THE TEACHING PROFESSION

 Teachers are duly licensed professionals who possess dignity and reputation with high
moral values as well as technical and professional competence in the practice of their
noble profession, they strictly adhere to, observe, and practice this set of ethical and
moral principles, standard, and values (Udtujan, 2014).
 First thing that you must know about teaching as a profession is that teaching is about
inspiring and motivating students to realize and exceed their potentials. The greatest
teachers of all time have devoted their life in inspiring and empowering their students to
achieve great things and be a good human being. (Verma, 2020)
 In the words " professional manner" gawang propesyonal," "professional fee foe expert
services rendered " the word "professional" implies one who possesses skill and
competence/expertise. "Highly professional" "unprofessional"... to act that way imply a
code of ethics by which a professional person abide. In short, professional is one who
conforms to the technical or ethical standards of a profession.so the two elements of a
profession are COMPETENCE and a CODE OF ETHICS.
 Teaching Profession has been established to be not a job but a calling, a mission and a
form of great service.
 Teaching has become very complex and demanding of the teachers ‘knowledge, skills
and values needed in the discharge of their duties and responsibilities for the 21st
century teaching - learning arena.
 Teachers must have global skills and perspectives in their teaching approaches for they
are the key players in ensuring high quality education skills and career preparedness
for all young people.
 Teachers must not only be knowledgeable, competence, skillful but also behavior and
multi-culture specialists to be able to apply differentiated instruction and understand
diverse learning needs.
The other elements of a profession are:

 Initial Professional Education

 Professionals generally begin their professional lives by completing a university
program in their chosen fields ---- teacher education, engineering, nursing
accountancy. This means long and arduous years of preparation. Take note this
is just initial which means only the beginning because a professional is expected
to learn endlessly.
 Accreditation
 A regulatory body like the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) in the
Philippines to ensure that graduates from these recognized programs start their
professional lives with competence approves university programs.
 Licensing
 Licensing is mandatory, not voluntary and is administered by a government
authority. In the Philippines, this government authority is the Professional
Regulation Commission (PRC).
 Professional Development
 This is an ongoing professional organization that maintains or improves
professionals' knowledge and skills after they begin their professional practice. In
 the Philippines this is a continuing Professional Development mandated by RA
10912, otherwise known as the CPD act of 2016.
 Professional Societies
 Professionals see themselves as part of a community of like-minded individuals
who put their professional standards above the individual self- interest or their
employer's self-interest These professional societies put dedication to the public
interest and commitment to moral and ethical values. Professional societies
define certification criteria, manage certification programs, establish accreditation
standards and define a code of ethics and disciplinary action for violations of that
code.
 Code of Ethics
Each profession has a code of ethics to ensure that its practitioner behave responsibly.
The code states what professionals should do. Professionals can be ejected from their
professional societies or lose their licenses to practice for violating the code of ethics.

Teaching Profession terms and definitions

1. Classroom Management: The process of creating and maintaining an environment
in which students can learn effectively. This includes setting expectations, providing
structure, and responding to student behavior.
2. Differentiated Instruction: A teaching approach that takes into account the different
learning styles, interests, and abilities of individual students.
3. Professional Development: The process of improving teaching skills and knowledge
through activities such as attending workshops, taking courses, and participating in
conferences.
4. Assessment: The process of gathering information about student learning in order to
inform instruction and evaluate progress.
5. Curriculum: The planned learning experiences and activities that are designed to
help students meet educational goals.
6. Instructional Strategies: Techniques used by teachers to help students learn, such
as lectures, discussions, and hands-on activities.
7. Collaborative Learning: A teaching approach in which students work together to
solve problems and complete tasks.
8. Technology Integration: The use of technology to enhance teaching and learning.
This includes using computers, tablets, and other digital tools in the classroom.

WAYS BY WHICH PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS CAN EARN CREDIT UNITS

1. Professional Track - includes trainings provided by CPD providers accredited by PRC. You
can earn more credit units if you serve as a resource speaker, trainer or demonstrator teacher.
2. Academic Track - refers to completion of a Master's Degree, completion of candidacy to the
doctorate program, completion of the doctorate program, completion of a post-doctoral diploma,
and being a recipient of a professorial chair grant, and/or fellowship grant. Only the
COMPLETION of the Master's degree is given full credit units to 45.
3. Self-directed Track - includes trainings offered by non-accredited CPD providers. In
addition, it includes serving as accreditor (e.g. ISO, ISA, PACUCOA, PAASCU, AACUP, etc.)
4. Productive Scholarship - means that the professional teacher has developed
program/training module, curriculum guide or any other resource material. Best if the
professional teacher writes a book or a monograph or comes up with an invention or creative
work, entitles to 45 credit units.

 Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) are powerful collaborations in which

teachers work together to analyze and improve their classroom practice in a systematic
process.
 Singapore is the first country in the world to adopt the PLC framework nationwide. In
2010, the Ministry of Education (MOE) mandated all schools to be a "learning
organization", which supports the building of a strong mentorship culture where a
collaborative and community-oriented form of professional development thrives. Every
teacher is entitled to 100 hour per year of optional training. In Finland, teachers meet
one afternoon each week to jointly plan and develop curriculum.
 Japan is well known for lesson study, where a teacher demonstrates a lesson as his/her
observe he/she colleagues.
You, the Teacher, as a Person in Society

 Our thoughts values and actions are somehow shaped by events and by people with
whom we come in contact. We, in turn, help shape society – its events, its people, and
its destiny.
 Teachers are one of the most significant members of a society. They are also one of the
most influential professionals in the community.
 Before a teacher becomes a professional facilitator, motivator, initiator, and motivator,
teachers are essential learner of their own nature.
 Professionals will not be professionals without professional teachers in the society.
 There are teachers’ beliefs that enable them to be professionally developed. Initially,
before a teacher can develop children’s way of learning, they should have to develop
themselves first.

There are philosophies, principle, values, that are considered to be important in teaching.
 PHILOSOPHICAL HERITAGE
 A teacher can have many philosophies but there is always a dominant
philosophy for them. Even if the philosophies are different from each other, it still
has similarities.

 FORMULATING YOUR OWN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

 The way that a teacher teaches their students, socialize and interact with them
has an underlying philosophy. It starts with what we believe and includes the
things that we want to happen with our students.
 It is composed of our goals and aims for EDUCATION. No other person can
make your own philosophy.
  There are guides in making our own philosophy of education, and it is to
enumerate our purposes, skills that we want to impart, roles of teachers and
students, and the way that we should assess learners.

 THE FOUNDATIONAL PRINCIPLES OF MORALITY AND YOU

 Teacher should always be a person with a good moral character. I just had a
realization that teachers should have a self-assessment, in a way that they will
try to know the things that they have to improve morally. Morality is not just to
know what is right from wrong but it is also trying to make things right if it is
wrong. A person should have a good moral character, especially teachers even
they are from the past, present, and in the near future.
 The profession of being a teacher should provide us with our own principles of
moral. The identity of a teacher includes the moral character and the way that
they behave with their principles. It is not enough that one has the professional
license, because a true educator is educated and a true learner is a learned.

 VALUES FORMATION AND YOU

 Values are CAUGHT and TAUGHT.
 Values formation starts in early childhood and the way we practice the value
becomes our attitude. Influences are one of the factors that provide us the
value that we have.
 There are known three dimensions of values and these are the cognitive,
affective and behavioral. In cognitive dimension, a taught value needs
further understanding why do we have to value and acquire that VALUE.
Affective domain is not enough to know the value because it includes the
conscience of the person if he/she didn’t have the right values. The evidence
of valuing a value is living with it, and that is a behavioral dimension.

 TEACHING AS YOUR VOCATION, MISSION, AND PROFESSION

 Teaching is a VOCATION that is a calling from god.
 Teachers are professionals that make it PROFESSION.
 Teaching is a MISSION and not just a job.
 Teachers are called for a duty, and that is to teach the students and impart
the sense of responsibility, good attitudes, and personality. Like other
courses or degree, yes, it is a profession. Being professional takes a lot of
effort, dedication, sacrifice, and a long preparation.
 Teaching is something that needs accomplishment, it is a mission. Whether a
teacher considers teaching as vocation, profession, or mission, the most
important thing is the goal in teaching. Initially, we can all combine these
things together, as tool in teaching and learning process. Teachers should
know the importance and essence of their existence inside and outside the
classroom.
 As a member of society, teachers should be a responsible individual to impart
his/her philosophies, morality, and values with the students and even with the
members of the community.
Seven Philosophies of Education
1. Essentialism contends that teachers teach for learners to acquire basic
knowledge, skills and values. Teachers teach “not to radically reshape society” but
rather “to transmit the traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge that
students need to become model citizens.”
2. Progressivists accept the impermanence of life and the inevitability of change.
For the progressivists, everything else changes. Change is the only thing that does
not change.
3. The perennialist curriculum is a universal one on the view that all human beings
possess the same essential nature. It is heavy on the humanities, on general
education. It is not a specialist curriculum but rather a general one. There is less
emphasis on vocational and technical education.
4. The main concern of the existentialists is “to help students understand and
appreciate themselves as unique individuals who accept complete responsibility for
their thoughts, feelings and actions”. Since existence precedes essence’, the
existentialist teacher’s role is to help students define their own essence by
exposing them to various paths they take in life and by creating an environment in
which they freely choose their own preferred way.
5. Behaviorist schools are concerned with the modification and shaping of students’
behavior by providing for a favorable environment, since they believe that they are a
product of their environment. They are after students who exhibit desirable behavior
in society.
6. Linguistic philosophy develop the communication skills of the learner
because the ability to articulate, to voice out the meaning and values of things
that one obtains from his/her experience of life and the world is the very essence of
man.
7. In constructivism, the constructivists sees to develop intrinsically motivated and
independent learners adequately equipped with learning skills for them to be able to
construct knowledge and make meaning of them. The learners are taught how to
learn.
The ideal teacher functions well in the classroom as well as in the community. He/she
does the following:

 Serves a positive and powerful model of learning and living.

 Provides a social, psychological, and physical environment that is conducive for learning
because students from varied backgrounds are treated with respect, engaged in
different learning activities and are motivated to work towards high standards of
learning.
 Facilities the learning process by considering diversity of learners.
 Implements curriculum effectively by making students understand curriculum goals
and standards, by his/her mastery of subject matter and skillful use of teaching –
learning strategies and activities and learning resources.
 Aligns assessment to curricular goals, objectives and standards, uses assessment
results to improve teaching learning, and report assessment results to those concerned.
  Links with communities to help attain curricular goals.
 Demonstrates a high regard for the teaching profession and embarks in continuing
professional development.

