578/23/M01

Civil &Construction Engineering

1.2An environmental impact assessment is carried out and a Report is

prepared

 Environmental impact assessment (EIA)

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a tool used to assess the significant

effects of a project or development proposal on the environment.
EIAs make sure that project decision makers think about the likely effects on
the environment at the earliest possible time and aim to avoid, reduce or offset
those effects. This ensures that proposals are understood properly before
decisions are made.
 EIA can also be defined as the process of identifying, predicting , evaluating
and mitigating the biophysical, social and other relevant effects of the
development proposal prior to major decisions being taken and
commitments made

 The procedure to carry out EIA on Civil Engineering projects /

Stages on EIA
For project managers to create their environmental impact assessment report, a
6 step process can be followed. When followed, this process assures that your
EIA report has considered all necessary factors.

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 1. Screening
The first step, screening, is where you are essentially assessing whether an EIA
is needed. You will be considering things such as: the extent to which the
project is likely to impact the environment, the level of certainty over what
those impacts could be, and the severity of those impacts if they are to occur.
The screening stage is where the foundations are laid for the planning of the
EA. If the EIA is being mandated by a particular body or authority, then their
requirements should also be considered at this stage.

Stage What's involved

1. Screening Deciding if an EIA is required

2. Scoping Deciding what needs to be covered in the

assessment and reported in the 'EIA Report'

3. Preparing the The EIA report has to include the likely significant
EIA Report environmental effects of the development

4. Making an The EIA Report and development application must

application and be publicised (including electronic advertisement),
consultation interested parties and the public must be given an
opportunity to give their views on it

5. Decision The EIA Report and any comments made on it must

making be taken into account by the competent authority
before they decide whether to give consent for the
development. The decision notice has to be
published

6. Post decision The developer starts any monitoring required by the

competent authority.

 Scoping

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 The next step involves taking what was learned in the screening process, and
making this into an actionable plan.
 Concerns about the impact on: air, water, soil and noise may have
monitoring activities implemented and projections forecasted.
 During this stage, we will also be dedicating adequate resources to each
focus area, again, using the data that we identified during the screening
phase.
 At this stage, it is also helpful to bring in various stakeholders to input on the
scope of the EIA. This is also a chance to address any concerns they may
have, by making them aware of the mitigations that are taking place against
those risks.
 Since no project has unlimited resources , it is useful to consider alternatives
also at this stage. Though the scope of the EIA needs to adequately address
the concerns of the screening phase, where more practical options are
available, they may be chosen.

 Impact Prediction
Once we’ve put together a plan and scope for the environmental impact
assessment, it is time to implement that plan. Here, we will be using existing
data, along with gathering new data, to create a forecast of what the impacts
could be.
 Since it is never going to be 100% accurate, it can also be useful at this
stage to indicate level of confidence, or even create different scenarios,
with a best case, medium case, and worst case scenario.

 Publication and Reporting

The next phase involves publicising the results of the previous step. Consider
the stakeholders who were engaged during step 2, and what their priorities or
concerns would be regarding. It is good to tailor the messaging to them, to
ensure that their concerns are addressed, and that they then become supporters
of the project.
 There may also be regulatory reporting required at this stage. This is dependent
on the governing bodies/authorities around the project. This is going to be
different for each industry and country,
 Decision making
Once the results of the EIA have been collected and reported to the necessary
stakeholders, decisions will now be made regarding whether to take the project
forward. It’s important to consider different stakeholder’s viewpoints,

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  You may also wish to account for expected environmental impacts in the
cost-benefit ratio, if this is a tool that you’re using to evaluate whether to
go ahead with the project.

 Continual monitoring and review

The final stage is to implement a process of continued monitoring and review.
As mentioned prior, the impact forecasts are never 100% accurate. It’s therefore
important to keep monitoring environmental impacts, taking intervention
measures where necessary, and communicating this to stakeholders

 The advantages & disadvantages of EIA

 EIA is required for many different projects, including construction of

buildings, new infrastructure, power generation, and transportation.
 It can also be needed for certain activities that may affect the
environment, such as mining, drilling, and waste management.

