1) Analyze the types of sensor errors?

Explain the causes of

sensor errors? Give an example to restrict errors of strain
gauges?
There are 2 types of error: systematic error and random error.
- Reason:
System error:
 Due to the principle of the sensor.
 Because the value of the reference quantity is incorrect.
 Due to sensor characteristics.
 Due to the conditions and usage mode.
 Due to processing measurement results.
Random error:
 Due to the change in the characteristics of the device.
 Due to random noise.
Because influence quantities are not taken into account when
calibrating the sensor.
- Method of limiting error:
o Systematic error: pay attention to measurement, and use
standard equipment.
Random error: random error occurs outside subjective human
intentions, mainly due to external conditions, we are difficult to
overcome, but we can only find ways to limit its influence
through a number of laws. properties such as limit, focus,
symmetry, compensation.
Real contact example:
- The error in the measuring instruments: calipers, gauges,
micrometers ... is 0.01
Errors in manufacturing temperature sensors, vibration
sensors ...
- Error occurred in the weather forecast
2. Describe methods of sensor calibration? Give an example for
temperature sensor calibration.
Sensor standard method
Sensor standard is a measurement intended to establish the
relationship between the measured s value of the electrical
quantity at the output and the m-value of the measurand taking
into account the influencing factors, on which basis a standard
curve in explicit form (graph or algebraic expression). When
calibrating the sensor, with a series of known exactly mi for m,
measure the corresponding value si of s and construct a standard
curve.

Figure 1.2: Sensor standard method

• Simple standard
In the case of a measurand having only a single physical
quantity acting on a specified measurand and the sensor used is
insensitive to the effects of the influencing quantities, the simple
standard method is used. The essence of a standard is simply to
measure the values of the output quantity with respect to the
constant determinations of the measured quantity at the input.
Calibration is done in two ways:
- Direct standard: different values of measurand taken from
standard samples or comparison elements with known value
with high precision.
Indirect calibration: combines the reference sensor with a
reference sensor that already has a standard curve, both under
the same working conditions. When acting on two sensors with
the same value of the measured quantity, we get the
corresponding value of the reference sensor and the sensor to be
calibrated. The same repetition with other values of the
measurand allows us to construct the reference curve of the
sensor to be calibrated.
• Standard many times
When the sensor has an element delay (mechanical delay or
magnetic delay), the measured value at the output depends not
only on the instantaneous value of the quantity to be measured at
the input, but also on the previous value of the of this quantity.
In such a case, the standard method is applied multiple times and
proceed as follows:
- Reset point 0 of the sensor: the quantity to be measured and the
output quantity whose value corresponds to the origin point, m =
0 and s = 0.
- Measure the output value in a series of increasing values to the
maximum of the measured quantity at the input.
- Repeat the measurement with values decreasing from the
maximum value.
The multiple calibration allows the calibration curve to be
determined in both ascending and descending measurement
directions.
3. Explain the sensitivity of sensors in static mode and dynamic
mode? Give an example for each mode?
Sensor in static mode and the scale of transvert
Standard sensor sensor, built on the basis of measuring the S.i
value at first corresponds to the constant m.i value of the
measurand when the quantity reaches the so-called special static
work of the sensor variable. A Q.i point (m.i, S.i) on a particular
static is a sensor working point in static mode.
In static mode, the sensor defined by Equation (1.3) is the
director of the static characteristics at the working point. Thus, if
the characteristic static is not linear, the sensor on the job is
mode dependent.
The quantity r.i defined as a ratio between the s.i values at the
beginning is called a static proportional number:
r.i = (S / m) * Q.i (1.4)
from (1.4), we find that the static conversion ratio r.i does not
depend on the working point Q.i and is only equal to S when the
feature is a straight line passing through the origin.
Sensation in mode
Determined when a measurand varies periodically with time.
Execution example:
+ Global gas model is used for both short-term and long-term
climate change projections
+ To assess the impact of a color water treatment plant on a
river, or to assess the long life and behavior of the filter on
polluted water
4. Describe the operating principle and application of the
position sensor?
Position sensors are sensors used in equipment to measure the
moving distance of an object to the reference position. Sensors
determine the position by measuring the linear or angular
position in reference to a fixed point or arbitrary reference.
Sensors can also be used to detect the presence or absence of an
object. If position or distance information is combined with time
measurements, speed, velocity and acceleration can be
calculated for motion control.

If position or distance information is combined with time

measurements, speed, velocity and acceleration can be
calculated for motion control.
Some of the major uses for position sensors include:

Medical equipment
Packing machine
Injection molding machine
High-speed trains take round curves
Car
Fly-by-wire aircraft system

5. Describe the operating principle and application of the

temperture sensor?
A thermal sensor works on the basis of the change in the metal's
resistance to the remarkable change in temperature.

Specifically, when there is a temperature difference between the

hot and cold ends, an electrodynamic force V is generated at the
cold end. The temperature at the cold end must be stable and
measurable and it depends on the material. That is why the
appearance of different types of thermocouples and each type
gives a different electrodynamic force: E, J, K, R, S, T.