BASIC CONCEPTS
Relevant Laws refers to legal acts , decrees, ordinances, orders, memoranda, circulars, and
the like that were approved by proper authorities and have become legal bases in the conduct
of educational process, in general, and of teaching, in particular, the Philippine setting.
Teaching refers to the profession concerned with classroom instruction at the elementary and
secondary levels in accordance with the curriculum prescribed by the Department of Education
whether on part-time or full-time basis in public or private schools (R.A. 7836: Philippine
Teachers' Professionalization Act of 1994)
Teachers refers to all persons engaged in teaching at the elementary and secondary levels,
whether on full-time or part-time basis, including industrial arts or vocational teachers and all
other persons performing supervisory and/or administrative functions in all schools in the
aforesaid levels and qualified to practice teaching under this Act (R.A. 7836: Philippine
Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994)

LEGAL BASES for PROFESSIONALIZING TEACHING IN THE PHILIPPINES

A. Presidential Decree 1006 (effective January 16, 1977): Some of the provisions are as
follows:

 Teachers have significant and imperative role in building a strong nation, more
specifically in developing proper and desirable attitudes among the citizenry whom they
have direct and continuing interaction
 Incentive and motivation that may increase teachers' morale must be provided them.
 Like all other professionals, teaching also requires a number of years of higher
education studies.
B. Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994 (RA 7835 An Act Strengthening the
Regulation and Supervision of the Practice of Teaching in the Philippines and Prescribing a
Licensure Examination for Teachers and Other Purposes: It was promulgated for:

 The promotion, development and professionalization of teachers and the teaching

profession
 Supervision and regulation of the licensure examination

VARIED ROLES OF TEACHERS

1. As a Director of Learning

 Plans and organizes learning activities

 Leads pupils/students through the learning episodes Controls in whole learning
situations
  Appraises the effectiveness of the learning situations
2. As an Information Processor

 Analyzes information and events

 Makes information and events
 Makes information readily learnable
 Facilitates the comprehension of information and events
 Interprets information to learners
 Communicates information in a manner that pupils/students comprehend

3. As a Knower

 Knows much about general fields of knowledge

 Masters thoroughly the subject matter of his/her field of specialization
 Brings learners to the world of ideas
 Provides accurate information to pupils/students
 Answers readily pupils / students' questions
4. As a Pioneer in the World of Ideas

 Carries students to new insights and knowledge

 Leads children to wide ranging and unlimited inquiry
 Develops new ideas and practices to meet the needs and demands of the time
5. As a Decision-Maker

 Decides on what objectives should be established

 Decides on the type of instructional program that could best achieve the objectives
 Decides on what body of information should be conveyed
 Decides on the most effective methods, techniques, approaches and materials the
attainment of the objectives
 Decides on the most appropriate grouping that would best benefit the learner
6. As a Judge of Achievement

 Defines what is worth achieving

 Defines ability levels of pupils/students
 Evaluates pupils/students/levels of achievement
 Determines who will be promoted or retained
7. As a Counselor

 Establishes effective relationship with the individual pupil / student

 Collects pertinent information about each pupil/student
 Receives confidences
 Guides pupil/student in understanding himself
 Gives advices
  Assists pupils/students to find solutions to his/her own problems
8. As a Moralist

 Develops a functional moral and ethical code

 Creates acceptable moral atmosphere
 Establishes norms for behaviour within and outside the classroom
9. As a Model for the Youth

 Exemplifies the scholarship and ideals valued by society

 Demonstrates acceptable sets of values
10. As a Person of Culture

 Possesses a broad general cultural education

 Is well-informed of current developments in various fields of science
 Appreciates arts and literature
 Demonstrates adequate skills in the use of language
11. As a Community Link

 Participate actively in the life of the community

 Interprets the school program to the public
 Bring parents to participate in school activities
 Utilizes the resources of the community to develop significant application of subject
matter
12. As a Mediator of Culture

 Articulates social, political, and economic traditions

 Develops cultural values Transmits culture
 Enriches cultural growth of pupils/students

IV. RELEVANT LAWS

A. Article XIV, 1987 Philippine Constitution (Education, Science and Technology, Arts
Culture and Sports) -this is the very fundamental legal basis of education in the Philippines. It
stipulates the following:

 The right of all citizens to quality education at all levels

 Provision for complete, adequate and integrated system of education Free public
education in the elementary and secondary levels
 Availability of scholarship grants, loan programs, subsidies and other incentives for
deserving students in the public and private schools
 Provision for non-formal, informal and indigenous learning systems
 Inclusion of the study of Constitution in the curriculum
 Education to put emphasis on the inculcation of nationalism and patriotism as well as
other values deemed important in developing better person and responsible citizen
  Supervision and regulation of all educational institutions by the State
 Sole ownership of educational institutions by at least 60% of the capital from Filipino
citizen
 Tax exemptions for non-stock and non-profit educational institutions
 Enjoyment of academic freedom (teachers, students, institutions) in all institutions of
higher learning
 State's protection for academic, non-academic and non-teaching personnel
 Highest budgetary allocation for education
 Filipino as the national language: Filipino and English as official languages for use in
communication and instruction
 Creation of the National Language Commission Promotion of science and technology
 Preservation and enrichment of Filipino culture
 Promotion of physical education and other related programs

B. Education Act of 1982 (Batas Pambansa 232. September 11, 1982): An Act Providing
for the Establishment and Maintenance of an integrated System of Education declares /
defines / describes among all others the following Aims of Philippine Educational System
(Section 4)
1. Provide for a broad general education that will assist each individual in the peculiar
ecology of his own society to: a) attain his potentials as a human being; b) enhance the
range and quality of individual and group participation in the basic functions of society;
and, c) acquire the essential educational foundation of his development into a productive
and versatile citizen;
2. Train the nation's manpower in the middle-level skills for national development;
3. Develop the profession that will provide leadership for the nation in the advancement
of knowledge for improving the quality of human life; and
4. Respond effectively to changing needs and conditions of the nation through a system
of educational planning and evaluation.
"Educational Community" refers to those persons or groups of persons as such or associated
in institutions involved in organized teaching and learning systems (Definition and Coverage,
Section 6).
The members or elements are:
1. "Parents" or guardians of the head of the institution or foster home which has
custody of the pupil or student
2. "Students" are those enrolled in and who regularly attend educational institution of
secondary or higher level of a person engaged in formal study. "Pupils" are those who
regularly attend a school of elementary level under the supervision and tutelage of a
teacher.
3. "School Personnel" or all persons working for an educational institution, which
includes the following:
 a. "Teaching or academic staff” or all persons engaged in actual teaching
and/or research assignments, either on full-time or part-time basis in all levels of
the educational system.
b. "School administrators" or all persons occupying policy-implementing
positions having to do with the functions of the schools in all levels.
c. "Academic non-teaching personnel" or those persons holding some
academic qualifications and performing academic functions directly supportive of
teaching, such as registrars, librarians, research assistants, research aides, and
similar staff.
d. "Non-academic personnel" or all other school personnel not falling under the
definition and coverage of teaching and academic staff, school administrators
and academic non-teaching personnel.
4. "Schools" or institutions recognized by the State which undertake educational
operations
Rights of Parents (Section 8)
1. Organize by themselves and/or with teachers
2. Access to any official record directly relating to their children
Rights of Students (Section 9)
1. Receive relevant quality education
2. Freely choose their field of study and continue their course therein
3. School guidance and counselling
4. Access to his own records
5. Issuance of needed school records/documents within 30 days from request
6. Publish a student newspaper and similar publications
7. Free expression of opinions and suggestions; to effective channels of communication
8. Form, establish, join and participate in organizations and societies recognized by the
school
9. Be free from involuntary contributions
Rights of School Personnel (Section 10)
1. Free expression of opinions and suggestions; to effective channels of communication
2. Be provided with free legal service
3. Establish, join and maintain labor organizations and/or professional and self-
regulating organizations
4. Be free from involuntary contributions
Special Rights and/or Privileges of Teaching or Academic Staff (Section 11)
1. Be free from compulsory assignment not related to their duties as defined by law
2. Intellectual property
3. Be accorded due respect and protection as persons in authority
4. Choose alternative career lines for purposes of career development
Special Right of School Administrators (Section 2)
1. Sufficient administrative discretion for efficient and effective performance of functions
2. Accorded due respect and protection as persons in authority
Rights of Schools (Section 13)
1. Provide for proper governance of the school
2. For institutions of higher learning, the right to determine on academic grounds who
shall be admitted to study, who may teach, and what shall be subjects of the study and
research.
Duties of Parents (Section 14)
1. Help carry out the educational objectives of schools
2. Enable their children to obtain, as much as possible, complete education
3. Cooperate with the school in the implementation of curricular and co-curricular
programs
Duties and Responsibilities of Students (Section 14)
1. Develop to the fullest his potentialities for service
2. Uphold the academic integrity of the school
3. Promote and maintain peace and tranquility of the school
4. Participate actively in the total development of the community
5. Exercise his rights responsibly

Teacher's Obligations (Section 16)

1. Perform their duties in accordance with the overall goals and objectives of the schools
2. Accountable for the efficient and effective attainment of learning objective
3. Render regular reports and monitoring on each of the students' academic
performance
4. Attend to their professional advancement and growth and maintain their
professionalism at all times
 5. Exercise objectivity and fairness in dealing with students' scholastic marks and grades
6. Actively participate in the total development of the school and community
School Administrators: Obligations (Section 17)
1. Perform their duties according to the overall goals and objectives of the school
2. Efficiently and effectively, manage and administer the school
3. Develop and maintain a healthy school and conducive school environment
4. Assume and maintain professionalism in the conduct of their work
5. Render adequate reports on the performance of school personnel
6. Observe due process and fairness in disciplining teachers and other personnel
7. Maintain adequate records and submit reports as required by proper authority
Obligations of Academic Non-Teaching Personnel (Section 18)
1. Improve themselves professionally
2. Assume and promote a healthy and conducive learning and service environment
"Formal Education" refers to the hierarchically structured and chronologically graded learning
organized and provided by the formal school system and for which certification is required in
order for the learner to progress through the grades and move to higher levels (Definition,
Section 20); the main instrument for the achievement of the country's educational goals and
objectives (Declaration of Policy. Section 19). The levels of formal education are:
1. Elementary Education - the first stage of compulsory, formal education primarily
concerned with providing basic education and usually corresponding to the first six or
seven grades, including pre-school programs (Definition, Section 20): Its objectives are
to: (Section 21)
a. provide the knowledge and develop the skills, attitudes and values essential to
personal development
b. provide learning experiences that prepare them for constructive and effective
involvement
c. promote and intensify the child's knowledge and identification with and love for
the nation and the people to which he belongs; and
d. promote work experiences that prepare the children to engage in honest and
gainful work
2. Secondary Education - the state of formal education concerned primarily with
continuing basic education usually corresponding to four years of high school (Definition,
Section 20). Its objectives are to: (Section 22)
a. continue to promote the objectives of elementary education
b. equip the students with skills for productive endeavor or for higher education
 3. Tertiary Education - post secondary schooling leading to a degree in a specific
profession discipline (Definition, Section 20). Its objectives are to (Section 23):
a. provide a broad general education program
b. train the nation's manpower in the skills required for national development
c. develop the professions for leadership of the nation
d. advance knowledge through research work for improving quality human life
Special education Services - these are services to meet the special needs of certain clientele.
It includes the following (Section 24):
1. Work Education or Practical Arts - aims to develop the right attitudes towards work;
and technical-vocational education, post-secondary but non-degree programs leading to
one, two or three year certification in preparation for middle-level occupations
2. Special Education - the education of persons who are physically, mentally,
emotionally, socially or culturally different from the so-called "normal" individuals
3. Non-formal Education - any organized school-based educational activities
undertaken by education department aimed at attaining specific leaming objectives for a
particular clientele, especially the illiterates and the out-of-school youth and adults. Its
objectives are to:
a. Eradicate illiteracy and raise the level of functional literacy of the population
b. Provide unemployed and underemployed youth and adults with appropriate
vocational/technical skills for them to become more productive and effective
citizens; and
c. Develop among the clientele proper values and attitudes for personal,
community and national development.
C. R.A. 4670: MAGNA CARTA FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHER (June 18, 1966) enacted to
promote and improve the social and economic conditions of public school teachers, their
working and living conditions, their terms of employment and career prospects (Declaration of
Policy, Section 1)
1. Recruitment and Qualification (Section 3)

 DepEd to define clearly recruitment policy with respect to selection and appointment
of teachers
 Minimum educational qualifications for teacher-applicants:
 Bachelor's Degree in Elementary Education for teachers in the kindergarten
and elementary grades;
 Bachelor's Degree in Education or its equivalent with a major or minor of a
Bachelor's degree in Arts or Sciences with at least 18 units of Professional
Education for teachers of the secondary schools;
  Bachelor's degree in the field of specialization with at least 18 professional
units in Education for teachers of secondary vocational and two years
technical courses:
 Master's degree with a specific area of specialization for teachers of courses
in the collegiate level.
 The School Superintendent may appoint under temporary status, applicants who
don't meet the minimum qualifications.
2. Probationary Period (Section 4)

 No probationary period preceding regular appointment shall be imposed if the teacher

possesses the appropriate civil service eligibility:
 A period of not less than one year from and after the date of the appointee's provisional
appointment be given to an applicant who meets the minimum educational qualifications
but lacks the appropriate civil service eligibility.
3. Tenure of Office (Section 5)

 Stability on employment assured of teachers with permanent appointment

 Permanent appointment shall be extended to provisional teachers after having rendered
at least ten years of continuous, efficient and faithful service in such position.