Environmental Impact Assessment provides several benefits in promoting

environmental sustainability.

 it helps to identify potential environmental risks and impacts of proposed

activities, allowing project developers to take measures to avoid or reduce
these impacts.

 it ensures that environmental considerations are incorporated into

development planning and decision-making processes.

 it provides stakeholders with opportunities to participate in the process

and to provide their views on potential environmental impacts.

 it promotes transparency and accountability in decision-making by

ensuring that the potential environmental impacts and footprint of
proposed activities are fully considered and addressed.

 Advantages of EIA include:

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  Compliance with Regulations
There are strict regulations on environmental standards, and conducting an
environmental impact assessment is mandatory for certain projects.
Conducting an EIA helps organizations ensure that they meet various
environmental regulations, reducing the legal risk of non-compliance.

 Risk Mitigation
In addition to legal risks, conducting an EIA also helps organizations to mitigate
potential risks and liabilities.
By identifying possible negative impacts, it can help organizations to take
necessary measures to reduce those impacts.
As a result, organizations can avoid expensive accidents or lawsuits that could
arise due to environmental damages.

 Improved Stakeholder Confidence

Environmental impact assessments offer a transparent process for identifying
the impacts of proposed activities, and it encourages stakeholder participation.
Stakeholders can voice their opinions, concerns, and priorities, and it can
contribute to the credibility of the project or organization.
This transparency and collaboration in decision-making, in the long run, can
build trust and confidence among stakeholders.

 Saves Time and Money:

A thorough EIA report can produce a more accurate impact assumption of a
development area and its surroundings. Therefore, the authority or the developer
can take early environment-friendly measures and policies. This often saves a
considerable amount of money, time, and resources in a long-term scenario.

 Helps to Build a Sustainable Environment

The EIA report can identify several aspects and consequences of a development
project on the environment and human and social life. With the help of the EIA
assessment process, we are better equipped to design sustainable, environment-
friendly projects and minimise their negative impacts on the environment and,
in turn, society.

 Environment Awareness:
Today in the age of climate change, environment-friendly measures have
become a prime concern. EIA determination can identify the extent of the
impact of a given project on the environment, which can lead to possible

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solutions to avert or minimise the negative effects. EIA has also been crucial in
creating environmental awareness among the people. On many occasions, it has
persuaded authorities or developers to take impactful measures toward saving
biodiversity and the overall human and social environment.

 Disadvantages of EIA include:

1. Time and cost implications

Conducting a thorough EIA can be time-consuming and costly. It involves data
collection, analysis, public consultations, and compliance with regulatory
processes.
Delays in the assessment phase can result in project postponements and
increased expenses. These time and cost implications can be burdensome for
project proponents.

2. Subjectivity and complexity of assessments

EIA requires expert judgment to assess potential environmental impacts. This
subjectivity can lead to variations in interpretations and findings. The
complexity of environmental systems can also make assessments intricate and,
at times, open to different interpretations. As a result, there may be debates
about the accuracy of the assessments.

3. Potential conflicts and delays

EIA can uncover conflicting interests among stakeholders, including project
proponents, local communities, environmental groups, and regulatory bodies.
Disagreements over the significance of environmental impacts or the adequacy
of mitigation measures can lead to project delays or even legal disputes.

4. Limitations in addressing cumulative and indirect impacts

EIA tends to focus on direct project impacts. Cumulative and indirect impacts,
which result from the combined effects of multiple projects or occur over an
extended period, may not be fully addressed. This can lead to a fragmented
understanding of the long-term environmental consequences of development.

5. Challenges in long-term impact prediction

Predicting the long-term environmental impacts of a project can be challenging.
Factors like climate change, evolving ecosystems, and population shifts can
influence how impacts manifest over time. EIA may not fully account for these

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dynamic variables, which can affect the accuracy of long-term impact
predictions.

