SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

DESIGN OF A VAWT FOR AN EV CHARGING

STATION

April 2022

S. Aurhai

Supervised by Dr. L. Tenghiri

 SCHOOL OF SCIENCE & ENGINEERING – AL AKHAWAYN UNIVERSITY

DESIGN OF A VAWT FOR AN EV CHARGING STATION

Capstone Report
Student Statement:
I, Salma Aurhai, hereby attest that the work submitted in this report is original and is solely
prepared by me. Furthermore, the engineering ethics were respected during the design process
of this project. In case the final design was proved to be unsafe for the public, it will be changed
to abide by the general safety standards.

____________________________________________________
Salma Aurhai

Approved by the Supervisor

_____________________________________________
Dr. L. Tenghiri

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to acknowledge and give my warmest thanks to my capstone

supervisor Dr. Lhoussaine Tenghiri for his advice and insightful feedback throughout the

different stages of this capstone project.

I would also like to thank Al Akhawayn university for this amazing journey where I got to learn

a lot about myself and the world around me. I will forever be grateful for the friendships I made

on this campus.

Last but not least, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my family, especially my

parents, for their continuous support and unconditional love. Without them, none of this would

have been possible. I dedicate this capstone project to them.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 1
2 STEEPLE ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................ 2
3 LITERATURE REVIEW & THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ......................................................... 4
3.1 Brief History of Electric cars................................................................................................................. 4
3.2 Brief History of EV charging stations ................................................................................................... 4
3.3 Classification of EV charging stations .................................................................................................. 5
3.3.1 Fixed charging stations ..................................................................................................................... 6
3.3.2 Contact-less charging Technologies .................................................................................................. 6
3.3.3 Mobile charging stations................................................................................................................... 6
3.4 Charging systems................................................................................................................................... 7
3.5 Wind Turbines ...................................................................................................................................... 7
3.5.1 Historical Background ...................................................................................................................... 7
3.5.2 Wind Turbines Classification ............................................................................................................ 8
3.5.3 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines ....................................................................................................... 10
3.5.4 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines............................................................................................................ 13
4 COMPARATIVE STUDY & VAWT SELECTION ............................................................................ 16
4.1 Technical Comparison......................................................................................................................... 16
4.2 Financial Comparison ......................................................................................................................... 17
4.3 Environmental Comparison ................................................................................................................ 18
4.4 VAWT Selection .................................................................................................................................. 19
5 SITE ASSESSMENT FOR WIND TURBINES.................................................................................... 22
5.1 The Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 22
5.2 Raw Data Collection ............................................................................................................................ 22
5.3 Frequency Distribution: ...................................................................................................................... 24
5.4 Weibull Distribution ............................................................................................................................ 25
6 DESIGNING THE SAVONIUS VERTICAL WIND TURBINE ......................................................... 30
6.1 EV Charging Station ........................................................................................................................... 30
6.1.1 EV Charging Station Capacity & Required VAWT Power ................................................................ 30
6.1.2 System Layout................................................................................................................................. 31
6.2 SWT Pre-dimensioning & Design Parameters.................................................................................... 32
6.2.1 The Swept Area............................................................................................................................... 32
6.2.2 The Aspect Ratio ............................................................................................................................. 33
6.2.3 The Overlap Ratio .......................................................................................................................... 34
6.2.4 The Separation Gap ........................................................................................................................ 34
6.2.5 The Tip Speed Ratio ........................................................................................................................ 34
6.2.6 Solidity ........................................................................................................................................... 34

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 6.2.7 Effect of Endplates .......................................................................................................................... 35
6.2.8 Summary of Design Parameters ...................................................................................................... 35
6.3 Material Selection for the Blades ........................................................................................................ 36
6.4 Choice of the generator ....................................................................................................................... 37
6.5 Wind Farm Layout .............................................................................................................................. 38
6.6 SWT Design on SolidWorks ................................................................................................................ 39
6.6.1 The Turbine Endplates .................................................................................................................... 39
6.6.2 The rotor shaft ................................................................................................................................ 39
6.6.3 The turbine blades .......................................................................................................................... 40
6.6.4 The assembled design ..................................................................................................................... 40
7 SIMULATION & ANALYSIS .............................................................................................................. 42
7.1 Energy Production .............................................................................................................................. 42
7.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Analysis ................................................................................ 43
7.2.1 External Flow Analysis ................................................................................................................... 43
7.2.2 Internal Flow Analysis .................................................................................................................... 45
7.2.3 Comparison of External and Internal Flow Analysis ........................................................................ 46
7.3 Structural Analysis:............................................................................................................................. 47
7.3.1 Drag Force Calculation .................................................................................................................. 47
7.3.2 FEA Static Simulation ..................................................................................................................... 48
7.3.3 Stress Distribution & Factor of Safety ............................................................................................. 50
7.3.4 Deformation ................................................................................................................................... 51
8 FINANCIAL ASSESSMENT ................................................................................................................ 52
CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE WORK ......................................................................................................... 55
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 56

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: General Electric “Electrants”

Figure 2: Classification of EV charging methods
Figure 3: Types of wind turbines
Figure 4: Parts involved in a HAWT
Figure 5: Lift-based wind turbine concept
Figure 6: The three main types of VAWTs
Figure 7: Working Principle of a Darrieus rotor
Figure 8: H-Darrieus rotor
Figure 9: Working Principle of the Savonius Rotor
Figure 10: The aerodynamic performance of the Savonius rotor as a function of the overlap
ratio
Figure 11: Torque of a two-bladed rotor as a function of the angle of attack
Figure 12: The Raw Wind Data Table
Figure 13: Frequency distribution of the wind speed
Figure 14: Weibull distribution
Figure 15: Power curve of the turbine
Figure 16: Kia e-soul charging system
Figure 17: Layout of the off-grid system
Figure 18: Schematic Diagram of SWT: (a) front view (b) top view
Figure 19: Most used electric generators in wind turbine applications
Figure 20: Permanent Magnet and Induction Type Machine Configuration
Figure 21: Wind Farm Layout (SAM)
Figure 22: Turbine Endplate
Figure 23: Rotor shaft
Figure 24: Turbine blade
Figure 25: Assembly of the designed turbine
Figure 26: Average Monthly Energy Production of the Wind Farm
Figure 27: Computational domain for the Savonius in the external analysis
Figure 28: Pressure distribution (external flow)
Figure 29: The velocity vector plot of the external analysis
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Figure 30: Boundary condition for internal flow analysis
Figure 31: Pressure distribution (internal flow)
Figure 32: The velocity vector plot of the internal analysis
Figure 33: The drag force exerted on the concave part
Figure 34: E-glass fiber definition on SolidWorks
Figure 35: Boundary Condition of the Rotor Blade
Figure 36: Meshing of the Rotor Blade
Figure 37: Stress Distribution over the Blade Structure
Figure 38: Deformation of the rotor blade
Figure 39: Cash flow diagram of the project

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Rotor size and relative maximum power output for HAWT
Table 2: Technical characteristics of the VAWTs
Table 3: Geometric Features of the Rotors
Table 4: Wind speed parameters
Table 5: Design parameters of the turbine
Table 6: Properties of the E-glass fiber
Table 7: Comparison of external and internal flow analysis
Table 8: Input parameters for LCOE model
Table 9: Cash flow table of the project

vii
LIST OF ACRONYMS

VAWT: Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

HAWT: Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
SWT: Savonius Wind Turbine
RE: Renewable Energy

viii
ABSTRACT IN ENGLISH

The rapid growth of the electric vehicles market in different countries around the world led to

the multiplication of EV charging stations. In fact, the use of renewable energy sources to power

these EV charging facilities speeds up the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and reduces

the pressure on the national electric grid. Therefore, this capstone project aims to design a

vertical axis wind turbine that will power an EV charging station in the city of Essaouira. To

do so, we will start by evaluating the wind energy potential in the selected location using the

Weibull model. Then, we will need to define the energy needs of the EV charging station to

define the capacity of the VAWT. Afterwards, we will proceed with the design process where

we will determine all the necessary design parameters of the VAWT. Then, we will create and

assemble the different parts of the VAWT on SolidWorks. SolidWorks will also be used to

conduct the CFD and structural analyses of the prototype. Finally, we will conduct a financial

assessment of the project.