4. Consent for Transfer Transportation Expenses (Section 6)

 No teacher shall be transferred from one station to another without his/her consent,
except for cause
 The School Superintendent may effect the transfer of the teacher when the exigencies of
service so requires.
 The School Superintendent must previously notify the teacher to be transferred and the
reason or reasons for such transfer.
 The teacher subject for transfer may appeal to the Director of Public Schools if s/he feels
the reason's is unjustifiable
 No transfers whatsoever shall be made three months before any local of national
election
 The Government shall pay all the necessary transfer expenses of the teacher and
his/her family.
5. Safeguards in Disciplinary Procedures (Section 8)

 Every teacher shall enjoy equitable safeguards at each stage of any disciplinary
procedure and shall have:
 The right to be informed, in writing, of the chargers:
 The right to full access to the evidence in the case;
 The right to defend himself by a representative of his choice
 The right to appeal to clearly designated authorities
6. Administrative Charges (Section 9) Administrative charges against a teacher shall be
heard initially by a Committee composed of the following:
  School Division Superintendent or his duly authorized representative who should have at
least have the rank of a division supervisor as Chairman.
 Representative of the local, or in its absence, any existing provincial or national teacher's
organization
 A Division Supervisor
 Two members designated by the Director of Public Schools
 The Committee shall submit its findings and recommendations to the Director of
Public Schools within thirty (30) days from the termination of the hearings.
 The Education Secretary shall appoint the members of the Committee if the School
Superintendent is the complainant or an interested party.
7. No discrimination whatsoever in the entrance to the teaching profession, or during its
exercise or in termination of services, based on other than professional consideration (Section
10).
8. Married teachers, both of whom are public school teachers may be employed in the same
locality (Section 11)
9. Academic Freedom shall be enjoyed by teachers in the discharge of their professional duties,
particularly, with regard to teaching and classroom methods (Section 12).
10. Teaching Hours (Section 13)

 Teachers are required to render not more than 6 hours of actual classroom teaching a
day
 In the exigencies of service, any teacher may be required to render more than six hours
but not more than eight hours of actual classroom teaching a day upon payment of
additional compensation at the same rate as his regular remuneration plus at least 25%
of his basic pay
11. Additional Compensation (Section 14)

 Additional compensation of at least 25% of the teacher's regular remuneration must be

paid to teachers who render co-curricular and out of school activities outside of the
teacher's sex hours of actual classroom teaching.
12. Salary Scales for teachers shall provide for a gradual progression from a minimum to a
maximum salary by means of regular increments, granted automatically after three years to
teachers with at least an efficiency rating of satisfactory. (Section 16)
13. Cost of Living Allowance (COLA) (Section 18)

 Given to teachers to keep pace with the rise in the cost of living
 Shall automatically follow changes in a cost of living index
 Secretary of Education recommends to Congress at least annually, the appropriation of
the cost- of-living allowances of public school teachers
14. Special Hardship Allowance equivalent to at least 25% of teacher's monthly salary shall
be given to teachers assigned in areas where teachers are exposed to hardship such as
difficulty in commuting to the place of work or other hazards peculiar to the place of employment
as determined by Education Secretary (Section 19).
15. No person shall make any deduction whatsoever from the salaries of teachers except under
specific authority of law authorizing such deductions (Section 21).
16. Compulsory medical examination shall be provided free of charge for all teachers; medical
treatment, if found necessary, shall also be accorded free by the government entity paying the
salary of the teachers (Section 22).
17. Teachers shall also be protected against the consequences of employment injuries in
accordance with existing laws (Section 23).
18. Study Leave (Section 24)

 Teachers are entitled to a study leave not exceeding one year after seven years of
service;
 Teachers granted on study leave shall be entitled to at least 60% of their monthly salary;
 No teacher shall be allowed to accumulate more than one year of study leave, unless
s/he needs an additional semester to finish his/her thesis for a graduate study in
education or allied course;
 No compensation shall be due to the teacher after the first year of such study leave:
 Study leave period shall be counted for seniority and pension purposes;
 Teachers on study leave shall be compensated provided he takes the regular study load
and passes at least 75% of his courses
19. An indefinite sick leave of absence shall be granted to teachers when the nature of the
illness demands a long treatment that will exceed one year at the least (Section 25).
20. Salary Increase Upon Retirement. One rang salary raise upon retirement shall be the basis
of the computation of the lump sum of the retirement pay and the monthly benefits thereafter
(Section 26)
21. Teachers shall be free to establish or join organizations of their choosing (Section 27).
22. National Teachers Organizations shall be consulted in the formulation of national
educational policies and professional standards, and in the formulation of national policies
governing the social security of the teachers (Section 29)
23. The Secretary of Education shall formulate and prepare the necessary rules and regulations
to implement the provisions of this Act and shall take effect thirty days after publication in a
newspaper of general circulation (Section 30)
24. The Secretary of Education shall submit to Congress annually the necessary budgetary
estimates to implement the provisions of this Act (Section 31)
25. Any person who shall willfully interfere with, restrain or coerce any teacher in the exercise of
the rights guaranteed by this Act, or who shall in any other manner, commit any act to defeat
any of the provisions of this Act, shall upon conviction, be punished by a fine of not less than
one hundred pesos nor more than one hundred thousand pesos, or by imprisonment, in the
discretion of the court (Section 32).
D. CODE OF ETHICS FOR PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS
  Adopted pursuant to the provisions of paragraph (e), Article II, R.A. 7836, otherwise
known as the Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994, and paragraph (a),
section 6, P.D. No. 223, as amended.
 The Code spells out very clearly the ideals and standards of teacher's relationships with
various education stakeholders:
1. The Teacher and the State (Article II)

 As a trustee of the cultural and educational heritage of the nation, the teacher is duty
bound to transmit to learners such heritage and must exert the best effort possible to
promote obedience to the laws of the state;
 Help carry out the declared policies of the state;
 Demonstrate full commitment and devotion to duty;
 Refrain from engaging in the promotion of any political, religious or other partisan
interest;
 Exercise his right of suffrage and all other constitutional rights;
 Refrain from using his position or official authority to influence or coerce the political
actions or behaviours of other persons;
 Enjoy academic freedom and be responsible in taking the privilege of expounding the
product of his researches and investigations in the interest of the nation.
2. The Teacher and the Community (Article III)

 Provide an environment conducive to learning and youth development:

 Provide leadership and initiative for the betterment of the community;
 Refrain from engaging in all sorts of immoral activities;
 Study, understand and promote local customs and traditions:
 Keep the community informed about school's works, activities, and accomplishments;
 Establish and maintain harmonious relationships with other professionals, government
officials and practically, all people;
 Attend freely to one's church and worships as appropriate without using his position to
influence others.
3. The Teacher and the Profession (Article IV)

 Manifest pride in the nobility of the teaching profession;

 Always be at his/her best in the practice of the profession;
 Avoid making improper misrepresentations in the process of seeking support for the
school;
 Engage actively and continuously in one's professional growth and advancement;
 Live up to the nobility and integrity of the teaching profession.
4. The Teacher and the Community (Article V)

 Be imbued with the spirit of professional loyalty, faithfulness and cooperativeness with
others in the teaching profession
 Sincerely acknowledge / recognize assistance received from colleagues
 Organize and turn over records and other data to his/her successor
 Keep information confidential until after it has been formally released
  Seek correctives for unprofessional / unethical conduct of an associate
 Submit to proper authorities any justifiable criticism against an associate
 Apply for a vacant position for which s/he is qualified provided that all qualified
candidates are given opportunity to be considered.
5. The Teacher and the Higher Authorities in the Profession (Article VI)

 Support the legitimate policies of the school and the administration regardless of
personal feeling or private opinion
 Make no any false and anonymous accusations or charges against superiors
 Observe proper protocol in transacting official business.
 Consider the welfare and interest of the learners when seeking redress against all forms
of injustice and in raising grievances to the administration
 Recognize the principle that appointments, promotions and transfers are made only on
the basis of merit and are needed in the interest of the service.
 Live up to his contract, i.e. employment terms and conditions
6. The School officials, Teachers and other Personnel (Article VII)

 Show professional courtesy, helpfulness and sympathy towards teachers and other
personnel
 Consider policy formulation and change innovations as cooperative responsibility
 Attend to the professional growth of teachers, i.e. promotion, recognition, attendance to
in- service trainings
 Never dismiss or recommend for dismissal a teacher or other subordinate except for a
just cause
 Ensure that public school teachers are employed in accordance with pertinent civil
service rules and private school teachers, in accordance with the contracts.
7. The Teachers and the Learners (Article VIII)

 Determine the academic marks and promotion of learners in accordance with generally
accepted procedures of measurement and evaluation
 Recognize that the first and foremost concern of the teachers is the interest and welfare
of the learners
 Make no prejudice or discrimination against any learner
 Avoid accepting favors and gifts from learners, their parents, or others in exchange for
requested concessions. Refrain from accepting any remuneration from tutorials rendered
to their own students.
 Evaluate the learner's work only on merit and quality of academic performance.
 In a situation where mutual attraction and subsequent love develop between teacher and
learner, the teacher shall exercise utmost professional discretion to avoid scandal,
gossip, and preferential treatment of the learner.
 Desist from inflicting any form of corporal punishment on offending pupils/students;
make non deductions from the learner's scholastic grade as a punishment for student's
offense
 Extend needed assistance to ensure maximum development of learners and prevent or
solve learner's problems and difficulties.
8. The Teachers and the Parents (Article IX)

 Establish and maintain harmonious relationships with parents and treat them with utmost
respect
 Inform parents of the progress and all sorts of deficiencies of their children
 Be tactful in dealing with parents regarding their children's deficiencies + Seek parents
cooperation for the proper guidance and improvement of the learners
 Discourage the parents from making ill remarks and unfounded criticisms about the
school as a whole
 Hear parents complaints with sympathy and understanding
9. The Teacher and Business (Article X)

 Engage in legitimate income generating activities

 Maintain a good reputation with respect to financial matters
 Settle promptly all debts and/or make satisfactory arrangement on his private financial
affairs.
 Avoid acting as agent of any business venture engaged in furnishing textbooks and
other school commodities, of which, he can possibly exercise in their purchase or
distribution
10. The Teacher as a Person (Article XII)*

 Revocation of the Certificate of Registration and License as a Professional Teacher

 Suspension from the practice of teaching profession
 Reprimand or cancellation of temporary / special permit
 "Sec 23, Article III, R.A. 7836 and Rule 31, Article VIII, Rules and Regulations
Implementing R.A. 7836
E. PHILIPPINE TEACHERS PROFESSIONALIZATION ACT OF 1994 (R.A. 7836): An Act to
Strengthen the Regulation and Supervision of the Practice of Teaching in the Philippines and
Prescribing a Licensure Examination for Teachers and For Other Purposes

 A professional license signed by the Chairman of the Commission and bearing the
registration number and date of issuance and the month of expiry or renewability shall
likewise be issued to every registrant; paid registration fee is good for three consecutive
years
1. Examination, Registration, and License Required (Article III, Section 13)

 All applicants for registration as professional teachers should be required to undergo a

written examination
 A valid certificate of registration and a valid professional license from the Commission
are required before any person is allowed to practice as a professional teacher in the
Philippines.
2. Scope of Examination (Article III, Section 14)
  The examination for teachers in the elementary level shall consist of two (2) parts,
namely: professional education and general education.
 The examination for teachers in the secondary level shall consist of three (3) parts,
namely: professional education, general education, and field of specialization.
3. Revocation of the Certificate of Registration, Suspension from the Practice of the
Teaching Profession, and Cancellation of Temporary or Special Permit (Article III, Section
23)

 Conviction of any criminal offense by a court of competent jurisdiction

 Immoral, unprofessional or dishonorable conduct
 Declaration by a court of competent jurisdiction for being mentally unsound or insane
 Malpractice, gross incompetence, gross negligence or serious ignorance of the practice
of the teaching profession
 The use of or perpetration of any fraud or deceit in obtaining a certificate of registration,
professional license or special /temporary permit
 Chronic inebriety or habitual use of drugs
 Violation of any of the provisions of this Act, the rules and regulations and other policies
of the Board and the Commission, and the code of ethical and professional standards for
professional teachers.
 Unjustified or willful failure to attend seminars, workshops, conferences and the like or
the continuing education program prescribed by the Board and the Commission.
4. Registration and Exception (Article III, Section 26) Upon approval of the application and
payment of prescribed fees, the certificate of registration and professional license as a
professional teacher shall be issued without examination as required in this Act to a qualified
applicant, who at the time of the approval of this Act is:

 A holder of a certificate of eligibility as a teacher issued by the Civil Service Commission

and the Department of Education, Culture and Sports, or
 A registered professional teacher with the National Board for Teachers under the
Department of Education, Culture and Sports pursuant to P.D. No. 1006; or
 Not qualified under paragraphs one and two but with any of the following qualifications to
wit:
 An elementary or secondary teacher for five (5) years in good standing and a holder
of Bachelor of Science in Education or its equivalent; or
 An elementary or secondary teacher for three (3) years in good standing and a
holder of a master's degree in education or its equivalent
5. Inhibition Against the Practice of Teaching Profession (Article IV, Section 27)

 Except as otherwise allowed under this Act, no person shall practice or offer to practice
the teaching profession in the Philippines or be appointed as teacher to any position
calling for a teaching position without having previously obtained a valid certificate of
registration and a valid license from the Commission.
6. Penal Provisions (Article IV, Section 28) The following shall be punishable by a fine of not
less than Five Thousand Pesos (5,000) nor more than Twenty Thousand Pesos (20,000) or
imprisonment of not less than six (6) months nor more than five (5) years, or both, at the
discretion of the court:
a. Any person who practices the teaching profession in the Philippines without being
certified in accordance with the provisions of this Act,
b. Any person who represents or attempts to use as his own certificate of registration
that of another;
c. Any person who gives any false, or fraudulent evidence of any kind to the Board or
any member thereof in obtaining a certificate of registration as teacher,
d. Any person who impersonates any registrant of the same or different name;
e. Any person who uses a revoked or suspended certificate of registration;
f. Any person who, in connection with his name, otherwise assumes, uses or advertises
any title or description tending to convey or conveys the impression that he is a teacher
without holding a valid certificate; and
g. Any person who violates or abet violation of any of the provisions of this Act.
F. R.A. 9293-AN ACT AMENDING CERTAIN SECTIONS OF REPUBLIC ACT NUMBERED
SEVETY-EIGHT HUNDRED AND THIRTY-SIX (R.A. NO. 7836), OTHERWISE KNOWN AS
THE "PHILIPPINE TEACHERS PROFESSIONALIZATION ACT OF 1994)

 Section 2. Section 26 of the same Act is hereby amended to read as follows: "Sec. 26.
Registration and Exception-No person shall engage in teaching and/or act as a
professional teacher as defined in this Act whether in the preschool, elementary or
secondary level, unless the person is a duly registered professional teacher, and a
holder of a valid special/temporary permit.
 Professional teachers who have not practiced their profession for the past five (5)
years shall take at least twelve (12) units of education courses, consisting of at
least six (6) units of pedagogy and six (6) units of context courses or the
equivalent training and number of hours to be chosen from a list of courses to be
provided by the Board and the Department of Education, before they can be
allowed to practice their profession in the country.
 Those who have failed the licensure examination for professional teachers, with
a rating of not lower than five percentage points from the passing general
average rating, shall be eligible as para-teachers upon issuance by the Board of
a two-year special permit, renewable for a non-extendible period of two (2) years.
The para-teachers shall be assigned to areas where there is a shortage or
absence of a professional teacher, as identified and provided by the Department
of Education and the Autonomous Region for Muslim Mindanao (ARMM)
education department to the Board for professional teachers and to the
Commission.
 A special permit may also be issued by the Board to a person who has excelled
and gained international recognition and is a widely acknowledged expert in his
or her respective field of specialization.
  Section 4. References to the term 'Department of Education, Culture and Sports," in
Section 4(a) and Section 25, and the term "DECS" in Section 20, of the same Act, are
hereby amended to read as "Department of Education" and "DepEd," respectively.
 Section 26. No person shall engage in teaching and/or act as a professional teacher as
defined in this Act, whether in the preschool, elementary or secondary level, unless the
person is a duly registered professional teacher, and a holder of a valid certificate of
registration and a valid professional license or a holder of a valid special/temporary
permit.
 A special permit may also be issued by the Board to a person who has excelled
and gained international recognition and is a widely acknowledged expert in his or
her respective of specialization.

F. RA 6713 CODE OF CONDUCT AND ETHICAL STANDARDS FOR PUBLIC OFFICIALS

AND EMPLOYEES
1. Definition of Terms (Section 3)
a. Government - includes the national government, local government, and all other
instrumentalities, agencies or branches of the Republic of the Philippines including
government-owned and controlled corporations, and their subsidiaries.
b. Public Officials - includes elective and appointive officials and employees,
permanent or temporary whether in the career of non-career service, including military
and police personnel.
c. Gift - refers to a thing or a right disposed of gratuitously, or any act of liberality, in
favour of another who accepts it, and shall include a simulated sale or an ostensibly
onerous disposition thereof. It shall not include unsolicited gift or nominal or insignificant
value not given in anticipation of, or exchange for, a favour from a public official or
employee.
d. Receiving Gift - includes the act of accepting, directly, a gift from a person other than
a member of his family or relative as defined in this Act.
e. Loan - covers both simple and commodatum as well as guarantees, financing
arrangement or accommodations intended to insure the approval.
f. Substantial Stockholder - means any person who owns directly or indirectly, shares
of stock sufficient to elect a director of a corporation.
g. Family of Public Officials or Employees - means that their spouses and unmarried
children under 18 years of age.
h. Person - includes a natural and juridical persons unless the context indicates
otherwise
i. Conflict of Interest - arises when a public official or employee is a member of a
board, an officer, or a substantial stockholder of private corporation or owner or has a
substantial interest in the business, and the interest of such corporations or business, or
 his rights or duties therein, may be opposed to or affected by the faithful performance of
official duty.
J. Divestment - is the transfer of title or disposal of interest in property by voluntary.
completely and actually depriving or dispossessing oneself of his right or title to it in
favour of a person or persons other than his spouse and relatives as defined in the Act.
k. Relatives - refers to any and all persons related to the public official or employee
within the fourth civil degree of consanguinity or affinity, including bilas, inso and balae.
2. Norms of Conduct of Public Officials and Employees (Section 4)
a. Commitment to Public Interest - upholding the public interest over and above
personal interest.
b. Professionalism - performing and discharging ones duties with the highest degree of
excellence, professionalism, intelligence and skill.
c. Justness and Sincerity - remaining true to the people at all times; not discriminating
against anyone; respecting the rights of others; refraining from doing acts contrary to
law, good morals, good customs, public policy, public order, public safety and public
interest.
d. Political neutrality - providing service to everyone without unfair discrimination or
regardless of party affiliation or preference.
e. Responsiveness to the Public - extending prompt, courteous, and adequate service
to the public.
f. Nationalism and Patriotism - being loyal at all times to the Republic and the Filipino
people; promoting the use of locally produced goods, resources and technology:
maintaining and defending Philippine sovereignty
g. Commitment to democracy - committing to democratic way of life and values,
maintaining the principle of public accountability, and manifesting by deeds the
supremacy of civilian authority over the military.
h. Simple living - leading modest lives appropriate to their positions and income; not
indulging in extravagant or ostentatious display of wealth in any form.
3. Duties of Public Officials and Employees (Section 15)
a. Act promptly on letters and requests within 15 working days from receipt thereof.
b. Submit annual performance reports within 45 working days from the end of the year
c. Process documents and papers expeditiously with no more than three (3) signatories
d. Act immediately on the public's personal transactions e. Make documents accessible
to the public.
4. Prohibited Acts and Transactions (Section 7)
 a. Financial and material interest in any transactions requiring the approval of their
office.
b. Outside employment and other activities related thereto; owning, controlling,
managing or accepting employment as officer, employee, consultant and the like;
engaging in the private practice of their profession; recommending any person to any
position in a private enterprise.
c. Disclosure and/or misuse of confidential information
d. Solicitation and acceptance of gifts

VII. OTHER RELATED LAWS

R.A. 9155: Governance of Basic Education Act of 2001
R.A. 6728: Government Assistance to Students and Teachers of Private Education
R.A. 7722: An Act Creating the Commission on Higher Education
R.A. 7784: An Act Strengthening Teacher Education in the Philippines by creating Centers of
Excellence (COE); creating a Teacher Education Council for the appropriation of national
network with elementary schools, high schools and/or part for laboratory purposes.
R.A. 7796: An Act Creating the Technical and Skills Development Authority (TESDA)
Educational Assistance Act of 1976: Study Now Pay Later Plan
P.D. 176: Ownership, Control and Administration of Educational Institutions
Commonwealth Act 578: Confers the status of person in authority upon teachers, principals
and professors
R.A. 6655 and DECS Order #44 s.1988: An Act Establishing and Providing for A Free Public
Secondary Education and For Other Purposes; otherwise known as "Free Public Secondary Act
of 1988
R.A. 4090: Provides for state scholarships in Science, Arts and Letters for the Poor but
Deserving Students. Creating a State Scholarship Council to integrate, systematize, administer
and implement all program scholarships and appropriating funds thereof.
R.A. 5447: Creation of a Special Education Fund Act enacted in 1968 (to be constituted from
the proceeds of an additional real property tax and certain portion of the taxes on Virginal type
cigarettes and duties imposed on imported tobacco leaf. Activities shall be limited to:
1. Organization and extension of classes
2. Construction and repair of school buildings (aiding provincial, municipal, city and
barrio schools)
3. Acquisition of school sites
R.A. 6139: regulated the sectarian schools/private schools charging higher tuition fees
R.A. 7687: an Act instituting/establishing scholarship program for courses that will encourage
the students to pursue careers in science and technology. (Science and Technology
Scholarship Act of 1994)
R.A. 7743: Establishment of city and municipality libraries
R.A. 8292: Higher Education Modernization Act of 1997; establish and maintain and support a
complete, adequate, and integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the people and
society
R.A. 6850: An Act to Grant Civil Service Eligibility Under Certain Conditions to Government
Employees Appointed Under Provisional or Temporary Status Who Have Rendered a Total of
Seven (7) Years of Efficient Service
R.A. 8545: amending R.A. 6728: an Act providing government assistance to students and
teachers of private education; expanded Government Assistance to Students and Teachers in
Private Education Act
R.A. 8525: 1998 Act Establishing "Adopt-a-School-Program"; allowing private schools,
companies to assist/support public schools in upgrading and modernization of public schools
particularly those in poverty-stricken provinces
R.A. 8491: Prescribing the Code of the national flag, anthem, motto, coat of arms, and other
heraldic items and devices of the Philippines (Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines)
R.A. 7797: An Act to Lengthen the School Calendar from Two Hundred Days to Not More than
Two Hundred Twenty (220) Class Days
R.A. 8190: An Act Granting Priority to Residents of the Barangay, Municipality or City Where
the School is Located in the Appointment or Assignment of Classroom Public School Teachers
R.A. 6972: an Act Establishing A Day Care Center in Every Barangay, Instituting Therein A
Total Development and Protection of Children Program, Appropriating Funds Therefor, and For
Other Purposes
R.A. 7624: An Act Integrating Drug Prevention and Control in the Intermediate and Secondary
Curricula As Well As In The Non-formal, Informal and Indigenous Learning Systems and For
Other Purposes Appropriating Therefor, And For Other Purposes
R.A. 7743: An Act Providing For The Establishment of Congressional City, and Municipal
Libraries and Barangay Reading Centers Throughout the Philippines
R.A. 7877: Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995
R.A. 9163: National Service Training Program (NSTP) of 2001 R.A. 6139: An Act To Regulate
Tuition and Other School Fees of Private Educational Institutions
Department Orders/Memoranda / Circulars

 DECS Order #5, s. 1974: Bilingual Education Policy

 DECS Oder # 52, s. 1987: mandates the use of the regional languages as auxiliary
medium of instruction
 DepEd Order No. 4, s. 2002: Basic Education Curriculum; DepEd Order No. 25 s. 2002,
the 2002 Basic Education Curriculum shall be implemented in all public schools during
year 2002- 2003
 CMO #30, s. 2004: Revised Policies and Standards for Undergraduate Teacher
Education Curriculum
 CMO #52, s. 2007: Addendum to Revised Policies and Standards for Undergraduate
Teacher Education Curriculum
 DepEd Order #9, s. 2004: Guidelines in the Selection of Honor Pupils/Students in Public
Schools
 DepEd Order #10, s. 2004: Implementation of the Enhanced 8-Week Early Childhood
Experiences (ECE) for Grade 1
 DepEd Order #37, s. 2003: Revised Implementing Guidelines of the 2002 Secondary
Education Curriculum Effective School Year 2003-2004
 DepEd order #65, s. 2007: Guidelines in the Utilization of the Additional Subsidy for the
Regional Science High Schools for CY 2007
 DepEd Order #79, s. 2003: Assessment and Evaluation of Learning and Reporting of
Students Progress in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools
 DepEd Order #70, s. 2003: Revised Grading System for Elementary and Secondary
Schools
 DepEd Order #33, s. 2007: Reiterating the Revitalization of the Girl Scouting Movement
in Schools and Regulating the Collection of Voluntary Contributions of Public Elementary
and Secondary Schools
 DepEd Order #45, s. 2008: Student Uniforms Not Required in Public Elementary and
Secondary Schools
 DepEd Order #39, s. 2008: Private School Textbooks With Errors
 DepEd Order # 30, s. 2008: Requiring all Regional Offices to Submit List of Names and
Addresses of Private Schools With Permit to Operate or Recognition or Accreditation
 DepEd Order #19, s. 2008: Implementation of No Collection Policy in All Public
Elementary and Secondary Schools
 DepEd Order #7, s. 2008: Turning Around Low Performance In English: A Priority
Program for AF 2008
 DepEd Memo #19, s. 2009: 2009 President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo Outstanding
Achievements and Academic Excellence Awards
 DepEd Order #4, s. 2004: Additional Guidelines on the New Performance-Based
Grading System
 DepEd Order #5, s. 2004: Eligibility of Remedial Instruction Classes for Grant of
Vacation Service Credits
 DepEd Memo #307, s. 2007: Refined Secondary Education Curriculum (RSEC Year III
and IV)
 DepEd Memo #490, s. 2007: The Spanish Language as an Elective in High School
 DepEd Memo #9, s. 2009: Training-Workshop for Teachers of Additional Secondary
School Offering Special Education Program
 DepEd Memo #62, s. 2008: Early Registration for Incoming First Year High School
Students for SY 2009-2010
 DepEd Memo #7, s. 2009: Random Drug Testing
FOUR PILLARS OF LEARNING
1. Learning to Know - focuses on combining broad general knowledge and basic education
with the opportunity to work on a small number of subjects in the light of rapid changes brought
about by scientific progress and new forms of economic and social activity.

 Learning how to learn and to discover, as to benefit from ongoing educational

opportunities continuously arising throughout life
 Developing the faculties of memory, imagination, reasoning, and problem solving
 Understanding about one's environment.
 Communicating with others
2. Learning to Do - emphasizes on the learning of skills necessary to practice a profession or
trade Applying in practice what has been learned.

 Developing vocational / occupational and technical skills

 Developing social skills in building meaningful interpersonal relations
 Developing competence, social behaviour, aptitude for team work
 Enhancing the ability to communicate and work with others
 Managing and resolving conflicts

3. Learning to Be - prioritizes the development of the human potential to the fullest.

 Tapping the talents hidden with each individual

 Develop personal commitment and responsibility for the common good
4. Learning to Live Together - emphasizes understanding of others, their history, traditions
cultures, and also, living and interacting peacefully together.

 Appreciating the diversity of the human race

 Being receptive to others and encounter others through dialogue and debate
 Caring about others
 Working toward common objectives in cooperative undertakings
 Managing and resolving conflicts
REPUBLIC ACT No. 137 - Board of Textbooks

 It provided for all public schools to use only those books approved by the board for a
period of six years from the date of their adoption.

Republic Act No. 6655

AN ACT ESTABLISHING AND PROVIDING FOR A FREE PUBLIC SECONDARY
Section 1.Title. - This Act shall be known as the "Free Public Secondary Education
Act of 1988".
Section 2.Declaration of Policy.-It is the policy of the State to provide for a free public
secondary education to all qualified citizens and to promote quality education at all
levels.
Section 3.Definitions. For purposes of this Act, the following terms shall mean:
 a) Free Public Secondary Education. Means that the students enrolled in
secondary course offerings in national high schools, general comprehensive high
schools, trade, technical, vocational, fishery and agricultural schools, and in
schools established, administered, maintained and funded by local government
units, including city, provincial municipal and barangay high schools, and those
public high schools which may be established by law, shall be free from payment
of tuition and other schools fees;
b) Tuition Fee. Refers to the fee representing direct costs of instruction, training
and other related activities and for the students' use of the instruction and training
facilities;
c) Other School Fees. Refer to those fees which cover the other necessary
costs supportive of instruction, including but not limited to medical and dental,
athletic, library, laboratory and Citizens Army Training (CAT) fees.
Section 5.Formulation of a Secondary Education Curriculum. The Department of
Education, Culture and Sports shall formulate a secondary education curriculum in order
to upgrade its quality, efficiency and access.n addition to providing the high school
students with general skills, knowledge and values, such a curriculum must include
vocational and technical courses that will give the students gainful employment.
Section 8.Priority in Admission. Graduates of public elementary schools in a
municipality shall be given priority in admission when the present facilities in the same
municipality cannot accommodate all of those applying for enrollment in the public high
schools.
Section 10. Funding. - The President is hereby authorized to realign or transfer any
item of appropriation within the Department of Education, Culture and Sports. and/or
utilize any savings therein to carry out the purposes of this Act.

REPUBLIC ACT No. 6728-The Act Providing Government Assistance to Students and
Teachers in Private Education (Scholarship Programs)
 To promote and make quality education accessible to all Filipino citizens.

Republic Act No. 7160

AN ACT PROVIDING FOR A LOCAL GOVERNMENT CODE OF 1991
Section 98.Creation, Composition, and Compensation.
(a) There shall be established in every province, city, or municipality a provincial, city, or
municipal school board, respectively.
(b) The composition of local school boards shall be as follows:
(1) The provincial school board shall be composed of the governor and the
division superintendent of schools as co-chairman; the chairman of the education
committee of the sangguniangpanlalawigan, the provincial treasurer, the
representative of the "pederasyonngmgasangguniangkabataan" in the
sangguniangpanlalawigan, the duly elected president of the provincial federation
of parents-teachers associations, the duly elected representative of the teachers'
 organizations in the province, and the duly elected representative of the non-
academic personnel of public schools in the province, as members;
(2) The city school board shall be composed of the city mayor and the city
superintendent of schools as co-chairmen; the chairman of the education
committee of the sangguniangpanlungsod, the city treasurer, the representative
of the "pederasyonngmgasangguniangkabataan" in the sangguniangpanlungsod,
the duly elected president of the city federation of parents- teachers associations,
the duly elected representative of the teachers' organizations in the city, and the
duly elected representative of the non-academic personnel of public schools in
the city, as members; and
(3) The municipal school board shall be composed of the municipal mayor and
the district supervisor of schools as co-chairmen; the chairman of the education
committee of the sangguniangbayan, the municipal treasurer, the representative
of the "pederasyonngmgasangguniangkabataan" in the sangguniangbayan, the
duly elected president of the municipal federation of parent-teacher associations,
the duly elected representative of the teachers' organizations in the municipality,
and the duly elected representative of the non-academic personnel of public
schools in the municipality, as members.
Section 101.Compensation and Remuneration. The co-chairmen and members of the
provincial, city or municipal school board shall perform their duties as such without
compensation or remuneration.

REPUBLIC ACT No. 7743-An Act Providing For The Establishment Of Congressional, City
And Municipal Libraries And Barangay Reading Centers Throughout The Philippines

 The establishment of public libraries and reading centers in every barangay and
municipality of the country.
 To promote the moral and intellectual well-being of the people: elevate the literacy level
of every Filipino to the end that literacy is eradicated by the end of the century; and
recognize the vital role of knowledge and information in nation-building by establishing
public libraries in every congressional district, city and municipality, and reading centers
in every barangay throughout the Philippines.

REPUBLIC ACT No. 7836

 This Act shall be known as the "Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994."
 The State recognizes the vital role of teachers in nation building and development
through a responsible and literate citizenry.
 State shall ensure and promote quality education by proper supervision and regulation of
the licensure examination and professionalization of the practice of the teaching
profession.
 The Board shall prescribe and/or adopt a code of ethical and professional
standards for the practice of the teaching profession.
  The Board shall look into the condition affecting the practice of teaching
profession and whenever necessary, adopt such measures as may be deemed proper
for the enhancement and maintenance of high professional and ethical standards
of the profession.
 The registration of a professional teacher commences from the date his/her name
is enrolled in a roster of professional teachers
 Every registrant shall be required to take his/her professional oath before
practicing as a professional teacher.
 The teaching profession shall be integrated in one national organization which
shall be recognized by the Board and the Commission as the one and only
integrated and accredited association of professional teachers.
The Code of Ethics for Educators

 This code ensures that students receive a fair, honest, and uncompromising education.
 A professional code of ethics outlines teachers’ primary responsibilities to their students
and defines their role in a student’s life.
 Educators must demonstrate impartiality, integrity, and ethical behavior in the classroom,
whether virtual or in-person and in their conduct with parents and coworkers.
 Putting Students First -Teachers must model strong character traits, including
perseverance, honesty, respect, lawfulness, fairness, patience, and unity. As an
educator, teachers must treat every student with kindness and respect without showing
any favoritism, prejudice or partiality. Teachers must maintain confidentiality unless a
scenario warrants involvement from parents, school administration, or law enforcement,
and never use relationships with students for personal gain.
 Showing Commitment on the Job - Educators must commit wholly to the teaching
profession itself. A classroom should promote safety, security, and acceptance, and
should always avoid bullying, hostility, neglect, dishonesty or offensive conduct.
Teachers must accurately describe their qualifications, licenses, and credentials to
education boards or administration offices that look to hire them.
 Teachers must also fulfill all contracts, obey school policies, and account for all funds
and resources at their disposal. It’s up to the teacher to design lesson plans to meet
specific state standards and create a well-rounded education plan that appeals to
learners of all backgrounds and abilities.
 Promote and Uphold Healthy Relationships - On top of fostering healthy relationships
with students, educators must build strong relationships with school staff, parents,
guidance counselors, coworkers, and administrators. Teachers must keep from
discussing private information about colleagues and students unless disclosure is
required under the law.
 Teachers should always avoid gossip of any kind, including false comments about
coworkers or students. Part of the code of ethics requires teachers to cooperate with
fellow teachers, parents, and administrators to create an atmosphere that fosters
learning and growth. Educators might be called upon to train student teachers who wish
to serve as educators, so having the right mindset and attitude can make a positive
difference.
 Never Stop Learning - An educator’s code of conduct demands attentiveness to
continuing education requirements and career development. Teachers must spend time
 researching new teaching methods, attend classes to maintain their certifications,
consult colleagues for professional advice, stay informed on technical advancements for
the classroom, and participate in curriculum improvements. A teacher must ensure that
their teaching methods are relevant and comprehensive for all students. Teachers must
engage in educational research to continuously improve their strategies in the
classroom.
Presidential Decree 1006
Providing for the Professionalization of Teacher, Regulating their practice in Philippine and for
other purposes

 This policy is declared by late Pres. Ferdinand Marcos, wherein the teacher education
shall be given primary concern and attention by the government and shall be of the
highest quality. In this policy the teacher education shall undergo examination. Together
with the Civil Service Commission and the Department of Education and culture jointly
gave examination for teachers. When the examinees pass the teachers examination
they will be qualified for registration as professional teachers and where given the
Professional Teacher Certificate.
 The PD 1006 made a teachers’ license a requirement for teaching. After three years of
effectivity of this decree a teacher without license shall not engage in teaching, whether
in the public or private elementary or secondary school. But despite of this the quality of
Philippine education is declining because the teachers are poorly trained and the
number of students who enrolled in teacher training is not increasing.
 After this PD 1006 another law on teachers’ professionalization was declared it is the
Republic Act 7836 known as Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994. Just
like PD 1006 this law recognized the vital role of teachers in nation building. In this act
they created the board for Professional Teachers they are under the supervision and
administrative control of the Professional Regulation Commission that gives the
Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET). When a person pass the LET he/she will
grant a license to teach. And she can use this in applying whether public or private
school.
 In accordance with this law any person violating any provision of this decree shall be
penalized by a fine of not less than one thousand pesos nor more than five thousand
pesos with subsidiary imprisonment or to suffer an imprisonment of not less than six
months nor more than two years, or both fine and imprisonment at the discretion of the
court.
 After PD 1006 and RA 7836, there is another law which is the Republic Act no. 9293
known as An Act Amending certain sections of Republic Act no. 7836 otherwise known
as “Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994” Section 1: Section 15;(e) (3) of
RA no 7836 amended that for teachers in secondary grades, bachelors in degree
education as one of the qualification or its equivalent with a major and minor or a
bachelor’s degree in arts in sciences with at least (18) units in professional education.
They add (8) units in the professional education as one of the qualification requirement
of the applicant. Another section they amend is the section 26 Registration and
exemption where professional teachers who have not practiced their profession for the
past five years shall take at least (12) units of education courses.
REPUBLIC ACT No. 6655
AN ACT ESTABLISHING AND PROVIDING FOR A FREE PUBLIC SECONDARY
 Section 1.Title. - This Act shall be known as the "Free Public Secondary
Education Act of 1988."
 Section 2.Declaration of Policy.-It is the policy of the State to provide for a free
public secondary education to all qualified citizens and to promote quality education
at all levels.
 Section 3.Definitions. For purposes of this Act, the following terms shall mean:
a) Free Public Secondary Education. Means that the students enrolled in
secondary course offerings in national high schools, general comprehensive
high schools, trade, technical, vocational, fishery and agricultural schools,
and in schools established, administered, maintained and funded by local
government units, including city, provincial municipal and barangay high
schools, and those public high schools which may be established by law,
shall be free from payment of tuition and other schools fees;
b) Tuition Fee. Refers to the fee representing direct costs of instruction,
training and other related activities and for the students' use of the instruction
and training facilities;
c) Other School Fees. Refer to those fees which cover the other necessary
costs supportive of instruction, including but not limited to medical and dental,
athletic, library, laboratory and Citizens Army Training (CAT) fees.
 Section 5.Formulation of a Secondary Education Curriculum. The Department of
Education, Culture and Sports shall formulate a secondary education curriculum in
order to upgrade its quality, efficiency and accessing addition to providing the high
school students with general skills, knowledge and values, such a curriculum must
include vocational and technical courses that will give the students gainful
employment.
 Section 8.Priority in Admission. Graduates of public elementary schools in a
municipality shall be given priority in admission when the present facilities in the
same municipality cannot accommodate all of those applying for enrollment in the
public high schools.
 Section 10.Funding. - The President is hereby authorized to realign or transfer any
item of appropriation within the Department of Education, Culture and Sports. and/or
utilize any savings therein to carry out the purposes of this Act.

Republic Act No. 7160 AN ACT PROVIDING FOR A LOCAL GOVERNMENT CODE OF 1991
Section 98.Creation, Composition, and Compensation.
(a) There shall be established in every province, city, or municipality a provincial, city, or
municipal school board, respectively.
(b) The composition of local school boards shall be as follows:
 The provincial school board shall be composed of the governor and the division
superintendent of schools as co-chairman; the chairman of the education
committee of the sangguniangpanlalawigan, the provincial treasurer, the
representative of the "pederasyonngmgasangguniangkabataan" in the
 sangguniangpanlalawigan, the duly elected president of the provincial federation
of parents-teachers associations, the duly elected representative of the teachers'
organizations in the province, and the duly elected representative of the non-
academic personnel of public schools in the province, as members;
 The city school board shall be composed of the city mayor and the city
superintendent of schools as co-chairmen; the chairman of the education
committee of the sangguniangpanlungsod, the city treasurer, the representative
of the "pederasyonngmgasangguniangkabataan" in the sangguniangpanlungsod,
the duly elected president of the city federation of parents- teachers associations,
the duly elected representative of the teachers' organizations in the city, and the
duly elected representative of the non-academic personnel of public schools in
the city, as members; and
 The municipal school board shall be composed of the municipal mayor and the
district supervisor of schools as co-chairmen; the chairman of the education
committee of the sangguniangbayan, the municipal treasurer, the representative
of the "pederasyonngmgasangguniangkabataan" in the sangguniangbayan, the
duly elected president of the municipal federation of parent-teacher associations,
the duly elected representative of the teachers' organizations in the municipality,
and the duly elected representative of the non-academic personnel of public
schools in the municipality, as members.
Section 101.Compensation and Remuneration. The co-chairmen and members of the
provincial, city or municipal school board shall perform their duties as such without
compensation or remuneration.

REPUBLIC ACT No. 7796 TESDA Act of 1994

 This is “An Act Creating the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority,
Providing for its Powers, Structure and Other Purposes". Accordingly, it shall be known
as the “Technical Education and Skills Development Act of 1994” or the “TESDA Act of
1994”.
 It emphasizes the complementary roles of private and public institutions in technical
education, skills development, and of course, training systems as it supports the
development goals of the Philippines.
 They are encouraging, especially private businesses or enterprises to provide enough
opportunities in promoting technical education and honing the skills of people.
 Aims to promote international competitiveness, provision of training systems and
development programs that could help in giving enough opportunities for workers
and other beneficiaries.
 Inculcates desirable values by means of developing moral character such that it
emphasizes the self-discipline, work ethics, self-reliance, and even nationalism.
 Includes a lot of terms which are highlighted in this Act, composition of authority
and TESDA Board, the functions and powers of the board were also explained,
power to review and recommendation, the Secretariat, Director-General, those who have
positions, and other personnel and etc.
  Therefore, this Act mainly focuses on National Technical Education and Skills
Development Plans as basis for the formulation of development plan intended for
middle- level manpower. It highlights the importance of honing skills and giving priority to
Technical Education as it has a significant role in making the Philippines internationally
competitive.
 To provide relevant, accessible, high quality and efficient technical education and skills
development in support of the development of high quality Filipino middle-level
manpower responsive to and in accordance with Philippine development goals and
priorities.
 Encourage active participation of various concerned sectors, particularly private
enterprises, being direct participants in and immediate beneficiaries of a trained and
skilled workforce, in providing technical education and skills development opportunities.

REPUBLIC ACT No. 7722 AN ACT CREATING THE COMMISSION ON HIGHER

EDUCATION, APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES

 This Act shall be known as the "Higher Education Act of 1994".

 The State shall protect, foster and promote the right of all citizens to affordable quality
education at all levels and shall take appropriate steps to ensure that education shall be
accessible to all.
 The State shall likewise ensure and protect academic freedom and shall promote its
exercise and observance for the continuing intellectual growth, the advancement of
learning and research, the development of responsible and effective leadership, the
education of high-level and middle-level professionals, and the enrichment of our
historical and cultural heritage.
 State-supported institutions of higher learning shall gear their programs to national,
regional or local development plans.
 All institutions of higher learning shall exemplify through their physical and natural
surroundings the dignity and beauty of, as well as their pride in, the intellectual and
scholarly life.
 The CHED is mandated to: a. promote quality education; b. broaden access to higher
education; c. protect academic freedom for continuing intellectual growth; and d. ensure
advancement of learning and research.
REPUBLIC ACT No. 7784 An Act to Strengthen Teacher Education in the Philippines by
Establishing Centers of Excellence, Creating a Teacher Education Council for the
Purpose, Appropriating Funds Therefor, and for Other Purposes

 This Act shall be known as the "Excellence in Teacher Education Act."

 It is the declared policy of the State to protect and promote the right of all citizens to
quality education at all levels and to take appropriate steps to make such education
accessible and relevant to all.
 It is likewise universally recognized that the teacher is the key to effective teaching-
learning processes by drawing out and nurturing the best in the learner as a human
being and a worthy member of society.
  The State recognizes the role of school leaders in supporting teachers by fostering an
environment for effective teaching and a school culture that develops enthusiastic and
independent learners who are committed to lifelong learning.
 "Towards this end, the State shall ensure and enhance the quality education and training
of teachers nationwide by establishing a scholarship program for deserving students
pursuing teacher education degree programs, and for teachers and school leaders
pursuing graduate degree programs, and providing a dynamic, modern, and equitable
education system through the national leadership of the Teacher Education Council,
hereinafter referred to as the Council, which is mandated to carry out this vision through
the development of teachers and school leaders who are of unquestionable integrity and
competence, and who are committed to the pursuit of their continuing professional
growth and obligation to help learners grow as responsible, competent and productive
individuals and citizens of the Philippines and of the world."
 To protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels and shall
take appropriate steps to make such education accessible to all.
 It is likewise universally recognized that the teacher is the key to the effectiveness of the
teaching-learning process by drawing out and nurturing the best in the learner as a
human being and a worthy member of society.
 Thus, this Act aims to provide and ensure quality education by strengthening the
education and training of teachers nationwide through a national system of excellence
for teacher education.
 To educate and train teachers of unquestionable integrity and competence, and who are
committed to their continuing professional growth and obligation to help their students
grow as responsible individuals and citizens of the Philippines and of the world.

Republic Act No. 7876 (AN ACT ESTABLISHING A SENIOR CITIZENS CENTER IN ALL
CITIES AND MUNICIPALITIES OF THE PHILIPPINES, AND APPROPRIATING FUNDS
THERFOR)
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Philippines in Congress
assembled:
SECTION 1. Title. – This Act shall be known as the “Senior Citizens Center Act of the
Philippines.”
SEC. 3. Definition of Terms. – (a) “Senior citizens,” as used in this Act, shall refer to any
person who is at least sixty (60) years of age.
SEC. 4. Establishment of Centers. – There is hereby established a senior citizens center,
hereinafter referred to as the Center, in every city and municipality of the Philippines, under
direct supervision of the Department of Social Welfare and Development, hereinafter referred to
as the Department, in collaboration with the local government unit concerned.
SEC. 7. Qualification/Disqualification. — A senior citizen who suffers from a contagious
disease, or who is mentally unfit or unsound or whose actuations are inimical to other senior
citizens as determined by the DSWD on the basis of an appropriate certification by a qualified
government or private volunteer physician, may be denied the benefits provided in the Center.
SEC. 8. Exemptions of the Center. — The Center shall be exempted from the payment of
customs duties, taxes and tariffs on the importation of equipment and supplies used actually,
directly and exclusively by the Center pursuant to this Act, including those donated to the
Center.
SEC. 9. Rules and Regulations. – Within sixty (60) days from the approval of this Act, the
DSWD, in coordination with other government agencies concerned, shall issue the rules and
regulations to effectively implement the provisions of this Act. Any violation of this section shall
render the concerned official(s) liable under Republic Act No. 6713, otherwise known as the
“Code of Conduct and Ethical Standards for Public Officials and Employees” and other existing
administrative and/or criminal laws.
SEC. 11. Appropriations. – The amount necessary to carry out the provisions of this Act shall
be included in the General Appropriations Act of the year following its enactment into law and
every year thereafter.

REPUBLIC ACT No. 7877 Anti Sexual harassment Act of 1995

 Value the dignity of every individual enhance the development of its human resources,
guarantee full respect for human rights, and uphold the dignity of workers. employees,
applicants for employment, students or those undergoing training, instruction or
education. Towards this end, all forms of sexual harassment in the employment,
education or training environment are hereby declared unlawful.

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 6-A - Known as the Educational Development Decree of 1972,
and was implemented by the late former President Ferdinand Marcos.

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 146 This decree requiring ALL senior high school students to
pass the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) as pre requisite for admission to any
post-secondary academic or professional degree program.
PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No.451 This law repealed RA No. 6139 and authorized the Sec. of
Education and Culture to regulate the imposition of tuition fee and other school fees in all private
educational institutions.

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 688 This low gave the Civil Service Commission the power and
authority to give the appropriate examination for all public school teachers.

Republic Act No. 8248

(AN ACT FURTHER STRENGTHENING THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM OF
THE GOVERNMENT, AMENDING FOR THE PURPOSE REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7687,
OTHERWISE KNOWN AS THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOLARSHIP ACT OF
1994.)
  Section 1. Section 4 of Republic Act No. 7687, otherwise known as the Science and
Technology Scholarship Act of 1994, is hereby amended by adding sub-section 4-A to
read as follows:
 "Sec. 4-A. Science and Technology Human Resource Development Council. – A
Science and Technology Human Resource Development Council is hereby created
which shall be chaired by the Secretary of the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST) and shall be composed of the following members:
 "The Chairman of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED);
 "The Secretary of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS);
 "The Director-General of the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
(TESDA);
 "The Secretary of the Department of Budget and Management Authority (DBM); and
 "The President of the Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges
(PASUC).
 "The Council shall perform the following functions:
(1) Coordinate science and technology human resource development programs;
(2) Formulate a medium-and long-term science and technology human resource
development plan in accordance with the national medium-term plan;
(3) Formulate broad policies for the allocations of science and technology
scholarships;
(4) Formulate policies on advanced degree programs for science and technology;
(5) Formulate a career system for technologists and technicians to complement
the scientific career system;
(6) Formulate programs to train and retrain scientist, engineers, researchers and
technologists and encourage them through various incentives, to return and
practice their professions in the Philippines, to enhance and accelerate the
technological development of the country; and
(7) Perform other functions necessary to effectively implement the provisions of
this Act.
"The science and technology human resource development plan shall be submitted to the
President six (6) months after the effectivity of this Act. The Council shall have a term of four
(4) years commencing from the effectivity of this Act, unless otherwise extended by
Congress."
"Sec. 5. Appropriations. – The amount necessary to carry out the initial implementation of
this Act shall be charged against the current Fiscal Year Appropriations of the Department of
Science and Technology.

REPUBLIC ACT No. 10612

Implementing the R.A. 10612 is the “realization of Section 8 of the Kindergarten to Grade 12 (K-
to-12) law,” which pushes for the hiring of graduates of science, math, statistics, engineering,
and other specialists as teachers.
“SEC. 8. The hiring of Graduates of Science, Mathematics, Statistics, Engineering and
Other Specialists in Subjects With a Shortage of Qualified Applicants, Technical-
Vocational Courses and Higher Education Institution Faculty.”
Importance of Science and Technology in National Development

 Development is necessary in every individual to every nation in all aspects and for
development to happen, science and technology go hand in hand.
 Basically, science is known as the study of knowledge, which is made into a system and
depends on analyzing and understanding facts. Technology is fundamentally the
practical application of this scientific knowledge.
 A country who is not able to do something to prosper on these grounds may have to
solely depend on other nations for the basic requirements.
 Additionally, the country might not be able to improve the basic life of its constituents.
Such is the great influence of science and technology for the development of any nation.
 For the Philippines to have a successful economy, particularly in today’s quest for
knowledge-based economies, science, technology and engineering are the basic
requisites.
 The Philippines must value science and technology, then the chances of getting
ourselves developed and self-sufficient becomes maximal and thus we could not be
called an undeveloped nation. Science and Technology is associated in all means with
modernity and it is an essential tool for rapid development.
Purpose and Objectives

 Technology, science, and knowledge are important in modern society. The understanding of
how social, cultural, and material elements influence the production of new practices, new
ways of understanding and new institutions is vital in our understanding of contemporary
postmodern society.
 The state shall provide scholarships to deserving science students and other specially gifted
citizens to give an opportunity and enable them to pursue higher education or training in the
areas of science, technology, and engineering, and to provide incentives for them to
become secondary school teachers, especially in their home regions.
 The law would increase the number of science, technology, and engineering graduates by
offering scholarships to deserving students in their third year of undergraduate study, based
on their competitiveness and merit. It pushes for careers in science and math, especially in
developing the mindsets of the Filipino youth.
 It aims to strengthen the country’s science and technology education.
 Fast-tracking graduates in the sciences, mathematics, and engineering who shall teach
science and mathematics subjects in secondary schools throughout the country.
 Towards this end, scholarships shall be provided to finance the education of talented and
deserving students in their third year of college, and pursue a degree or training in the areas
of science and technology, and to provide incentives for them to pursue a career in teaching
in high schools, especially in their home regions.
 For this purpose, the State shall have an education system that will develop, productive and
responsible citizens equipped with the essential and fundamental competencies, skills and
values for both lifelong learning and employment. In order to achieve this, the State shall:
 a. Give every student an opportunity to receive a quality education that is globally
competitive that is at par with international standards;
b. Broaden the goals of education, vocational and technical career opportunities, and
creative arts, sports, and entrepreneurial employment in a rapidly changing and
increasingly globalized environment; and
c. Make education learner-oriented and responsive to the needs.
Salient points of the law the public ought to know or remember:
1. Qualifications the applicants must have to be a candidate for a scholarship with teaching
incentive (Section 5)
2. Be a Filipino citizen
3. A regular third-year college student at the time of award
4. Be currently enrolled in any of the state universities or colleges or in private universities
especially in Commission on Higher Education (CHED)–compliant programs, under any
of the identified priority S&T course
5. Have a general weighted average (GWA) of eighty–three percent (83%) or better during
their first and second year of college
6. Quality in the Junior–Level Science Scholarship Examination
7. How much the recipient should receive as financial assistance (Section 6)
8. Recipients are entitled to an annual award for full-time study equal to the complete
financial assistance package offered under Republic Act No. 7687, for students
attending an approved undergraduate program at quality schools, such as CHED-
compliant programs and DOST Network Institutions, public or private, with minimum
slots awarded in private schools to offset differences in tuition costs.
9. The duration of the scholarship (Section 7)
10. Recipients shall be entitled to an award for the last two (2) years of undergraduate study,
or the last three (3) years for those enrolled in five (5)-year courses such as engineering
while matriculating in an approved program.
11. Approved Courses and Priority Programs (Section 8)
12. Recipients shall pursue degrees in science, technology, and engineering, as identified
and approved by the DOST as priority S&T courses. Applicants who are currently
enrolled under such courses under the CHED-compliant programs will be given priority.
13. Terms and Conditions (Section 9 – 12)
14. Agree to teach as their return of service (ROS)
15. Agree to any of the approved ROS conditions –
a. Award recipients must teach full-time high school subject(s) in Mathematics,
Biology, Chemistry, or Physics; or Information Technology or Agricultural,
Aquaculture or Fisheries Technology, both in the university and technical-
vocational tracks in the secondary education curriculum, for a minimum of two
(2) years, in a public or private high school.
16. Agree to repay the amounts disbursed plus interest pursuant to the terms of their service
contract.
17. Implementing Agencies (Section 14 & 15)
18. Science Education Institute (SEI) / (Section 14)
a. The Department of Science and Technology–Science Education Institute Is the
main implementing agency of the provisions in this Act. This organization is also
responsible for evaluation, award-giving, and monitoring of scholarship grants
and awardees
 19. Department of Education (DepED) / (Section 15)
a. Tasked to ensure job placement and hiring of qualified graduates under this
program as secondary school teachers in science, mathematics, and related
technology courses, and to ensure that these teachers are hired at Special
Science Teacher salary grade levels, as specified in this Act. The Department is
also tasked with the evaluation and monitoring of hired teachers under this
program.

REPUBLIC ACT No. 10533 Implementing Rules and Regulations of the Enhanced Basic
Education Act of 2013
Section 4. Definition of Terms.
(a) Act refers to Republic Act No. 10533, entitled “An Act Enhancing the Philippine Basic
Education System by Strengthening Its Curriculum and Increasing the Number of Years
for Basic Education, Appropriating Funds Therefor and for Other Purposes,” otherwise
known as the “Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013.”
(b) Learning Center refers to a physical space to house learning resources and facilities
of a learning program for out-of-school youth and adults. It is a venue for face-to-face
learning activities and other learning opportunities for community development and
improvement of the people’s quality of life. This may also be referred to as “Community
Learning Center” authorized or recognized by the DepEd.
(c) Learner refers to a pupil or student, or to a learner in the alternative learning system.
(d) Mother Language or First Language (L1) refers to the language or languages first
learned by a child, which he/she identifies with, is identified as a native language user of
by others, which he/she knows best, or uses most. This includes Filipino sign language
used by individuals with pertinent disabilities. The regional or native language refers to
the traditional speech variety or variety of Filipino sign language existing in a region,
area or place.
(e) Non-DepEd Public School refers to a public school offering basic education
operated by an agency of the national government other than the DepEd, or by a local
government unit.
 CHILD AND ADOLESCENCE