The working principle of thermal sensors is mainly based on the

relationship between metallic materials and the temperature.
Specifically, when the temperature is 0, the resistance is at 100Ω
and the resistance of the metal increases as the temperature
increases, and vice versa.
Several temperature sensors are used for specific areas such as:
Electronic, semiconductor, thermocouple type design used in
agricultural research
Electronic thermometer, PT100 is used in cars
Metal oxide resistors are used in cold temperatures
Type K, T, R, S, B and PT100 thermoelectricity is used in
material and chemical processing

6. Describe the operating principle and application of the force

and pressure sensor?
The option of each sensor that works has different sections.
Inside the device, the layer sensor will contain many very small
sensor components to be changed when the source is applied
(pressure, heat, ...) The membrane will be pushed in the
direction corresponding to the direction of impact.

The sensors compare that difference with the initial state to

know what% of variation is and return the corresponding result
(signal output).
Application
Sensors are often used to measure water pressure, compressed
air, hydraulic pressure, gas pressure or some form of liquid or
other gas, ... Pressure measurement is very necessary and
regular. It was conducted in a boiler system where the
temperature was very high.

> In addition, so the air needs to be pressurized to limit the

output, to avoid overpressure causing the compressor damage.
Water pump stations also need sensors to monitor pressure
levels and bring them to the PLC or inverter to control the pump
properly.

> Sensor is one of many parts on construction vehicle (crane,

forklift, excavator, ...)

> Use a pressure sensor in the water tank or material normally

used a pressure sensor to measure the level of these tanks.
7. Describe the operating principle and the usage of the sensor
given in Figure? Give an example for this sensor application?

- This is a velocity sensor using a variable resistance

magnetometer
- Principle of operation: + The structure of the variable resistor
sensor consists of a coil with a ferromagnetic core affected by a
permanent magnet placed opposite a rotating disc made of
ferromagnetic material on which the notch tooth. As the disc
rotates, the magnetic resistance of the magnetic circuit changes
periodically, causing the magnet to pass through the side
winding, in which an induced electromotive force has a
frequency proportional to the speed of rotation.
+ The frequency of the electromotive force in the coil is
determined by the expression:
f=p.n
p - the number of teeth on the plate.
n - the number of revolutions of the disc per second.
The amplitude E of the electromotive force in the coil depends
on two factors:
- The distance between the coil and the turntable: the greater the
distance, the smaller E.
- Rotation speed: The greater the rotation speed, the larger E.
When the speed of rotation is small, the amplitude E is very
small and difficult to detect, so there exists a region of rotation
that cannot be measured, which is called a dead zone.
The sensor's measuring range depends on the number of teeth in
the disc. When p is large, the measured nmin speed has a small
value. When p is small, the measured nmax rate will be great.
For example, with p = 60 teeth, the measured speed range is n =
50 - 500 rpm, while with p = 15 teeth the speed range measures
500 - 10,000 rpm.
- Application example: speed sensor in a car:

8. Describe the operating principle and usage of the sensor

given in Figure. Propose a measuring and signal processing
circuit with this sensor

Name: sensor for measuring electromagnetic flow

- Structure:
 One power cord (4)
 A magnetic metal rod (1)
 A coil with electricity flows through (2)
 Bars for moving fluids (3)
- Principle of operation: based on faraday's law: a conductor
generates a difference
potential as it moves through a magnetic field: e = Blv. So when
(2) there is electricity, (1) is born
from the magnetic field, when a fluid moves in (3), (4) generates
an electrodynamic rate.
9. Describe the operating principle, related equations and usage
of the sensor given Figure Propose a measuring and signal
processing circuit with this sensor

Answer:
- The sensor above is the sensor for determining the Hall
position.
- Principle of Operation: The hall sensor is based on the
principle of the hall effect.
Application: The main application of the Hall Sensor is to
measure wheel speed, determine the position of the crankshaft or
camshaft in motor systems.These sensors consist of a hall rod
and a magnet placed near the gear of the spindle
- for example, typically the motor in an electric bicycle is
responsible for controlling the position of the rotor according to
the stator.
II) 1.The robot arm illustrated in Figure 2 rotates 120° stop-to-
stop and uses a pot as the position sensor. The controller is an 8-
bit digital system and needs to know the actual position of the
arm to within 0.5°. Determine if the setup shown in Figure 2
will do the job. Calculate the actual resolution of the system

Answer:
- we have total values: 28 -1 = 255 (value)
resolution up to 0.5 ° => maximum measuring angle: 0.5.255 =
127.5 °> 120 °.
So this configuration can do the job.
2. The resistive element of a wire-wound pot is made from 10 in.
of 100 Ω/in. resistance wire and is wound as a coil of 200 loops.
The range of the pot is 350°. What is the resolution of this pot?
Give an example of the sensor usage?
Total coil resistance: 10,100 = 1000 Ω
- Value of resistance per turn of wire is: 1000: 200 = 5 Ω
- 200 turns of wire spanning 350º of potentiometer. So every 1º
of the potentiometer is 4/7 turns.
The leaching resolution is: 5. 4/7 = 20/7 = 2,857 Ω
3. A strain gauge and bridge circuit are used to measure the
tension force in a bar of steel that has a cross-sectional area of
13 cm2. The strain gauge has a nominal resistance of 120 Ω and
a GF of 2. The bridge is supplied with 10 V. When the bar is
unloaded, the bridge is balanced so the output is 0 V. Then force
is applied to the bar, and the bridge voltage goes to 0.0005 V.
The Young’s modulus for steel is E=2,07* 7 10 . Find the
change in resistance of the sensor and the force on the bar?
Calculate the change in resistance of strain gage due to the
applied force:
Calculate elongation of strain gage:
Calculate the force acting on the steel bar: