plates.

a) the fossil record.

..…….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

..…….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

b) the alignment of magnetic materials in rocks.

..…….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

..…….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

..…….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

..…….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

9. Scientists think that the Earth’s magnetic field has reversed 183 times in 83 million years.

Calculate the average time between reversal events.

Page 7 of 19 Tuesday, December 19, 2023

 Quiz: Structure of the Earth and Earth Movements Continued ….
10. Study the following diagram.

Use the map shown above to discuss the statement “Earthquakes and volcanoes always occur at
tectonic plate boundaries.”

Page 8 of 19 Tuesday, December 19, 2023

 Project: Impact craters

 Formed when large object from space collides with the rocky surface of a moon of planet.
 Like Mars, Venus and moons of Jupiter.
 NB: Earth’s moon must be written with Capital “M” as “Moon”.
 But moon is any natural satellite around any planet

Tasks (work in groups):

1. Find out how impact craters are formed in solid rock.

2. Develop an analogy for crater formation.

Materials:

1. Sand
2. Balance
3. 10 cm ruler x 1
4. 100 cm ruler X 1
5. Tray to hold solid sand,
6. Objects like marbles and small rocks
NB: You may develop the investigation to include other equipment.

You will make a Set – up as shown below.

NB:
When an object is dropped in the sand,
an impact crater forms in the sand.

List variables you think could affect diameter and depth of impact crate & predict how.

Variable:

………………………………………………………………………………………

Predicted effect

………..……………………………………………………………………………

Variable:

………………………………………………………………………………………

Predicted effect

………..……………………………………………………………………………

Page 9 of 19 Tuesday, December 19, 2023

 Project: Impact craters continued ….

Safety:

 Place equipment on the floor to avoid falling.

 Safety eye glasses to avoid pieces from crater entering the eyes.
 Make sure the objects fall in the try.
 Do not stand on chairs or tables to drop the objects.
 Don’t stand with your feet near the tray.

Prepare separate tables of results for each variable (independent variable) you identified.

Page 10 of 19 Tuesday, December 19, 2023

 Project: Impact craters continued ….
Analysis:
Draw the last crater to show the shape when Draw a crater to show the shape when viewed
viewed from top from the side.

Label the: the Diameter & the Depth.

State whether any results match your predictions.

…………………………………………………………………………..

This investigation is an analogy for impact crater formation on Earth.

Describe its:

a) Strengths:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

b) Weaknesses:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
End
Page 11 of 19 Tuesday, December 19, 2023
 Changes in the Earth 7 p 216
NB:
Tectonic plates = continental plates & oceanic plates
Plate boundaries = where tectonic plates meet

Geological Change:
 Happens more at plate boundaries;
 Because tectonic plates are in constant motion
 Some geological change happen slowly over after millions of years
 Some like earthquakes or volcanic eruptions are sudden & violent
 Plate boundaries around the edge of pacific ocean = the Pacific Ring of Fire
 It experiences many geological events like majority of volcanic eruptions & earthquakes on earth.

The pacific Ring of Fire occurs where the Pacific plate:

 collide with other tectonic plates or

 slides into other tectonic plates

Page 12 of 19 Tuesday, December 19, 2023

 Movements of Tectonic Plates:
Creates three types of Plate boundaries:

1. Convergence Plate boundaries

 Plates move together towards one another
Results can be:
a) One slides under the other
 Into the hot molten mantle
 This is called Sub-duction
 Rocks in the incoming Earth crust melt

b) Compression at plate boundaries

Rocks crumple & fold upwards
o Producing fold mountain ranges
o In ocean or on land
The newest fold mountains are:
between 10 – 25 million years old
Examples:
 Himalayas in Asia
 Rocky Mountains in North America

The oldest fold mountains are:

more than 200 million years old
Example:
 Ural Mountain in Russia

3. Transform plate boundaries:

 Plates slide past each other;

 Due to their huge sizes;
 there is lots of friction between them;
 This makes the plates stick together after many years;
 Force at the boundaries leads to high pressure;
 The high pressure cause volent movements;
 Called earthquakes;

2. Divergent plate boundaries:

 Plates move/drift apart;

 become too thin;
 Then break;
 Molten rocks from mantle erupt as lava
 This is Volcano