6. Inadequate Public Participation

There is little scope for public participation and accounting for public opinion in
the EIA process, and indigenous knowledge and understanding often get
neglected in the evaluation process. Therefore, there are numbers of instances
where these limitations create much bigger obstacles to the progression of the
projects.

 Scope to Improve the EIA Process

 Incorporating effective mitigation measures

They should aim to minimize negative effects on the environment and, when
possible, enhance the natural surroundings.
 Strengthening regulations and transparency
Regulatory bodies need to regularly review and update guidelines to ensure that
they remain relevant, comprehensive, and transparent.

 Advancing scientific methodologies and data collection

Utilizing the latest tools, such as remote sensing and geographic information
systems (GIS), can provide more accurate and detailed information for
assessments.

 Enhancing public involvement

Techniques like public meetings, consultations, and information sharing are
essential. They help gather the valuable insights needed to improve projects.
 Training and capacity building
Training programs, workshops, and knowledge sharing can help ensure that
individuals involved in EIA processes are well-informed and equipped with the
necessary skills to conduct thorough assessments.

 Regular monitoring and adaptive management

Implementing post-project monitoring and adaptive management allows for the
assessment of the accuracy of impact predictions and the effectiveness of
mitigation measures.

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  Independent Body of EIA:
There is long-standing demand from civil society and environmentalists that
EIA should have an independent functional entity. The EIA conducting body
should be created by experts from the judiciary, environment science, social
science, anthropology, people from communities and local bodies. These EIA
structures will function independently, not abiding with the Ministry of
Environment and Forest.

 Strong Policies
To further strengthen the EIA, policies should be implemented that would
enforce every developmental project to go through EIA scrutiny without any
deviation. It is also vital to implement strong policies to stop industrial or other
development projects in environment-sensitive areas.

2.Carry out civil engineering earthworks and measure quantity of works

 The factors considered in the selection of earthwork team, plant and

equipment to be used onsite:

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The major factors that affect construction equipment used for construction of
majority of engineering structures such as; Buildings, Bridges, Dams,
Highways, etc. these factors include:

 Suitability for Job Conditions:

The Equipment must meet the requirement of the work, climate and working
conditions.

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  Size of Equipment:
Size of equipment should be such that it must be able to be used with other
matching units.
If the equipment selected is of larger size, that will remain idle for most of the
time or shall work on part loads, which means production cost will be more.
On other hand, if equipment is of smaller size than desired, the equipment will
not be able to work with the matching equipments and hence other equipments
will have to remain idle or to be allowed to work on part loads, which shall
again be uneconomic.

 Past Performance:
If the equipment being purchased is of new make and models, it is desirable to
enquire about its performance from other users, who are using this make and
models.

 Operating Requirements:
The equipment selected should be easy to operate and maintain, acceptable to
the operator and should have lesser fuel consumption.

 Reliability of Equipment:
Equipment selected for the project must be reliable one.

 Economical Aspects:
While selecting the equipment, it should be considered that cost of unit
production should be minimum.

 Service Support:
Service Support should be available in the area of project where the equipment
shall be used. Service after sales are major criteria for selection of equipment.

 Use in Future Projects:

When equipment completes only a part of their useful life in a project, it should
be kept in view that the equipment can be used in future project and may not
become obsolete.

 Availability of Know-How:
The equipment selected should be satisfactorily handled by available operators.
Sophisticated equipment may give excellent performance but it may be difficult
to handle and maintain.

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  Multipurpose Equipment (Versatility):
There are certain types of equipments which are not utilized fully. Therefore if
possible, they must be capable of performing more than one function for
example, excavator with wheel loader bucket arrangement or with rock breaker
attachments.