Keywords: Renewable energy, Electric cars, Wind turbines, EV charging stations

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ABSTRACT IN FRENCH

Durant ces dernières années, la croissance de l’industrie des voitures électriques dans le monde

a entraîné avec elle la multiplication des bornes et des stations de recharge pour véhicules

électriques. Néanmoins, l’adoption de sources d’énergies renouvelables pour alimenter ces

stations de recharge accélère encore plus la transition écologique en réduisant les émissions des

gaz à effet de serre. Le but de ce projet est de concevoir une éolienne à axe vertical qui

alimentera une station de recharge pour voitures électriques dans la ville d'Essaouira. Pour ce

faire, on commencera par évaluer le potentiel éolien de l'emplacement choisi à l'aide du modèle

de Weibull. Ensuite, on devra définir les besoins énergétiques de la station pour définir la

capacité de l’éolienne. Nous procéderons plus tard au processus de conception où nous

déterminerons tous les paramètres nécessaires à la conception de l’éolienne. Les différentes

pièces de l’éolienne seront créées at assemblées sur SolidWorks. SolidWorks sera également

utilisé pour effectuer l’ensemble des analyses MFN et structurelles du prototype. La dernière

étape serait de faire une évaluation financière du projet.

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1 INTRODUCTION
The transportation sector is one of the major polluters on the planet. In fact, the transportation

sector produces up to 30% of the world’s Greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, the scientific

community made it their duty to solve this global issue and came up with electric vehicles.

Electric vehicles are either partially or completely powered on electricity which reduces the

amount of CO2 emissions. Many countries around the world are now strongly investing in the

electric vehicles market in order to accelerate the electrification of their transportation

industries. However, the lack of charging facilities remains one of the major barriers to this

transition. Additionally, to reduce vehicular emissions even more, the electricity powering

those electric vehicles should be from a source other than fossil fuels. In other words, it is

preferable if the EV charging produce electricity from renewable energy sources such as solar,

wind, geothermal, hydropower or biomass. These renewable energy sources produce no

greenhouse gas emissions which helps reduce air pollution. Furthermore, they create a

diversification of energy supply and diminish the country’s over-reliance on imported fossil

fuels. Therefore, this project is about designing a vertical axis wind turbine that will power an

EV charging station. Throughout history, wind was used to drive boats and ships. Then, a few

centuries later, wind was used to power windmills that were used for irrigation and different

other purposes. Today, wind could be used to generate electricity through wind turbines.

In this project, we will design a VAWT to power an EV charging station. The first part will

consist of evaluating the potential wind energy of the city of Essaouira. Then, we will define

all the necessary design parameters of the VAWT before designing the parts on SolidWorks.

The final part consists of a CFD analysis and a structural analysis of the designed turbine on

SolidWorks.

1
2 STEEPLE ANALYSIS
Before starting the design process of our VAWT, a STEEPLE analysis must be conducted in

order to assess the impact of this project on a variety of sectors: social, technical, economic,

environmental, political, legal, and ethical.

 Social impact: Investing in EV charging stations will encourage people to buy electric

cars since the lack of charging facilities is one of the major reasons people don’t invest

in electric vehicles. Also, the fact that this charging station is off grid makes it an easy

alternative for rural areas.

 Technical impact: The multiplication of EV charging stations will overload the power

grid. However, since this RE powered EV charging station is independent from the

national electric grid, it will reduce the pressure on this latter.

 Economic impact: In general, the use of electric cars will reduce the consumption of

fossil fuels. Since these fossil fuels are mainly imported from foreign countries, the

country invests huge amounts in the energy sector. In fact, in 2020, Morocco paid 23

331 million Dirhams on imported fuel and gas. Therefore, RE powered EV charging

stations will help reduce the country’s energy imports expenses.

 Environmental impact: Creating EV charging stations that are powered with

renewable energies will help reduce the global Greenhouse gas emissions. This will lead

to a lower air pollution and a better health and well-being. Additionally, this project will

help preserve the Earth’s natural resources by reducing fossil fuel reliance.

2
 Political impact: RE powered EV charging stations will help achieve the world’s

climate change goals in a short period. Also, this project will help decrease the

Moroccan Kingdom’s dependance on foreign countries when it comes to fossil fuels.

 Legal impact: The design of a VAWT for an EV charging station does not violate any

national nor international law.

 Ethical impact: During this project, all the intellectual property rights will be

preserved. Furthermore, the different safety measures will be respected not to harm the

environment nor the public.

3
3 LITERATURE REVIEW & THEORETICAL
BACKGROUND
3.1 Brief History of Electric cars

The invention of electric cars came hand in hand with the discovery of batteries. Alessandro

Volta was the first to prove that electric power could be stored as chemical energy. In 1812,

Farraday demonstrated the principles of the electric generator while using Volta’s chemical

battery in his experiment. In 1831, the Breton Michael Farraday developed the principles of

electromagnetic induction showing the strong correlation between magnetism and electric

circuits which then became the core foundation for EV electric generators. Consequently, the

first ever electric cars appeared in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands in the mid-1830s. Major

developments occurred later on in the 19th century. These developments mainly consisted of

the invention of new types of batteries such as the lead-acid battery and the iron-zinc battery.

The lead-acid battery is still used to these days in all internal combustion engine cars. Then in

1901, Thomas Eddison invented the nickel-iron battery as he perceived a great potential in

electric cars. The period between 1880 and 1920 is known as the golden age of electric cars

since the major breakthroughs of this industry have been achieved during this specific period.

The fast charging of electric vehicles was and still is one of the major issues in the EV sector.

Therefore, one of the main focuses of scientists and engineers during this golden age was to

find technical and infrastructural solutions to overcome this problem. [7]

3.2 Brief History of EV charging stations

In the first years of electric vehicles, the cars had disposable batteries that had to be changed

once they are dead. Later on, electric cars with rechargeable batteries were invented. These cars

would either charge with their batteries on or the batteries would be removed to be charged

somewhere else before they are mounted back on the EV. During the golden age of the EV

4
sector, the grids of the EV charging facilities were established for the first time. Nonetheless,

the development of EV charging stations was still minor compared to the expansion of gasoline

charging stations. In the early 1900s, General Electric came up with the first charging station

called “electrant”. These stations were like phone boxes and contained mercury arc rectifiers to

charge the electric vehicles. These devices were used to rectify alternating current into direct

current. The mercury arc rectifier consists of a glass bulb valve, one or more steel or carbon

anodes and a self-restoring pool of liquid mercury that plays the role of a cathode. Besides, the

electrants were coin-operated machines where the user had to simply deposit a certain amount

of money to get the equivalent number of watt-hours to charge his electric vehicle. [7]

Figure 1: General Electric “Electrants”

3.3 Classification of EV charging stations

In today’s world, we notice a variety of EV charging methods. The diagram below displays a

classification of EV charging stations.

5
 Figure 2: Classification of EV charging methods

3.3.1 Fixed charging stations

Fixed charging stations are fixed facilities with electric plugs or charging piles. This category

includes private and public charging stations based on whether the place they are set up in is a

public or a private property. [2] They could mostly be found in workplaces or homes. In 2018,

there was around 5.2 million fixed charging facilities around the world. [4]

3.3.2 Contact-less charging Technologies

This category includes wireless power transfer and battery swapping. These techniques do not

require a direct electric connection between the electric vehicles and the chargers. On the one

hand, battery swapping consists of a device that swaps the depleted battery with a fully charged

one in a matter of minutes instead of hours. On the other hand, wireless power transfer is a

technology where EVs could are charged thanks to a wireless magnetic connection with coils

on the road. [2]

3.3.3 Mobile charging stations

Mobile charging stations offer charging services to electric vehicles or even to fixed charging

stations at any given time or location. There are different types of mobile charging stations. For

example, truck mobile charging stations are electric vehicles that contain a battery energy

storage system and can travel a certain distance to charge other electric vehicles. There are also

some truck mobile charging stations that are not equipped with a battery energy storage system

and travel to fixed charging stations to connect with their plugs and provide more points of

6
connection for electric vehicles. Finally, we also have portable charging stations that carry a

battery storage system without it being mounted on them like truck mobile charging stations

which makes them operate as a stand-alone system. [2]

3.4 Charging systems

EVs can be charged using AC or DC systems. These various charging systems can also be

categorized as level1, level2, and level 3 charging.

AC charging system: The AC charging method is a system that provides AC power. It usually

uses an onboard charger. In other words, the EV’s charger is inside the EV while the car is

plugged into an AC outlet at the charging station. There are three levels to this charging system:

 Level 1: Voltage 120V single phase. Current range [12A, 16A].

 Level 2: Voltage range [208V, 240V] single phase. Current up to 80A.

 Level 3: Voltage 208V, 480V or 600V three-phase. Current up to 400A. [8]

DC charging system: This type of system provides DC power according to the SAE EV DC

Charging standard. It usually uses an off-board charger fixed at the charging station. There are

also three levels to this charging system:

 Level 1: Voltage range [200V, 400V]. Current up to 80A.

 Level 2: Voltage range [200V, 400V]. Current up to 200A.

 Level 3: Voltage range [200V, 600V]. Current up to 400A. [8]

3.5 Wind Turbines

3.5.1 Historical Background

The world’s first windmills were used to pump water and grind wheat and they were found

between today’s Afghanistan and Iran. These windmills had a vertical axis and operated thanks

to the drag component of wind power which explains their low efficiency. This type of devices

could only be used in places where there is one major direction of wind as they cannot follow

7
wind variations. The first windmills in Europe were inspired from the ones in the Middle East,

however they had a horizontal axis instead. In other words, the European windmills operated

due to the lift component of the wind power rather than the drag force. In the United States, the

first windmills appeared during the nineteenth century and were composed of many steel-made

blades. [3] The end of the 19th century marks the invention of the first windmill that generated

electricity due to a mechanical means from the wind. These windmills rapidly spread in

different countries around the world in the first half of the 20th century. Most of these windmills

had a horizontal axis. However, in 1931, Georges Jean Marie Darrieus invented a new windmill

that still holds his name and that will become the most famous type of vertical axis wind

turbines. Today, there exists a variety of models and types of wind turbines. Nonetheless, the

horizontal axis wind turbines remain widely predominant especially in the electricity generation

sector. [3]

3.5.2 Wind Turbines Classification

There exist two major types of wind turbines: the vertical axis and the horizontal axis wind

turbines. They both serve the same purpose although there are some differences especially when

it comes to their efficiency, the cost of construction, the noise factor, and the aesthetical aspect.

Figure 3: Types of wind turbines

 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines: This type of wind turbines has blades that spin on a

vertical axis. VAWTs can generate power at a lower wind speed compared to HAWT.

8
 Consequently, it can be mounted at a lower altitude compared to HAWTs. Furthermore,

VAWT are able to catch wind no matter the direction it blows. They also make less

noise compared to HAWT which makes them perfect for loads that need little electrical

energy. Nonetheless, the reason VAWT were not adopted for commercial power

generation is because they are less efficient and produce less power than HAWT. This

technical disadvantage is due to the fact that their blades have more drag than those in

HAWT. Additionally, some VAWTs require guy wires to hold up their structure which

causes a downward thrust on the bearings of the blades. In order to overcome this issue,

a structure should be built above the VAWT to hold it up. [4]

 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines: This type of wind turbines spins on a horizontal axis.

There are two main types of HAWTs: the upwind and the downwind turbines. The

upwind turbines are a type of wind turbines where the rotor is in the front side of the

unit. Whereas the downwind turbines have their rotor on the back side of the unit.

Nonetheless, in downwind turbines, the tower shadow causes turbulence, blade failure

and decreases the power output of the turbine which is why upwind turbines are the

most common in the market. HAWT can adjust their blades depending on the time of

the day and the direction of the wind thanks to its variable blade pitch which makes

them more efficient. Nonetheless, HAWT require a relatively high wind speed in order

to start producing electricity which makes them an ideal choice for high altitudes.

Consequently, to maximize their efficiency, HAWT must be mounted on high towers.

In general, the advantages of HAWT are more valuable than their disadvantages which

is why they are now the most used type of wind turbines. [4]

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 3.5.3 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines

3.5.3.1 Main Components of HAWTs

There are many parts that are essential for a horizontal axis wind turbine to function correctly.

The figure below displays the different parts of a horizontal axis wind turbine.

Figure 4: Parts involved in a HAWT

 Rotor Blades: They are the blades that convert the kinetic energy of wind into

mechanical energy that is then converted into electricity by other parts of the wind

turbine. In fact, these blades catch wind to start rotating which then creates a rotational

shaft energy. They are manufactured from composite materials usually a combination

of glass fiber and epoxy resin. Additionally, the energy harvested by the turbine from

the wind is directly related to the size of the rotors. The table below shows the

increase in the wind turbine’s power output with the increase in the rotor diameter. [4]

10
 Table 1: Rotor size and relative maximum power output for HAWT

 Rotor hub: It holds the rotor blades in position while they rotate.

 Pitch system: A system that adjusts the angle of the blades to use the prevailing wind

efficiently.

 Shaft: The shaft of a wind turbine is connected to the center of its rotor. The rotation

of the rotor causes the shaft to rotate as well. The rotational force transferred to the

shaft is then transmitted to the gearbox then to the generator to generate electric

power. [4]

 Gearbox: Gears that increase the rotational speed of the rotor shaft to reach the high

speed required by the generator.

 Brake system: It stops the turbine when needed.

 Electric generator: Thanks to the principles of electromagnetic induction, electric

generators produce an electrical voltage. In fact, when the shaft rotates, it creates an

electromagnetic induction that generates an electric voltage. Consequently, an electric

current is produced and is transmitted to the electric grid. [4]

 Power Converter: It converts the DC power from the generator to the AC power

required by the electric grid.

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  Transformer: It converts the electricity from the turbine to higher voltage required by

the electric grid.

 Yaw system: A system that rotates the nacelle to make it face the changing wind

direction.

 Nacelle: A box that covers the turbine’s drive train.

 Tower: It is a structure that carries the nacelle and the rotor of the wind turbine. It is

usually manufactured from sections of steel. Its height usually varies from 40m to

more than 100m.

3.5.3.2 Working Principle of HAWTs

Horizontal Axis wind turbines rely on the lift force to rotate. This is mainly due to the aerofoil

shape of its blades. In fact, the HAWT blades work like airplane wings. The lift force results

from the difference of pressure between the two sides of the blade. The figure below shows

the effect of lift and drag on the blade.

Figure 5: Lift-based wind turbine concept [1]

The higher the tower of the turbine, the higher the wind speed and the bigger the power output

of the turbine. The swept area of the turbine also increases the power output of the turbine.

HAWTs can have two or three blades. The swept area in HAWTs mainly depends on the

blades’ diameter. These parameters vary depending on the power output needed. For HAWTs,

12
a good blade design is one with a high lift to drag ratio because the lift force is the one that

rotates the rotor.

3.5.4 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

There are different types of VAWTs. The main types of VAWTs are: the Savonius, the H-

Darrieus, and the Darrieus.

Figure 6: The three main types of VAWTs (from left to right: the Savonius rotor, the

Darrieus rotor and the H-rotor) [10]

3.5.4.1 The Darrieus rotor

The Darrieus rotor was invented in the 1920s by the French aeronautical engineer Georges Jean

Marie Darrieus. The blades of the Darrieus turbines use lift force to rotate and generate

electricity. Although they depend on the lift force, their working principle is different from

HAWTs. Darrieus turbines are not self-starting. To rotate, Darrieus turbines require an airflow

that results from both the motion of the blades and the motion of wind and not just the wind.

Therefore, the Darrieus rotor must be started by spinning it until it reaches its operational speed.

13
 Figure 7: Working Principle of a Darrieus rotor [11]

3.5.4.2 The H-Darrieus rotor

The H-Darrieus is another version of the Darrieus rotor where the blades are straight instead of

curved. However, the working principle of the H-rotor is similar to the standard Darrieus

turbine. The two-bladed version of this turbine forms the shape of the letter H, hence its name.

Figure 8: H-Darrieus rotor

3.5.4.3 The Savonius rotor

The Savonius rotor was invented in the 1920s by the Finnish engineer Sigurd Savonius. Its most

basic design with two blades has the shape of the letter of S. This VAWT uses the drag force

14
to rotate its rotor. Its working principle is simple. The VAWT rotates due to the difference of

the drag force acting on the concave and the convex parts of the blades. The figure below

illustrates its working principle.

Figure 9: Working Principle of the Savonius Rotor [9]

The air gets trapped on the concave part of the rotor which pushes the turbine. The convex part

of the turbine receives a drag force from the wind. However, this drag force is lower than the

one on the concave part. It is this differential of the drag force that causes the turbine to rotate.

15
4 COMPARATIVE STUDY & VAWT SELECTION
In this section we will compare three types of vertical axis wind turbines: the Savonius, the

Darrieus and the H-rotor. This comparison will be based on technical, financial, and

environmental factors. Following this comparative study, we will select the VAWT that suits

our project best.

4.1 Technical Comparison

The main technical differences between the three types of VAWTs are summarized in the table

below.

Table 2: Technical characteristics of the VAWTs

H-rotor Darrieus Savonius

Aerodynamic Force Lift Lift Drag

Needed

Maximum Efficiency 10% 40% 30%

Blade Profile Simple Complicated Complicated

Yaw Mechanism No No No

Needed

Pitch Mechanism Yes No No

Possible

Tower Yes No Yes

Guy Wires Optional Yes No

Noise Low Moderate Low

Blade Area Moderate Large Moderate

Generator Position On ground On ground On ground

Blade load Moderate Low Low

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 Self-starting No No Yes (if it has 3 or

more blades)

Overall Structure Simple Simple Simple

From the table above, we can conclude that all types of VAWTs have a simple overall structure

and can be easily designed even though the Darrieus wind turbines have a more complicated

blade profile. We can also notice that the Savonius wind turbines are drag-driven unlike the

other two types of VAWTs which are lift-driven. Besides, the Darrieus wind turbines are the

most efficient although they make more noise compared to the H-rotor and the Savonius wind

turbines. Nonetheless, the noise made by the Darrieus wind turbines is relatively tolerable.

Therefore, they can still be used near populated areas. However, the Savonius wind turbines

have the ability to self-start unlike other VAWTs because it is drag-driven. In fact, the Darrieus

wind turbines’ ability to self-start is very low. Nonetheless, many studies were conducted to

improve the lift-driven wind turbines’ ability to self-start either by using a pitch system or by

using inclined blades. Unfortunately, these measures make the VAWTs design more

complicated. In general, the Savonius wind turbines are the most suitable for a stand-alone

system thanks to their self-starting ability.

4.2 Financial Comparison

VAWTs are not mass-produced like HAWTs. Therefore, not enough research has been done

on VAWTs to find smarter and cheaper solutions. Also, the fact that VAWTs are produced in

small numbers doesn’t help reduce their price. However, VAWTs have a simple structure which

means they require very little maintenance. Also, a wind turbine that doesn’t contain a yaw

system and a pitch system and with all its electrical parts at ground level has very low

maintenance cost. Therefore, in general, VAWTs are cheaper than HAWTs. Nonetheless, for

17
VAWTs, the cost of the manufacturing costs depends mainly on the complexity of the blades.

The H-rotor has simple straight blades which lowers the manufacturing costs although the

blades are long. However, the manufacturing cost of a Darrieus wind turbine is high because

the blades are long, bended, and sometimes they can even be twisted. Similarly, the blades of

Savonius wind turbines are also a bit complicated to manufacture because they are large and

twisted. However, the Savonius wind turbine are still considered less expensive than the

Darrieus rotor. Furthermore, the cost of the wind turbines also depends on the materials

selected. If we were to choose the cheapest materials than can be easily accessed, the Darrieus

H-rotor wind turbine will be the cheapest option thanks to its simple design. In order to make

the turbines more environmentally friendly, we can use recycled materials to make the turbine

which will lower the costs.

4.3 Environmental Comparison

The H-rotor Darrieus wind turbines are the least harmful for birds and bats. In fact, the low

speed of the H-rotor blades massively reduces the risk of collision with blades. Since Essaouira

is known for its seagulls, the H-rotor wind turbines seems to be the most appropriate option not

to affect one of the city’s most iconic animals. Nevertheless, one must keep in mind that all

types of VAWTs cause very lower bird deaths compared to HAWTs. As a matter of fact,

VAWT blades are more visible for birds because they are close together and they all have the

same linear and angular velocities. Additionally, all VAWTs have a noise emission that is at

the bottom of the range which will not bother the population living next to the station.

18
4.4 VAWT Selection

The vertical-axis wind turbine that was selected for this project is the Savonius wind turbine.

The reasons behind this choice are listed below:

 The Savonius is the only self-starting VAWT because it is a drag-driven turbine. The

ability to self-start is a crucial criterion for this project since we are working on a stand-

alone EV charging station. There are many methods to improve the self-starting ability

of the other VAWTs. However, the research in this field is still ongoing and it will also

make the design process more complicated.

 The Savonius VAWT has a maximum power coefficient of 30% which is acceptable for

small-scale applications. Its efficiency is also high compared to that of the H-rotor

Darrieus turbine which is only 10%. Furthermore, the difference in efficiency between

the classical Darrieus wind turbine and the Savonius wind turbine could be compensated

by other more important criteria.

 The design of the Savonius wind turbine is simple compared to that of the Darrieus wind

turbine. Therefore, the design of an SWT would be much cheaper compared to the

Darieus that is more efficient. Besides, there is not a big difference in the complexity

of the design between the H-rotor Darrieus and the SWT.

 SWTs cause very little bird deaths which will not affect Essaouira’s famous seagulls.

 SWTs are very quiet turbines which will not cause any noise annoyance.

There are various types of SWTs. The differences in the SWT design are mainly differences in

the overlap ratio or the nature of the blades. The overlap ratio (e/D) is the ratio between the

overlap distance of the blades and the rotor diameter. The graph below shows the aerodynamic

performances of the different types of Savonius turbines. [14]

19
 Figure 10: The aerodynamic performance of the Savonius rotor as a function of the

overlap ratio [14]

The table below lists the geometric features of each of the rotors mentioned above in the graph.

Table 3: Geometric Features of the Rotors [14]

It has been experimentally proven that the rotor 2 with an overlap ratio e/D=1/6 is the most

efficient type of SWT. Therefore, for our design, we will adopt the Savonius rotor 2 to

maximize the power output of the turbine.

The number of blades is also an important criterion that defines the performance of a wind

turbine. In our case, the SWT will only have two blades because rotors with two blades have a

20
bigger variation in the torque induced in the axis compared to rotors of three blades or more.

This variation is due to the fact that the angle of separation between the blades of a two-bladed

rotor is 180°. Each time, the angle 180° is reached, there force received by the blades is

maximum which creates a maximum torque. The graph below shows the variation of the torque

of a two-bladed rotor as a function of the angle of attack. [12]

Figure 11: Torque of a two-bladed rotor as a function of the angle of attack [12]

21
5 SITE ASSESSMENT FOR WIND TURBINES
5.1 The Methodology

In this part of the project, we will evaluate the wind energy potential of the city of Essaouira.

In the first place, we gathered the raw wind data from the Climate Data Online (CDO) website.

The raw data was recorded from January 1954 to May 2014, and it covers information about

wind speed, temperature, pressure, visibility and so on… In the second place, we will determine

the Weibull distribution of our selected site using the available raw data in order to evaluate the

wind energy potential of Essaouira. We will use Excel to do all the necessary calculations and

generate the Weibull distribution. Different documents and literatures about wind data

manipulation and the Weibull distribution were studied for this purpose.

Data Collection & Analysis:

 Raw wind data of the city of Essaouira from the CDO website (1954 to 2014)

 Data organization using Excel

Main Results of the Analysis:

 Weibull Distribution

 Average Temperature

 Mean Wind Speed at 10m

5.2 Raw Data Collection

The data we collected was found on the Climate Data Online website. These data were provided

by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) under their World Weather Watch Program.

These data underwent quality control to eliminate errors and decode as much synoptic data as

possible which implies that a very small margin of error will be left. The data covers

information about temperature, pressure, wind speed, wind gust, visibility, precipitations, and

other climatic events that could occur during the day. Furthermore, these data were recorded

22
from January 1954 to May 2014 which provides 16 595 of daily data. This will help us predict

the future wind speed in Essaouira as precisely as possible. The table below shows the different

types of data that were provided by the CDO website and that were used in our analysis.

Figure 12: The Raw Wind Data Table

The description of each parameter in the table will be listed below:

 STN: Station’s number

 YEARMODA: Year/Month/Da

 TEMP: Mean temperature in °F

 DEWP: Mean dew point in °F

 SLP: Sea level pressure in mbar

 VISIB: Mean visibility in miles

 WDSP: Mean wind speed in knots

 MXSPD: Maximum sustained wind speed in knots

 GUST: Maximum wind gust in knots

 MAX: Maximum temperature

23
  MIN: Minimum temperature

 PRCP: Precipitation (rain or snow) in inches

 FRSHTT: Indicators (1 = yes, 0 = no/not reported) for the occurrence during the day

of: Fog ('F' - 1st digit), rain or drizzle ('R' - 2nd digit), snow or ice pellets ('S' - 3rd

digit), hail ('H' - 4th digit), thunder ('T' - 5th digit), tornado or funnel cloud ('T' - 6th

digit).

5.3 Frequency Distribution:

For this project, we will use the wind speed data at 10m because our VAWT will be installed

at an altitude of 10m. After gathering the windspeed data at 10m, we will convert it to m/s using

the equation below:

V(m/s) =V(knots)*0.5144

Using the AVERAGE function in Excel, we found out that the mean wind speed at 10m is 5.297

m/s which is higher than the minimum wind speed required to rotate a wind turbine (3.6 m/s).

Also, using the STDEV function in Excel, we found out that the wind speed standard deviation

is 3.023 m/s. This standard deviation value is quite high which means that the wind speed data

is spread out not clustered around the mean. In other words, the wind speed in Essaouira is

highly intermittent which makes the prediction of the wind turbine performance very

challenging.

Afterwards, using the COUNTIF function in Excel, we calculated the frequency of occurrence

of each wind speed value. We also calculated the probability of occurrence of each wind speed

value using the equation below.

𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
Probability=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 (16583)

Using the results found, we generated the frequency distribution of the wind speed at Essaouira.

24
 Frequency Distribution of Wind Speed at 10m
250

200

150
Frequency

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Wind speed (m/s)

Figure 13: Frequency distribution of the wind speed

From the graph, we can see that the most frequent wind speed is 3.086 m/s which has a

frequency of 194. However, in general, the most frequent wind speeds range from 2 m/s to 5.9

m/s.

5.4 Weibull Distribution

The Weibull distribution is a statistical distribution that was named after the engineer and

mathematician from Sweden Waloddi Weibull. The Weibull distribution is now used in

different fields such as engineering, biology, statistics, and others [13]. It is mainly used to

analyze life data, evaluate product reliability, model failure times, and predict wind speed

distribution in the future.

The Weibull distribution is a two-parameter function. The probability density function is

calculated using the following equation:

𝑘 𝑣 𝑣
f(v) = 𝑐 (𝑐 )𝑘−1 exp {- ((𝑐 )𝑘 }

The cumulative distribution function is calculated using the following equation:

25
 𝑣
F (v) = 1 – exp {- (𝑐 )𝑘 }

k: shape factor

c: scale factor

v: wind speed

The shape and scale factors could be calculated using different methods. In our case, we will

use the standard deviation method. In fact, the Weibull factors could be estimated using the

mean and the standard deviation of wind data. This method predicts the wind distribution within

an acceptable level of accuracy. The mean wind speed and the standard deviation have already

been calculated in the previous part. Therefore, the Weibull factors could be calculated using

the following equations:

𝜎
k= (𝑈 𝑢 )−1.09
𝑎𝑣𝑔

𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∗𝑘 2.6674
c= 0.184+0.816∗𝑘 2.73855

𝜎𝑢 =wind speed standard deviation

𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑔 = mean wind speed

Using these equations in Excel, we found the following results:

k= 1.843

c=5.963

Using the WEIBULL.DIST function on Excel, we calculated the probability density function

of each wind speed value. Then, we generated the Weibull distribution graph down below.

26
 Weibull Distribution
0.16

0.14
Probability Density Function

0.12

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
Wind Speed (m/s)

Figure 14: Weibull distribution

From the graph, we can see that the most probable wind speed is about 3.9 m/s with a probability

of 0.1368 which is the peak of the probability density function. This value could also be found

analytically using the following equation:

𝑘−1 1/𝑘
𝑉𝐹𝑀𝐴𝑋 = 𝑐 ( )
𝑘

𝑉𝐹𝑀𝐴𝑋 = 3.9 𝑚/𝑠

We can also calculate the velocity that will contribute to the maximum energy using the

equation below:
𝑘+2 1/𝑘
𝑉𝐸𝑀𝐴𝑋 = 𝑐 ( )
𝑘

𝑉𝐸𝑀𝐴𝑋 = 6.259 m/s

We must also calculate the three wind speed parameters that affect the power output of the wind

turbine: the cut-in wind speed, the rated wind speed, and the cut-out wind speed. The cut-in

wind speed is the velocity at which the wind turbine starts rotating. The rated wind-speed is the

velocity at which the wind turbine generates its nominal or rated power. The cut-out wind speed

27
is the point at which the wind turbine automatically shuts off. These parameters are calculated

using the following equations:

Vcut-in=0.5 Vavg

Vrated=1.5 Vavg

Vcut-out=3 Vavg

The table below summarizes the wind speed parameters for the city of Essaouira ta an altitude

of 10m.

Table 4: Wind speed parameters

Wind Speed Parameter Calculation

Cut-in wind speed Vcut-in=2.6485 m/s

Rated wind speed Vrated=7.9455 m/s

Cut-out wind speed Vcut-out=15.891 m/s

The power curve demonstrating the performance of the VAWT in Essaouira is shown below.

Figure 15: Power curve of the turbine

We can also estimate the wind power density using a Weibull based approach. The wind power

density is the mean power available for each m2 of swept area of the wind turbine. In fact, the

equation below is used to calculate the power density of wind.

𝜌𝑎 𝑐 3 3 3
𝐸𝐷 = Γ(𝑘)
2 𝑘

28
Knowing that air density in Essaouira at an elevation of 10 m is 1.1156 kg/𝑚3 , we found the

following result.

𝑃𝐷 =172.709 W/𝑚2

Using this result, we can calculate the yearly energy density by multiplying the power density

by the time of operation. If the VAWT operates 365 days per year and 24h per day, the energy

density would be as follows:

𝐸𝐷 =𝑃𝐷 *365*24

𝐸𝐷 = 1 512 930.84 𝑊ℎ/(𝑚2 . 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟)

𝐸𝐷 = 1.513 𝑀𝑊ℎ/(𝑚2 . 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟)

29
6 DESIGNING THE SAVONIUS VERTICAL WIND
TURBINE
6.1 EV Charging Station

6.1.1 EV Charging Station Capacity & Required VAWT Power

In this project, we would like to design a small-scale Savonius wind turbine that will power

an EV charging station. This EV charging station is supposed to charge Kia e-soul electric

vehicles. It is an EV that could be equipped with either a 39.2KWh or a 64KWh battery.

Besides, the car accepts both level 2 AC charging or level 3 DC fast charging. Figure 16

shows details about the electric car Kia e-soul.

Figure 16: Kia e-soul charging system [8]

Usually, a small-scale wind turbine like the one we want to design for this project has a power

output that does not exceed 10kW. Therefore, our EV charging station must adopt the level 2

AC charging method as it requires less power than the fast-charging option. Since this

charging method requires 6h10min to reach full charge, our EV charging station could accept

up to 3 Kia e-soul cars per day. Now we need to define the power that should be delivered by

the Savonius wind turbines to cover the energy needs of 3 kia e-soul cars per day.

𝐸
PSWT=𝐶
𝑃 ∗𝑡

30
  E: Energy needed

 Cp: Power coefficient of the Savonius wind turbine. We take Cp=0.3.

 t: Total charging time

Assuming that the EV charging station will host Kia e-soul cars that have 39.2kWh batteries.

If we were to host 3 similar EV cars per day in the EV charging station, the daily energy need

of the station would be 117.6 kWh. Therefore, the power that must be delivered by the wind

turbine can be calculated using the previous equation.

117.6
PSWT=0.3∗18.5

PSWT= 21.19 kW

Therefore, to cover the needs of the EV charging station, we will design 4 small-scale 5.3kW

Savonius wind turbines that will operate in parallel.

6.1.2 System Layout

The System we aim to design is an off-grid system that is supposed to generate power to charge

electric vehicles at the EV charging station. However, the system will also store excess energy

in batteries to use it when there is not enough wind to cover the station’s energy needs. The

figure below displays the main components of the system.

Figure 17: Layout of the off-grid system

31
Off-grid wind controller: Electronic device that ensures that the Savonius wind turbines don't

over charge the batteries. It also limits how fast the turbine blades can spin when the batteries

are full or in high wind situations.

Battery bank: Batteries that store the DC energy produced by the Savonius wind turbines.

Off-grid invertor: It converts DC energy to AC energy. It consists of a capacitor and inductor

circuit that opposes the sudden change in its direction and the current begins to rise and fall

thus generating the sinusoidal waveform.

6.2 SWT Pre-dimensioning & Design Parameters

In this part, we will define the dimensions of the SWT that will help us cover the energy

needs of the charging station and produce the required power output. Below is a diagram of

the different parameters that should be taken into consideration while designing the SWT.

(a) (b)

Figure 18: Schematic Diagram of SWT: (a) front view (b) top view

6.2.1 The Swept Area

The power within wind energy is defined as the multiplication of mass flow ρVA and kinetic
1
energy per unit mass V2. It is determined by the following equation.
2

1
Pw=2 ρAV3

32
  V: Wind speed

 A: Swept area

 Ρ: Air density

The power indicated in the equation above represents the power of an ideal turbine in case

there are absolutely no losses. However, this is not possible. The ideal efficiency of a wind

turbine is Bet’s limit where 59.3% of kinetic energy within the wind is converted into useful

power. In reality, the maximum power coefficient of a Savonius wind turbine rotor 2 is

Cp=0.3. Therefore, the rated power output of a Savonius wind turbine is defined with the

equation below. It is recommended by the international standard of small wind turbine design

IEC 61400-2 to use the rated wind speed to calculate the power output of a small-scale wind

turbine:
1
P=2 (0.3) ρAVrated3

 Vrated: Rated Wind Speed (Vrated =7.9455 m/s)

 A: Swept area of SWT (A=HD); H: height of the SWT; D: diameter of the SWT

 ρ: Air density in the selected location (ρ=1.1156 Kg/m3)

Since we want to design a SWT that has a power of 5.3 Kw, the swept area of the turbine

could be found by substituting the available values in the previous equation. We found that

the swept area should be A= 63.14m2. [17]

6.2.2 The Aspect Ratio

The aspect ratio AR is an important criterion that defines the efficiency of the wind turbine.

For a Savonius wind turbine, AR is the ratio between the height of the SWT and the rotor

diameter. According to literature, Savonius rotors with AR that ranges from 1.0 to 2.0 have a

good compromise between the rotor performance and compactness. However, since it is

preferable to have an AR that is as large as possible to ensure high efficiency, we will take

33
AR=2. In other words, the height of the SWT should be twice the rotor diameter. [15] Using

this criterion, we will get the following values for the rotor diameter and the SWT height:

H= 11.24m

D= 5.62m

6.2.3 The Overlap Ratio

Also, since we chose to work with a rotor 2 Savonius, the overlap ratio e/D=1/6, where (e) is

the overlap distance and D is the rotor diameter. Therefore, the overlap distance in our design

will be e=0.94m. [17]

The relationship between the rotor diameter (D) and the blade diameter (d) is as follows:

D=2d-e

Using this equation, we found out that the blade diameter should be d=3.28m.

6.2.4 The Separation Gap

According to literature, an increase in the separation gap causes a decrease in the torque

coefficient and the power coefficient. Therefore, for this design to achieve maximum power

coefficient, we will set the separation gap e’=0.

6.2.5 The Tip Speed Ratio

The tip speed ratio λ is the ratio between the peripheral velocity of the turbine (ω.R) and the

speed of free wind (V). [17] In fact, as the tip speed ratio increases, the turbine performance

increases as well. For the Savonius wind turbine, the highest tip speed ratio it can reach is 1.

6.2.6 Solidity

Solidity (σ) is defined as the ratio of the area occupied by the blades to the turbine swept area.

It can also be defined as the percentage of the rotor area that contains material rather than air.

Solidity is highly related to the tip speed ratio. [17] As a matter of fact, as the tip speed

decreases, the solidity of the turbine increases. For VAWTs, the solidity is defined with the

following equation.

34
 σ=nd/R

 n: Number of blades

 d: Blade diameter

 R: Radius of the turbine

In our case, the SWT will have a solidity of 2.33.

6.2.7 Effect of Endplates

Rotors with and without endplates have been tested. The results showed that rotors with

endplates had higher mechanical power. In fact, the presence of endplates increases the

amount of air that strikes the turbine blades. Therefore, to increase the mechanical power of

our SWT, we will include endplates in our design. [17]

6.2.8 Summary of Design Parameters

The table below summarizes the design parameters used in this project:

Table 5: Design parameters of the turbine

Parameter Value

Power Generated 5.3 kW

Rated Wind Speed 7.9455 m/s

Aspect Ratio 2

Tip Speed Ratio 1

Solidity 2.33

Number of Blades 2

Swept Area, A 63.14m2

Rotor Diameter, D 5.62m

Rotor Height, H 11.24m

End Plate Diameter, Do 6.62m

35
 Chord Length, d 3.28m

Overlap Distance, e 0.94m

Gap Distance, e’ 0m

Blade Thickness, t 10mm

End Plate Thickness, t r 50mm

6.3 Material Selection for the Blades

The best materials to be used for turbine blades are materials that have a low density and high

strength to weight ratio. In fact, light blades reduce the weight and the strain the turbine must

carry which increases its efficiency. The most frequently used materials in turbine blades are

Aluminum, Steel, Copper, and reinforced plastics. However, Glass and Epoxy have a lighter

density and a higher strength to weight compared to the materials mentioned previously

which makes them a better option for turbine blades. They are also non-corrosive materials

which reduces the maintenance costs of the turbine. In this project, we will use E-glass fiber.

The table below lists this material’s most important properties.

Table 6: Properties of the E-glass fiber

Property E-glass fiber

Density (Kg/m3) 1700-2000

Young’s modulus (GPa) 27.2-39.4

Poisson’s ratio 0.07-0.11

Tensile strength (MPa) 217-520

Compressive strength (MPa) 276-460

36
6.4 Choice of the generator

To convert the mechanical energy of the shaft into electrical energy, a generator should be

coupled with the rotor shaft. In fact, the right selection of the generator is crucial for wind

turbine applications. The most used types of generators in wind turbines are induction and

synchronous generators as shown in the figure below.

Figure 19: Most used electric generators in wind turbine applications [18]

Induction generators can operate as motors or generators depending on the rotation speed of

the rotor shaft. If the rotor shaft rotates slower than the synchronous speed, the induction

machine operates as a motor. However, if the shaft rotates faster than the synchronous speed,

the induction machine operates as a generator. This type of generators is usually very cheap

and easy to find. Nonetheless, induction machines require a gear train that produces noise and

requires high maintenance costs. They also need external excitation to produce a rotating

magnetic field.

For small-scale wind turbine applications, the most used type of generators is the permanent

magnet generator. Permanent magnet generators are more efficient and more reliable

compared to other generators. They are also direct driven generators that do not require a gear

train. Additionally, they have multiple poles and can directly be connected to the rotor shaft.

37
The figure below shows the configuration of the permanent magnet generator compared to the

induction machine. [18]

Figure 20: Permanent Magnet and Induction Type Machine Configuration [18]

In this project, we will use the permanent magnet generator due to its many advantages.

6.5 Wind Farm Layout

Since we will need 4 Savonius wind turbines. The spacing between these turbines is also an

important parameter that should be determined. In fact, if the turbines are too close to each

other, that might cause damage to the turbines or alter their efficiency.

To find the necessary spacing between the turbines, we used System Advisor Model (SAM).

This software model facilitates the decision-making in the renewable energy sector. After

entering all the input parameters, we found that the spacing between each two turbines should

be 8 diameters which is equivalent to 44.96m. The figure below shows the wind farm layout

map.

38
 Figure 21: Wind Farm Layout (SAM)

6.6 SWT Design on SolidWorks

6.6.1 The Turbine Endplates

We designed the endplates with a diameter of 6.72m. The whole at the center is supposed to

host the rotor shaft. Therefore, the diameter of the whole is equal to the shaft diameter i.e.: d=

0.96m.

Figure 22: Turbine Endplate

6.6.2 The rotor shaft

The rotor shaft has a 11.64m height. However, the blades will only be connected to 11.24m of

its total height. This difference is supposed to prevent friction between the rotor shaft and the

turbine endplates. The shaft diameter is 0.96m whereas the overlap distance that should

39
separate the blades is 0.94m. The 2 cm of difference is due to the thicknesses of the two

blades since they will be integrated to the shaft. In fact, the area where the shaft and the

blades will be connected is extruded to host the blades and create a smooth design.

Figure 23: Rotor shaft

6.6.3 The turbine blades

The turbine blades are semi-cylindrical with a diameter of 3.28m and a height of 11.24m.

Their thickness is 1cm.

Figure 24: Turbine blade

6.6.4 The assembled design

After we designed each component separately, we assembled the Savonius wind turbine on

SolidWorks. The figures below display the final results.

40
Figure 25: Assembly of the designed turbine

41
7 SIMULATION & ANALYSIS
7.1 Energy Production

Using SAM, we were able to generate the monthly energy production of the wind farm.

However, we couldn’t enter 21.2kW as the overall power of the wind farm since SAM only

accepts whole umbers. Therefore, we set the overall power of the wind farm equal to 22 Kw.

Therefore, the results found using SAM are simply an approximation. The figure below displays

the average monthly energy production of the wind energy farm.

Figure 26: Average Monthly Energy Production of the Wind Farm

We can see that the energy production from month to month. The lowest energy production

(3500 kWh) is recorded during the month of February. Nonetheless, for 7 months out of 12,

the energy production is maximum (3900 kWh). Additionally, the annual energy production is

found to be 46 021kWh. Therefore, approximately, our 21.2 Kw wind farm will be able to

generate 44 347.5 kWh per year which is still higher than the annual energy needs of the EV

charging station (42 924 kWh).

42
7.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Analysis

The main purpose of this CFD analysis is to evaluate the pressure difference between the

concave and the convex blade surfaces. It will also help us determine the drag force experienced

by the rotor blades. There are two types of CFD analysis that will be conducted in this project:

the external flow analysis and the internal flow analysis.

7.2.1 External Flow Analysis

The flow type of a Savonius wind turbine is considered external because it is always fully

surrounded by air. For the external flow analysis, we included the rated velocity of wind

V=7.9455 m/s in the positive z-direction. We also entered other input data such as the

temperature, the gravity, and the pressure. To conduct the external flow analysis, we must first

determine the computational domain. The computational domain was determined to

20m×15m×20m.

Figure 27: Computational domain for the Savonius in the external analysis

Before running the study, we set pressure as one of the global goals to get the pressure

distribution around the Savonius wind turbine. The figure below is a contour cut plot of the

pressure distribution around the turbine from the top view.

43
 Figure 28: Pressure distribution (external flow)

According to the figure, the higher-pressure region is in red while the lower pressure region is

in blue. The pressure is higher near the concave region facing the wind and it is lower near the

convex surface facing the wind. The highest and lowest pressure recorded are respectively

101 292.5 Pa and 101 230.6 Pa.

Figure 29: The velocity vector plot of the external analysis

The figure above displays the flow pattern of air around the wind turbine. We can see that the

wind is blocked by the static turbine. Since there are no boundary walls. The air flows outside

of the computational domain. Therefore, the wind is not completely flow through the rotor

blades.

44
 7.2.2 Internal Flow Analysis

For the internal flow analysis, we had to create a 15m×25m×35m wind tunnel where air will be

confined. We set the inlet velocity V=7.9455 m/s in the positive z-direction (red vectors) then

the environmental pressure in the opposite direction at the outlet of the wind tunnel (blue

vectors). These input data were our only boundary conditions for the study. The figure below

shows the wind tunnel as well as its boundary conditions.

Figure 30: Boundary condition for internal flow analysis

The figure below displays the pressure distribution around the turbine along the wind tunnel

observed from the top.

Figure 31: Pressure distribution (internal flow)

The higher-pressure region is in red while the lower pressure region is in blue. The concave

surface experiences the highest pressure while the pressure is lower on the convex surface. The

45
highest pressure experienced by the turbine is 101 453.92 Pa and the lowest pressure is

101 362.16 Pa.

Figure 32: The velocity vector plot of the internal analysis

The figure above displays the flow pattern of air around the wind turbine in the wind tunnel.

We can see that the wind is blocked by the static turbine. The wind is completely trapped within

the wind tunnel. Therefore, the wind is completely flow through the rotor blades.

7.2.3 Comparison of External and Internal Flow Analysis

The table below summarizes the main similarities and differences between the external flow

analysis and the internal flow analysis.

Table 7: Comparison of external and internal flow analysis

External Flow Analysis Internal Flow Analysis

High Pressure Concave Surface Concave Surface

Region

Low Pressure Convex Surface Convex Surface

Region

46
 Pressure 61.9 Pa 91.76 Pa

Difference

Vector Plot

Flow Pattern The wind flow is blocked by the The wind flow is blocked by the

rotor blades. The wind is not rotor blades. The wind is

completely flow through the rotor completely flow through the rotor

blades because it flows outside the blades because it air is totally

computational domain. trapped inside the wind tunnel.

In the internal flow analysis, the air is completely flow through the rotor blades unlike in the

external flow analysis. Therefore, the internal flow analysis will give more precise results. This

could also explain the fact that that the pressure difference in the internal flow analysis (91.76

Pa) is higher than the pressure difference found in the external flow analysis (61.9 Pa).

7.3 Structural Analysis:

7.3.1 Drag Force Calculation

Before conducting the structural analysis, we need to find the drag force that the wind exerts

on the wind turbine. We know that the drag force on the concave part is higher than the drag

force on the convex part. Our structural analysis will be based on the drag force experienced by

the concave part because it is higher. To calculate the drag force exerted on the rotor blades,

we will use the internal flow analysis because its results are more precise.

47
To find the drag force, we will determine two surface goals: the normal force exerted on each

face of the concave blade. Then, we determined one equation goal that sums the two normal

forces determined previously.

Figure 33: The drag force exerted on the concave part

From the SolidWorks simulation, we found that the drag force experienced by the concave part

of the wind turbine is 1465.95N.

7.3.2 FEA Static Simulation

Since the Savonius rotor blades are symmetrical, our structural analysis will only focus on one

blade. To conduct the structural analysis, we will use SolidWorks Simulation (FEA static

method). Thanks to this analysis we will get three main results: the stress distribution on the

blade, its deformation, and the factor of safety when it receives the uniform load of wind. To

conduct the FEA analysis, the first step is to assign the E-glass fiber as the blade material. Since

the properties of this material are not included in the SolidWorks library, we entered them in

the custom materials library.

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 Figure 34: E-glass fiber definition on SolidWorks

Afterwards, we applied the fixtures at the edge of the blade that will be connected to the rotor

shaft. These fixtures prevent any translation or rotation of the blade and keep it in a fixed

position. We also equally applied the drag force from wind (Fd=1465.6N) on the concave face

of the blade. The value of the drag force was found from the aerodynamic analysis of the

turbine.

Figure 35: Boundary Condition of the Rotor Blade

We also created a mesh for our model. The figure below shows the meshing of the blade

using tetrahedral shape mesh elements.

49
 Figure 36: Meshing of the Rotor Blade

7.3.3 Stress Distribution & Factor of Safety

After running the study, we get the stress distribution over the blade structure.

Figure 37: Stress Distribution over the Blade Structure

Von Mises stress is a measure of energy density not real stress. Its value is used to determine

the limit of fracture of a given ductile material. The von Mises yield criterion states that if the

von Mises stress of a material is equal or greater than the yield stress of that material then the

50
material will fracture. According to the figure above, the maximum stress is experienced at

the area of the blade that is connected to the shaft. Globally, the minimum and maximum von

Mises stresses experienced by the blade are respectively 46.9 Pa and 3.509×105 Pa. The yield

strength of E-glass fiber at ambient temperature is 3450 MPa. Since the maximum stress

experienced by the blade is much smaller than the yield strength of the material, the blade

does not face a risk of fracture. The material provides a minimum factor of safety of 9831.86.

7.3.4 Deformation

The simulation study also provided us with the deformation of the blade under the given drag

force. The figure below shows the deformation of the rotor blade.

Figure 38: Deformation of the rotor blade

From the figure, we can see that the minimum deformation is experienced at the edge of the

blade that is connected to the shaft whereas the maximum deformation is experienced at the

peripherical edge of the blade. Nonetheless, the maximum deformation that the blade could

experience is 3.11mm which is an acceptable value since it is very small compared to the

overall size of the turbine.

51
8 FINANCIAL ASSESSMENT
Before we execute this project in real life, we need to check its profitability and cost-

effectiveness. For this purpose, we will conduct a financial assessment by defining: the total

system cost, the operation & maintenance costs, the break-even point, and the levelized cost of

energy (LCOE) which is the cost of the kWh of electricity generated by the system over the

lifetime of the project.

To find the different financial parameters and generate the cash flow diagram of the project, we

must determine some input parameters.

Table 8: Input parameters for LCOE model

System Inputs Input Description

System Size (kW-DC) 22 The aggregate system size

1st-Year Production (kWh) 46 021 This value was found using SAM
Annual Degradation 1,60% The expected system yearly performance degradation

Direct Purchase Inputs

Cost ($/W) 28,67 MAD Cost ($/W) = (Total-system-cost/Total-system-size-in-watts)

Cost ($/W) =(630 020.74/22 000)
(Please insert the total value of rebates/incentives received within the
Initial Rebate/Incentive - MAD first year)

O&M Cost ($/kW) 2 867,00 MAD O&M Cost ($/kW) = (1st-year-O&M-Cost/Total-system-size-in-kW)

1st-year-O&M-Cost= 0.1*Total Cost of the system
O&M Escalator (%) 1% Expected yearly escalation of O&M Costs

PPA Inputs
Price of the kWh for an energy consumption higher than
PPA Rate ($/kWh) 1,60 MAD 500kWh/month (ONE)
PPA Escalator 0,00%

The table above contains details about how each input was calculated or estimated. The 1st-year

energy production is 46 021 kWh. This value was generated by SAM. Also, wind turbines are

found to lose 1.6 ± 0.2% of their output per year. [16] Therefore, we set the annual degradation

to be 1.6%. The total system cost was estimated to be 630 020.74 MAD. Accordingly, the cost

of each Watt of power generated by the system would be 28.67 MAD. Also, the operation and

maintenance cost of a wind turbine is usually between 10% and 15% of the system’s total cost

52
when the turbine is new. However, the O&M costs might reach at least 20 to 35% by the end

of the turbine’s lifetime. Therefore, we set the O&M cost to 10% in the first year (2 867 MAD)

with an expected yearly escalation of 1%. By the end of the system’s lifetime (after 25years of

operation), the O&M cost would be 35% of the system’s total cost. We suppose that the EV

charging will sell electricity at the same price as the ONEE. Therefore, the PPA rate is 1.6 MAD

and the PPA escalator is set to 0% because the price of the kWh sold by the ONEE stays constant

with time.

Using these input parameters, we were able to generate the cash flow table of the project over

its 25years of operation.

Table 9: Cash flow table of the project

Production Direct Purchase PPA Escalator PPA Rate

Year O&M Cost (MAD) PPA Cost (MAD) Cash flow
(kWh) Cost (MAD) (%) (MAD/kWh)
0 630 740,00 MAD - $ - - 630 740,00 MAD
1 46 021 63 074,00 MAD 1,60 MAD 73 440,31 MAD - 557 299,69 MAD
2 45 285 63 704,74 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 72 265,27 MAD - 485 034,42 MAD
3 44 560 64 341,79 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 71 109,02 MAD - 413 925,40 MAD
4 43 847 64 985,21 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 69 971,28 MAD - 343 954,12 MAD

5 43 146 65 635,06 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 68 851,74 MAD - 275 102,38 MAD

6 42 455 66 291,41 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 67 750,11 MAD - 207 352,27 MAD

7 41 776 66 954,32 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 66 666,11 MAD - 140 686,16 MAD
8 41 108 67 623,87 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 65 599,45 MAD - 75 086,71 MAD
9 40 450 68 300,10 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 64 549,86 MAD - 10 536,86 MAD
10 39 803 68 983,10 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 63 517,06 MAD 52 980,21 MAD

11 39 166 69 672,94 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 62 500,79 MAD 115 480,99 MAD
12 38 539 70 369,67 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 61 500,78 MAD 176 981,77 MAD
13 37 923 71 073,36 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 60 516,76 MAD 237 498,53 MAD
14 37 316 71 784,10 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 59 548,50 MAD 297 047,03 MAD
15 36 719 72 501,94 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 58 595,72 MAD 355 642,75 MAD
16 36 131 73 226,96 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 57 658,19 MAD 413 300,94 MAD
17 35 553 73 959,23 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 56 735,66 MAD 470 036,59 MAD
18 34 984 74 698,82 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 55 827,89 MAD 525 864,48 MAD
19 34 425 75 445,81 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 54 934,64 MAD 580 799,12 MAD
20 33 874 76 200,26 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 54 055,69 MAD 634 854,81 MAD
21 33 332 76 962,27 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 53 190,79 MAD 688 045,60 MAD
22 32 798 77 731,89 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 52 339,74 MAD 740 385,34 MAD
23 32 274 78 509,21 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 51 502,31 MAD 791 887,65 MAD
24 31 757 79 294,30 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 50 678,27 MAD 842 565,92 MAD
25 31 249 80 087,24 MAD 0% 1,60 MAD 49 867,42 MAD 892 433,34 MAD
Total 954 489 630 740,00 MAD 1 781 411,57 MAD 1 523 173,34 MAD 892 433,34 MAD

53
From the cash flow table, we found that the total O&M cost over the 25years of the system

operation is 1 781 740.57 MAD. Additionally, after 9 years of operation, the project will start

making profit. By the end of its operation period, the project would have generated a total

revenue of 892 433.34 MAD and it would have produced a total of 1 523 173.34 MAD worth

of electricity.

1000 000.00 MAD

800 000.00 MAD
600 000.00 MAD
Cash Flow (MAD)

400 000.00 MAD

200 000.00 MAD
- MAD Cash Flow
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-200 000.00 MAD
-400 000.00 MAD
-600 000.00 MAD
-800 000.00 MAD
Years

Figure 39: Cash flow diagram of the project

As we can see from the cash flow diagram, the cash flow will be 0 after 9 years. Using

interpolation, we found the precise break-even point to be 9.2 years which is a positive indicator

for our investment.

54
CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE WORK

This project investigated the elements that contribute to the design of a Savonius wind turbine

knowing that it is supposed to cover the energy needs of an EV charging station based in

Essaouira. The turbine was designed and assembled on SolidWorks.

Afterwards, the CFD analysis on SolidWorks was conducted to find the pressure between the

concave and convex parts of the turbine. The concave part experienced a higher pressure

compared to the convex part. Using the internal flow analysis, the maximum and minimum

pressures are respectively 101 453.92 Pa and 101 362.16 Pa. The higher-pressure region creates

a 1465.95N drag force. The maximum deformation this turbine blades could experience due to

the load of wind is 3.11 mm which is very small compared to the overall size of the turbine.

Additionally, the maximum Von Misses stress the blade could experience is 3.509×10 5 Pa with

a minimum factor of safety of 9831.86. Therefore, the rotor blades were safe enough to

withstand the aerodynamic force on the turbine.

Financially, the break-even point of the project will occur 9.2 years after it starts operating.

Moreover, the project will generate a total revenue of 892 433.34 MAD after 25 years of

operation. Consequently, the project is financially beneficial although the main purpose behind

it is to boost the ecological transition of the country.

Future work would consist of conducting a dynamic analysis on ANSYS because SolidWorks

is only limited to static analyses. It would also be interesting to build an actual Savonius wind

turbine and test its efficiency in real life.

55
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