Page 13 of 19 Tuesday, December 19, 2023

 Volcanoes:
Volcano:
 Liquid rocks from upper parts of mantle &
 lower parts of Earth crust
 Flow to underneath Earth surface where it is called Magma;
 If it erupts to the surface, its called Lava;
 Lava erupts together with ash & gases;
 The ash & lava solidifies to form new volcanic rocks;
 Each time there is eruption
 the volcano gets bigger
If magma is very thick & has lots of dissolved gases:

 Pressure gets high

 Eruption violently shoots up through a vent
 The violence can cause:
o Tsunami – if the volcanic eruption is near the
sea
o Avalanches
o Earthquakes

Types of volcanoes:
1. Active volcanoes – may erupt any time
2. Inactive/dormant volcanoes – have not erupted for a long time
3. Extinct Volcanoes – will likely never erupt again

Cause of volcanoes:

 At divergent tectonic plate boundaries;

 Plates move/drift apart;
 become too thin;
 Then break;
 Molten rocks from mantle & lower earth crust to erupt as lava, ash & gases

Earthquakes: Cause of Earthquake

 At transformed plate boundary
o Some Extremely violent movement off earth crust  Plates slide past each other;
o  Due to their huge sizes;
o Some can only be detected by scientific instruments  there is lots of friction
between them;
o Size (magnitude) of earthquake depends on;  This makes the plates stick
together after many years;
o Size of faults at plate boundaries
 Force at the boundaries leads
o How far rocks move during earthquake to high pressure;
o Examples:  The high pressure cause volent
o In large earthquakes, rocks can movements;
o move tens of meters in seconds;  Called earthquakes;

Page 14 of 19 Tuesday, December 19, 2023

 Quiz: Structure of the Earth and Earth Movements Continued ….

1. Which statement is true about tectonic plates?

A. They never move

B. They move in different ways
C. They always move towards each other
D. They always move away from each other

3. Which is used to describe the strength of an earthquake?

A. force
B. Energy
C. Magnitude
D. destruction

2. Explain how tectonic plates can cause fold mountains.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

3. Explain what causes earthquakes.

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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Page 15 of 19 Tuesday, December 19, 2023

 Lab: Model for Moving Tectonic Plates:

Aim: to show what happens where tectonic plates meet

Materials:

1. Modelling clay
2. Pieces of paper x 2
3. Large piece of cloth x1
4. Chocolate bars with soft centres x 2

Safety:

Don’t attempt to eat chocolate that has been in the lab

Model A:

o Place large piece of cloth on the table

o Place your hands flat on the cloth, about 30 cm apart.
o Push your hands together.

Model B:

o Place two pieces of paper on the table so that they are touching.
o Push them together.
o Can you make them slide so that one piece goes over the other?
o This is similar to tectonic plates siding over one another.

o Can you make the pieces of paper form mountains?

Model C:

o Use modeling clay to make to flat pieces.

o Place them on the table then push them together.
o What happen?

Model D:

o Place the two chocolate-covered bars together.

o What happens?

Questions:
For each of the model you used:
1. Describe what happened
2. Explain what it was modelling.
3. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the model.
4. Could you improve the model in any way? If yes how?
5. Which do you think was the best model? Why?

Page 16 of 19 Tuesday, December 19, 2023

 Lab: Model for Moving Tectonic Plates: continued …..
Questions:
For each of the model you used:
Model A:
Describe what happened. Discuss the strength(s) of the model.

………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………….. Discuss the weaknesses of the model.

……………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………..

Explain what it was modelling. Could you improve the model in any way? If yes
how?
……………………………………………………………………….
………………………….
……………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………

Model B:
Describe what happened. Discuss the strength(s) of the model.

………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………….. Discuss the weaknesses of the model.

……………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………..

Explain what it was modelling. Could you improve the model in any way? If yes
how?
……………………………………………………………………….
………………………….
……………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………

Page 17 of 19 Tuesday, December 19, 2023

 Lab: Model for Moving Tectonic Plates: continued …..
For each of the model you used:
Model C:
Describe what happened. Discuss the strength(s) of the model.

………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………….
Discuss the weaknesses of the model.
…………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………..

Explain what it was modelling. Could you improve the model in any way? If yes how?

………………………………………………………………………. ………………………….

………………………………………………………………………. …………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………. …………………………………………………………………………

Model D:
Describe what happened. Discuss the strength(s) of the model.

………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………….. Discuss the weaknesses of the model.

……………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………..
Explain what it was modelling. Could you improve the model in any way? If yes how?

………………………………………………………………………. ………………………….

………………………………………………………………………. …………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………. …………………………………………………………………………
Which do you think was the best model? Why?

……………………….. Why ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
End

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