 Standardization:
It is better to have same type and size of equipment in project. It means lesser
spare parts reserve more interchangeability of parts if required, easy for the
operators to understand it , mechanics will be aside to maintain and repair better
as they become expert by handling similar type of equipment.

 Availability of Spare Parts:

While selecting a particular type or make of equipments,it should be ensured
that the spare parts will be available at reasonable price throughout the working
life of equipment. It should also be ensured that the downtime of the equipment
for want for spare parts may not be more .

 Availability of Equipment:
The Equipment which is easily available in the market should be purchased. It
should also be ensured that the equipment is of repute and is likely to be
continued to be manufactured in future also. This is necessary for future
standardization and ensuring spare parts supply. It is easy to dispose off such
equipments after completion of project.

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Site clearance

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Site Clearance is the preliminary/initial process to start the work for
construction. This work shall consist of cutting, removing, disposing and
excavating all materials such as trees, bushes, shrubs, stumps, roots, grass,
weeds and topsoil to the required thickness .It can also include building
demolitions, handling and getting rid off of hazardous materials, clearing
vegetation, surface soil and offer ground levelling work for construction plans.
The goal of site clearing is to create a construction site conducive to the project,
allowing the construction team to start working on building the actual structure.

Importance of Site clearing

• Most construction sites and properties are not ready for a structure to be
built on the land. This is because most properties contain a lot of debris
and vegetation that will prevent the team from building a solid foundation
and a safe structure

• Site clearing can be seen as the construction equivalent of priming a

surface before painting for a better overall output. Without site clearing,

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 teams will be working on uneven land with debris that can get in the way
of establishing solid foundations and meeting the ultimate goal of the
project.

• On top of that, most localities require teams to effectively clear a site

before commencing with the project. So, not only is it essential in
improving the overall safety and stability of the project, most
construction projects won’t be allowed to start unless the site has been
properly cleared.

• Site clearing is necessary for all construction projects, as it is the first step
in this process. Even if a property has minimal debris, the team must clear
the site before starting construction. Without clearing the site, it will be
much harder to build solid and stable structures. On top of that, an
uncleared area poses many hazards to workers that can lead to unforeseen
accidents and incidents on-site.

Equipment for Site Clearing Operations

 Excavators – Used for large-scale land clearing projects and can remove
debris while also being used for digging, excavation, and earthmoving
operations. Excavators have various attachments that teams can use to
target specific debris.
 Excavators are also called diggers, mechanical shovels, or 360-
degree excavators. Sometimes abbreviated simply to “360”.
Tracked excavators are sometimes called “trackhoes” by analogy to
the backhoe.

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 Excavators are used in many ways:

Digging of trenches, holes, foundations

Material handling

Brush cutting with a hydraulic saw and mower attachments

Forestry work

Forestry mulching

Construction

Demolition with a hydraulic claw, cutter and breaker attachments

General grading/landscaping

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  Bulldozers – They are very recognizable construction equipment
typically used to push debris away from the site while levelling the
ground and prepping it for the construction project.

The tracks give them excellent ground holding capability and mobility
through very rough terrain. Wide tracks help distribute the bulldozer’s
weight over a large area (decreasing ground pressure), thus preventing it
from sinking in sandy or muddy ground bulldozers are often used in

Road Building

,Construction

Mining,

Forestry,

Land Clearing,

Infrastructure Development

The bulldozer’s primary tools are the blade and the ripper.

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  Tractors and Backhoes – These pieces can be used for digging, but they
are also highly effective at removing debris such as vegetation, large
rocks, trees, and more.

This type of machine is similar to and derived from what is now known as a
TLB (Tractor-Loader-Backhoe), which is to say, an agricultural tractor fitted
with a front loader and rear backhoe attachment. Because it’s capable of
handling so many different jobs, you can use a backhoe loader for things like:

Farming

Excavation

Construction

Digging

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Stump Grinders – This simple machine is used specifically for removing tree
stumps after the tree has been cleared.

 Mulchers – This is used for clearing shrubs, underbrush, and small trees
while shredding them to turn them into mulch.

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 Skid Steer Loaders – This large equipment is used to carry, pick up, and
transfer dirt, rocks, and other large pieces of debris on a site. They are an
asset to any worksite, thanks to the ability to connect different attachments to
complete nearly any type of project. You can use a skid steer loader for:

Forestry

Land clearing

Landscaping and farming

Road work

Excavation

Demolition

Site cleaning

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 Fig-1 Clearing and Grubbing of roadway in cutting and filling sections

PROCEDURE OF SITE CLEARANCE:

1. The limits of Road of Width (hereinafter called the “ROW”) will be set out
as per the JMS / coordinates that were finalized during the detailed project
report.
2. The toe line shall be jointly fixed, regarding the alignment based on the
O.G.L(original ground level) taken earlier. The area for Site Clearance shall
be jointly pointed out, covering areas of road embankment, drains, cross
drainage structures and such other areas as specified.

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3. The detailed list of trees that are yet to cut down will be kept with the
Foreman or Supervisor.

4. Cutting of trees including cutting of trunks, branches shall be done manually

with felling axes. Jack saws and electric saws.
5. Taking of stump shall be done by Excavator of enough capacity, excavating
the surrounding soil and lifting them the excavators.
6. After taking of stumps, loose soil shall be removed by excavator and the pits
shaped properly.
7. Backfilling the pits ensued from the pulling up of trees and stumps shall be
done with excavated soil / borrow in layer and compacted with medium plate
compactors. During this process, water, if required, shall be added with the
help of a sprinkler fitted with the house and compaction continues.
Compaction achieved in the pit shall be to the level of the surrounding area
and required density as per specification.
8. Waste material shall be disposed of by loading them in a tractor trolley and
shall be taken to the dumping area for disposal. All the useful material shall
be stacked within the roadway.
9. Trees, up to 300mm in girth, shall be removed from the roots by plucking
them by excavator and the pits filled up accordingly.
10.The Dozer fitted with a ripper shall be deployed to remove all shrubs,
bushes, vegetation, grass, weeds, rubbish and top organic soil not exceeding
150mm in thickness.
11.This stripped soil so removed within the fill lines shall be loaded and
transported to approved dumping areas by tippers.
12.Moreover, Wherever necessary, the original ground shall be levelled to
facilitate the placement of Embankment / Subgrade by Dozing with Dozer
after clearing & Grubbing Operations.

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13.Anthills, If found both above and below the ground level shall be suitably
treated.
14.The existing soil of natural ground shall be tested for its suitability. In the
event of the material non-conforming to the MORT&H specification.
Further, it shall be removed and replaced with the approved material and
compacted with a vibratory roller to achieve the required degree of
compaction of 95%. In a case where the ground level is less than 0.5m
required degree of compaction, shall be 97% and field density should be
checked as per IS 2720 Part-8.
15.OGL will be taken after clearing and grubbing both in the linear and
transverse direction.
16.Test frequency and surface finish shall conform to the requirements of
MORT&H section 900.
17.Topsoil existing over the sites of excavation will be stripped and stockpiled
at designated locations for re-use in covering embankment slopes, cut slopes,
berms and other disturbed areas where re-vegetation is desired. Priors to
stripping the topsoil, all trees, shrubs etc. Will be removed along with their
roots
18.Once teams are done clearing a site, they may proceed with other preparation
measures like surveying, soil testing, and other processes before they start on
the actual construction project..

 The operations carried out during site clearance include ;

1. Excavating
2. Hauling
3. Stockpiling
4. Placing
5. Compacting
6. Finishing in both plastic and granular soil

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Excavating:
Excavation is the process of moving earth, rock, or other materials using tools,
equipment, or explosives. Such as shovels, picks, and bulldozers
It includes earthwork, trenching, wall shafts, tunneling, and underground.
excavation has several critical purposes, including exploration, environmental
restoration, mining, and construction. Excavation is an essential part of the
construction process, as it involves removing soil and rock from a specific area
to create a foundation for a new structure. This is often necessary in order to
level the ground and prepare it for the construction of a building or other
structure.
Excavation is also used to dig trenches for the installation of underground
utilities, such as water and sewage pipes, electrical cables, and gas lines. This
helps to ensure that the utilities are properly installed and functioning, and that
they do not interfere with the construction process.
In addition to preparing the ground for construction, excavation can also be
used to uncover artifacts or other objects of historical or archaeological interest.
This can provide valuable insights into the history and culture of the area, and
can help to shed light on the lives of the people who lived there.
Excavation can be a time-consuming and labor-intensive process, depending on
the size and scale of the project. Before beginning an excavation, it is important
to carefully plan and design the project, taking into account factors such as the
type of soil or rock being removed, the location of the excavation site, and the
potential impact on the surrounding environment.
Once the excavation begins, the soil or rock is carefully removed in layers,
using tools such as shovels and picks to break up the ground and extract the
material. Larger excavation projects may also use heavy machinery, such as
bulldozers and excavators, to remove the soil or rock more quickly and
efficiently.
As the excavation progresses, the soil or rock is carefully sorted and catalogued,
and any artifacts or other objects of interest are carefully preserved for further
study. In the case of archaeological excavations, the artifacts and objects
recovered from the site can provide valuable insights into the history and culture
of the area, and help to shed light on the lives of the people who lived there.
Overall, excavation is an important process that enables us to uncover the
hidden history of an area, and to build the foundations for new construction
projects.
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Hauling
Construction works, particularly large civil engineering works, can involve very
significant movements of material to excavate, fill and generally change the
levels of the site or sites.
A mass haul movement is the movement of excavated material from where it
arises to where it is to be used, treated or disposed of.
Haul: A haul refers to the transportation of your project’s excavated materials.
The haul includes the movement of material from the position where you
excavated it to the disposal area or a specified location. A haul is also
sometimes referred to as an authorized haul.
The term ‘mass haul’ refers to the volume of material moved multiplied by the
distance it is moved.
Mass haul diagrams give a graphical view of the material moved, showing
balance points (where the cut and fill volumes are equal), free haul and overhaul
regions, and grade points (the highest and lowest points). These can be used to
compare alternative proposals, and to give a clearer understanding of overall
material movements. The diagram will showcase the amount of material that’s
been transported along the centerline. It also displays the distance that the
materials travel while being transported .These diagrams are crafted using a
mass haul view and a mass haul line. The mass haul view refers to the grid
where the mass haul line is placed. The mass haul line refers to the overhaul
and free haul volumes in fill and cut conditions that run along an alignment.
A project is in a cut region if the mass haul line rises. In contrast, if the mass
haul line drops, the project is in a fill region. The diagram’s grade points and
balance points will mark mass haul regions. Essentially, the mass haul line’s
position in relation to the balance line shows viewers the movement of material.
On these mass haul diagrams, you can compare overhaul volume and free haul
volume with the project’s grade points and the balance points.
Overhaul: When you get authorization to haul material farther than the original
free-haul distance, the transportation of said material is called an overhaul.
Free haul: A free project’s average haul is referred to as a free haul.
Average haul: You can find the average haul using the mass diagram. The
average haul is a specific area in a mass diagram. It represents how many cubic

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yard stations are between balance points divided by the ordinate of mass that the
yardage gets hauled.
Grade points are stations on a mass haul diagram that shows when a project
design shifts from cut to fill. A grade point will reveal the lowest or highest
point in a region of a mass haul. When the grade point in a mass haul region is
the highest point, it represents where the project’s profile switched from a cut
condition to a fill condition.
Balance points refer to the stations where the fill volumes and the net cut are
equal. These balance points can be found on the diagram’s balance line. More
specifically, the balance points are stations where the net volume equals zero on
the line. Any horizontal line drawn parallel to the base AB will indicate the
volumes that balance. Such a line is called a balancing line
Borrow is the material needed for the formation of embankments, secured not
from roadway excavation but from elsewhere. It is said to be obtained from a
‘borrow pit’.

Stockpiling

Soil stockpile is formed with excavated topsoil during the construction of

buildings or infrastructure. It is considered to be an important resource in
construction and ecology. Soil is stockpiled for later use in landscaping or
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restoration of the region following the removal of construction infrastructure.
Prior to re-use, stockpiled soil may be tested for contamination.

Stabilisation :
Soil stabilization refers to the procedure in which a special soil, a cementing
material, or other chemical or non-chemical materials are blended or mixed to a
natural problem soil or a technique applied on a natural soil to improve one or
more of its properties. Soil stabilization improves soil properties for
construction by enhancing its strength, durability, and resistance to weathering.
Stabilization techniques improve soil conditions for various construction
applications such as road construction, building foundations, and landfills.
However, soil stabilization techniques’ success depends on several factors
influencing their efficacy.

Factors affecting strength of stabilised soil include :

 Soil Type
The type of soil being stabilized is a critical factor affecting soil stabilization
techniques’ success. Different soil types, such as clay, sand, silt, and loam, have
different properties that affect the effectiveness of soil stabilization. For
instance, clay soils have a high water-holding capacity, which makes them
susceptible to swelling and shrinking when exposed to moisture and dryness.
Therefore, stabilizing clay soils requires techniques that can mitigate this effect.
On the other hand, sandy soils have poor water-holding capacity, which makes
them prone to erosion. Soil stabilization techniques for sandy soils should
increase their water-holding capacity.

 Organic Matter
The organic content in the soil can affect the stabilisation process. For example,
large amounts of organic matter can lower the pH of the soil to be stabilised
after reacting with the additives in the materials that are being used during the
process. It is, therefore, necessary to determine the percentage of organic matter
in the soil so that an allowance for the resultant reactions can be made when
designing the soil stabilisation process to be used.

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  Moisture Content
It is also important to measure the moisture content of the soil before the soil
stabilisation process can begin. Different soil stabilisation products, such as
quicklime and cement, require varying amounts of moisture to produce the
desired results. The level of moisture found may influence the choice of a
product to use. Failure to do so can result in unsatisfactory results due to
incomplete reactions between the soil and the products that have been used to
stabilise that soil.

 The Temperature
The reactions between the soil and the binders used during the stabilisation
process have temperature requirements. For example, cement will take long to
gain strength if it is applied to the soil when the temperature is below the
optimum level. Conversely, the curing period will be accelerated if temperatures
rise above the desired level. Rapid curing can result in lower strength. It is
therefore prudent to select a time when the temperature will be just right for the
products that are going to be used during the stabilisation process.

 Presence of Sulphides
The existence of sulphides within the soil can affect the choice of the products
to be used during the soil stabilisation process. For example, it may be unwise
to use a binder containing calcium carbonate in case the soil has sulphides in it
because sulphuric acid will form and attack the stabilised soil.

 Stabilisation Material
The type of stabilization material used is another factor that affects soil
stabilization techniques. Stabilization materials such as lime, cement, and fly
ash have different properties that affect their efficacy. For instance, lime can
stabilize clay soils by reducing their plasticity and increasing their strength.
Conversely, cement stabilizes sandy soils by improving their water-holding
capacity and increasing strength. The choice of stabilization material should be
based on the soil type and the desired outcome of the stabilization process.

 Construction Methods

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The construction method used during soil stabilization also affects its efficacy.
The construction method should be appropriate for the soil type and the
stabilization material. For instance, if lime stabilizes clay soil, the construction
method should distribute the lime evenly throughout the soil to ensure
uniformity. On the other hand, if cement stabilizes sandy soil, the construction
method should mix the cement thoroughly with the soil to improve its water-
holding capacity.
 Climate
The climate of the region where soil stabilization is carried out also affects its
efficacy. Regions that experience extreme weather conditions, such as high
rainfall or extreme temperatures, can affect the stability of the soil stabilization
technique. High rainfall can cause erosion of the stabilized soil, while extreme
temperatures can cause the soil to expand or contract, leading to instability. Soil
stabilization techniques should be carried out in a region with a favorable
climate.

Stabilisation methods
1. In situ stabilization
In-situ stabilisation is a technique that involves treating existing materials at the
construction site to improve their strength, durability, and overall performance.
This method eliminates the need for traditional approaches like excavation,
removal, and replacement of substandard materials, thereby reducing costs and
project timelines. By utilising locally available materials, such as soil,
aggregates, or recycled materials, in-situ stabilisation promotes sustainability
and minimises transportation-related emissions.

2. Deep mixing method

The deep mixing method (DMM), also known as deep soil mixing or cement
deep soil mixing (DSM/CDSM), is an in-situ soil treatment in which native
soils or fills are blended with cementitious and/or other materials, typically
referred to as binders. Ground treated by deep mixing methods has higher
strength and lower compressibility than untreated ground.
Two types of DMMs are used in the United States: wet mixing and dry mixing.
Wet mixing

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Involves injecting binders in slurry (wet) form to blend with the soil. Primarily
single-auger,
Multi-auger, or cutter-based mixing processes are used with cement-based
slurries to create
Isolated elements, continuous walls or blocks for large-scale foundation
improvement, earth
Retaining systems, hydraulic barriers, and contaminant/fixation systems. Dry
mixing uses binders in powder (dry) form that react with the water already
present in the soil.

The binding and moisture absorbing properties of cement make it an ideal

material to employ for deep mixing applications in any variety of soils. Many
contractors choose to use cement due to availability and ease of acquisition
3. Wet mixing

Wet soil mixing, also known as the deep mixing method, improves the
characteristics of weak soils by mechanically mixing them with cementitious
binder slurry.
Process
A powerful drill advances a mixing tool as binder slurry is pumped through the
connecting drill steel, mixing the soil to the target depth. Additional mixing of
the soil is completed as the tool is withdrawn to the surface. Mass wet soil
mixing, or mass stabilisation, is performed with a horizontal axis rotary mixing
tool at the end of a track hoe arm. The binder slurry is injected through a feed
pipe attached to the arm.

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This process constructs individual soilcrete columns, rows of overlapping
columns or 100% mass stabilisation, all with a designed strength and stiffness.
Advantages
Quiet and vibration free
Environmentally-friendly as uses readily available materials
Almost no spoil
Operations can be done at low temperatures
Economical
Can replace more expensive deep foundation methods
Flexible in application
Reduces construction time
Common uses
Road and railway embankments
Support of strip, pad and slab foundations
Bridge supports and abutments, wind-turbine foundations
Retention systems and excavation support
Slope stabilization

4. Dry mixing
Dry soil mixing is a ground improvement technique that mechanically mixes the
soil with dry cementitious binder to create soilcrete so as to improve the weak
soils such as soft, high moisture clays, peats. A high speed drill moves into the
ground with a drill rod which has radial mixing paddles near the bottom so as to
construct the columns. During the penetration of the tool into the ground, it
shears the soils to prepare them for mixing. As and when the tool the specified
design depth, the binder is injected through the drill steel where it is assorted
with the soil as the tool is taken out.
Mass dry soil mixing is carried out with a horizontal axis rotating mixing tool
positioned on the end of a track hoe arm. The binder is injected to the soil
mixing tool through a feed pipe, which is attached to the track hoe arm. With

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dry soil mixing, the treatment for the soil is possible to depths up to 60 feet.
Obstructions are sometimes pre-drilled ahead of the soil mixing process.

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