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

 The lifespan development includes the entire human life cycle, that is, from conception
to adulthood. It is significant to understand them as you relate to your learners, to
yourself, to your co-workers, to parents, to non-formal education clienteles and to other
education stakeholders.
 Developmental psychologists divide the lifespan into stages or periods. At each period or
stage they specified based from research, what children can do and the rate at which
they grow. From this, they came up with the milestone of development. A milestone of
development refers to the age when most children are expected to reach a certain stage
of development.
 Robert J. Havigurst identified 6 developmental stages. These include:
o Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5)
o Middle Childhood (6-12)
o Adolescence (13-18)
o Early Adulthood (19-29)
o Middle Adulthood (30-60)
o Later Maturity (61 and over).
 John W. Santrock identified 8 developmental stages. These are:
o Prenatal Period (from conception to birth)
o Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months)
o Early Childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years (Grade 1)
o Middle and Late Childhood (6—11 years, the elementary school years)
o Adolescence (10-12 years ending up to 18-22 years)
o Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30s)
o Middle Adulthood (40-60 years) and
o Late Adulthood (60s and above).
 A developmental task is an activity which arises at or about a certain period in the life of
the individual. It is an ability to master certain essential skills and acquire approved
patterns of behavior at various stages. It provides teachers and parents awareness of
whether the child being early or late or on time with regards to a given tasks.
 General Characteristics from Prenatal to Adolescence
 1. PRE-NATAL (Outset of fertilization to birth)
o The period of gestation, the period of pregnancy
o Takes place for 9 months or 280 days
o Is divided into 3 stages: the period of the ovum or germinal stage from fertilization to
2 weeks, the period of the embryo or embryonic stage from 2 weeks to 2 months
where major organs are forming and the period of the fetus or the fetal stage from 2
months to birth where organ systems develop and begin to function. Oogenesis
o The age when hereditary endowments and sex are fixed and all body features are
developed (both external and internal).
o In Santrock’s developmental stages, this is the period where remarkable growth
takes place –from a single-celled organism to a complete human being endowed
with behavioral capabilities and a brain that is distinct from other forms of animals.
2. INFANCY ( first two weeks after birth/birth to 18-24 months )
o The shortest of all developmental periods.
o Is divided into 2 periods: period of partunate (from birth and 30 minutes after birth)
and period of the neonate from the cutting of the umbilical cord to second week of life
o The period of radical adjustment, the time when the child is adjusting from its new
environment outside the womb of the mother such as breathing, sucking, swallowing
and waste elimination on its own.
o A plateau in development caused by the lack of progress in growth due to the
sudden change in environment.
o A preview of later development that provides a clue as to what to expect later on.
o A hazardous period because of difficulties of making necessary adjustments.
o According to Santrock 2002, this is the time when the child is extremely dependent
on their caregivers. They are also beginning to carry out several psychological
activities such as language, use of symbols, sensorimotor coordination and social
learning.
3. EARLY CHILDHOOD (Two to six years –Grade 1)
o Preschool age since this is the period when they will be enrolled in day care centers
or nursery or kindergarten schools
o An age of independence
o The time when the child developed language sufficiently to express himself
purposively and his entrance to school
 o The period of increased physical vigor and muscular control
o Rote memory is functioning excellently where they quickly recall information by
repetition
o The stage of imitative plays and love listen to stories they like
o The problem or troublesome age as evident by their stubbornness, disobedience
pessimism and antagonism
o The toy age where they spend most of their waking time playing with toys
o Pre-gang stage, the time when they learn the foundations of social behavior that will
prepare them for the more highly organized social life required to adjust to when they
enter first grade
o Exploratory age, when they want to know what his environment is
o Imitative age, tends to follow what others are doing and saying
o Creative age, use of improvise toys
o Questioning age, asks endless questions
o For Santrock 2002, this is when children become self-sufficient and to start caring for
themselves. They also begin to develop their readiness for school and to socialize
with other children through play activities.

 Kindergarten
o The kindergarten year is a transition from early childhood programs to a formal
school setting and is considered the first year of formal schooling.
4. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (Six to nine or ten years)
o Designated as the primary school period
o Physical growth is slower
o Achieving a sufficient degree of maturity to enable him to profit from formal education
o A critical stage in development since the child moves from home to school they are
learning to make adjustments, learning to accept authority of the teacher in place of
the parents and learning to accept discipline as a necessary component of a school
life and assume responsibilities in school
o Attain satisfaction in doing things for himself
o Readiness to learn involves proper physical, mental and emotional development,
adequate experiential background and interest or willingness to learn
 o Reading, the most fundamental skill taught in school
o Enjoys stories on children of their own age where experiences are similar to their
own
o Interested in reading about child life in other lands and retains his interest in fairy
tales
o Interest in comics begins as soon as the child can read
o Learn a great deal from other children as well as from adults, in both didactic and
cooperative learning situations
o Period of great activity, there is an increasingly steady gain in coordination and
control of the fine muscle
o Have trouble reasoning about abstract and hypothetical questions
 LATE CHILDHOOD (Nine or ten until the onset of puberty or sexual maturity)
o The elementary school period
o Learning essential skills both curricular and extra-curricular
o The real formative period, marked by individualism, a growing independence and
self-assertion
o The time when fundamentals of teamwork and cooperation are learned
o The period of competitive socialization, wants to engage in competitive team sports
o The troublesome age, are engage in fights and are not willing to do what they are
told to do
o Gang age, major concern is acceptance by their age-mates and membership in a
gang
o Play age, the peak of play activities since more time is devoted to play
o Critical stage in the achievement drive, a time when they form the habit of being
achievers, underachievers or overachievers
o The sloppy age, the time when children tend to be careless with their physical
appearance – – – Santrock 2002, put the two periods together Middle and Late
childhood from 6-11 years of age which he labeled as Elementary School years. This
is when children learn the fundamentals of reading, writing and arithmetic and are
exposed to a larger world and various cultures. Achievement becomes the central
theme in the child’s development as he gains self-control.
 PUBERTY (Ten years until the maturation of the sexual apparatus)
o A part of adolescence
o The pre-adolescent period when sexual maturation occurs which occurs at various
stages, varies in the age at which it occurs
o Age of womanhood/manhood, which refers to the physical rather than to the
behavioral changes
o An overlapping period because it encompasses the closing years of childhood and
the beginning years of adolescence
o The time of rapid growth and change, marked by changes in body proportions which
is referred to as adolescent growth spurt
o Is a negative phase, takes an anti-attitude toward life or seems to lose good qualities
o Puberty in girls and boys begin earlier today than in the past. This downward shift in
age is known as secular trend.
o Differences in the timing of pubertal change from one adolescent to the next is
known as Asynchrony
o The stage when eating disorder may develop
o Bulemia- binge eating or over-eating which is common to girls
o Anorexia-severe limit in food intake to the point of actual starvation
o The pituitary gland and the gonads play important in puberty changes
5. ADOLESCENCE (Twelve to eighteen years to twenty years)
o Is generally designated as the high school years
o Follows an orderly sequence or pattern of development
o Is referred to as the transition period from childhood dependence to assumption of
adult activities and responsibilities
o The period of change in behavior and behavior and so with its physical features
o A dreaded age-a period where abnormal behaviors are displayed like rudeness in
speech, moodiness, swearing, demanding money, negative characteristics
o The time for unrealism-looks at life through rose-tinted glass and illusive aspirations
o A problem age-experience problems in coping with new roles and in solving
problems due to lack of experience
o A time of search for identity-are no longer satisfied to be like their peers in every
respect
o The threshold of adulthood-begin to display behavior associated with adult status
such as smoking, drinking, using drugs and engaging in sex
o Rebellious against requirements and prohibitions
 o Seek reassurance from their own age group
o Snub persons outside their clique
o Unsure of oneself
o Unproductive but creative
o More reckless, less considerate of others, rude in speech, more secretive, more
moody, more vocal in demanding for money
 3 A’s of happiness in Adolescence
o Acceptance
o Affection
o Achievement
6. Early Adulthood
o Late teens or early 20s to 30s
o Time of establishing personal & economic independence, career development,
selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate way, starting a family &
rearing children.
7. Middle Adulthood
o 40 to 60 years old
o Time of expanding personal & social involvement & responsibility
o Assisting next generation in becoming competent & mature individuals, reaching &
maintaining satisfaction in a career.
8. Late Adulthood
o 60s and above
o Time for adjustment to decreasing strength and health, life review, retirement and
adjustment to new social roles.

FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

 Sigmund Freud:
o May 6, 1856- Sigmund Freud was born in Freyberg Town, Crech Republic
o 1881- He graduated from medical faculty, University of Vienna
o 1896- Sigmund Freud was officially recognized
o 1900- He released ‘Interpretation of Dreams’
o September 23, 1939- Freud passed away in Hampstead House
 OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
o A set of Philosophical of human nature.
o Psychoanalysis is both an approach to therapy and a theory of personality.
o Emphasizes unconscious motivation – the main cause of behavior lie in unconscious
mind.
 VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
1. DETERMINISTIC
o Life is about gaining pleasure and avoiding pain.
2. HUMAN AS ENERGY SYSTEM
o Freud believe that human are motivated by the unconscious, where the Id found
along with the aggression and sex instincts.
 LEVEL OF MENTAL LIFE
1. UNCONSCIOUS
o Contains all the feeling, urges or instinct that are beyond our awareness but it affect
our expression, feeling, action (E.g Slip of tongue, dreams, wishes).
2. PRECONSCIOUS
o Facts stored in a part of the brain, which are not conscious but are available for
possible use in the future (E.g. A person will never think of her home address at that
moment but when her friend ask for it, she can easily recall it).
3. CONSCIOUS
o Only level of mental life that are directly available to us.
o The awareness of our own mental process (Thoughts/feeling).
 STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
o Consist of three parts:
1. Id
o Infants are born with Id intact.
o Operates on PLEASURE PRINCIPE – to gain pleasure, avoid pain.
o Driven by sexual and aggressive urge.

2. Ego
o The rational level of personality.
o Operates on REALITY PRINCIPLES – does realistic and logical thinking.
o The balance between Id and Superego.
 3. Superego
o Partially unconscious.
o Operates on MORAL PRINCIPLES.
o Able to differentiate between good and bad, right and wrong.
o If people follow their superego, they will feel proud but if they don’t follow, they will
feel guilty and anxious.
 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
o Children progress through SIX psychosexual stages during psychosexual
development.
o A person become ‘FIXATED’ or stuck in a stage when a basic need is not met,
therefore that person will face difficulty in transiting to another stage.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

 ORAL (0-2)
o Infant achieves gratification through oral activities such as feeding, thumb sucking
and babbling.
 ANAL (2-3)
o The child learns to respond to some of the demands of society (such as bowel and
bladder control).
 PHALLIC (3-7)
o The child learns to realize the differences between males and females and becomes
aware of sexuality.
 LATENCY (7-11)
o The child continues his or her development but sexual urges are relatively quiet.

 GENITAL (11 Adult)

o The growing adolescent shake off old dependencies and learns to deal maturely with
the opposite sex.
 DEFENSE MECHANISM
o Defense mechanism are invented by the Ego in an attempt to resolve the conflict
between Id and Superego – so that personality can operate in a healthy manner.
o It deny/distort reality while operating in unconscious level.
o If it is used once a while, the purpose of using it is to reduce stress.
 o But if it is used frequently, it means the individual are trying to avoid facing reality.
1. Repression
o Unpleasant experiences are stored deep in the subconscious mind and cant be
access by the conscious mind.
o Basic defense mechanism.
2. Displacement
o Redirecting the feelings of hostility and violent action from self to another that is less
threatening from original source.
3. Rationalization
o Providing a reasonable explanation to make undesirable behavior appear logical.
4. Denial
o Reality is distorted to make it suit to the individual’s wishes.
5. Regression
o Returning to a behavior pattern characteristic of an earlier stage of development.
6. Reaction Formation
o Thinking or behaving in a way that is the extreme opposite to those that are of real
intention.
7. Projection
o The attribution of one’s unacceptable urges or qualities to others.

THERAPEUTIC PROCES

 THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES
1. Maintaining the Analytic Framework
o Maintaining therapist’s neutrality and objectively.
o The regularity and consistency of meetings.
o Starting and ending the sessions on time.
o Clarity on the fees.
o Explain the basic boundary issues.
2. Free Association
o Clients must say whatever that comes to mind, regardless of how painful, silly or
irrelevant it may seem.
o Client must try to flow any feelings and thought freely.
o This is the basic tool used to open the open to unconscious wishes, conflicts, and
motivation.
o Unconscious material will enter the conscious and the therapist will interpret it.
3. Interpretation
o Analyst will explain the meaning of behaviors in dreams, free association and etc.
o Identify, clarify and translate clients material.
o To help client make sense of their lives and to expand their consciousness.
o Analyst must pay attention not only to the content but also the process of conveying
it to the patient.
4. Dream Analysis
o The avenue to study the unconscious material and giving the client insight into some
areas of unresolved problems.
o Some memories are unacceptable by the ego that they are expressed in symbolic
form (dream).
o Dreams have two level of content which is Latent Content (hidden but true meaning)
and Manifest Content (obvious meaning)
o Analyst studies content of dreams.
5. Analysis of Resistance
o Progress of the therapy is slow – not paying fees, being late, blocking thoughts
during free association, refusing to recall past memories.
o Paying attention to resistance are important, the decision of when to interpret the
resistance and tell the client depends on situation.
o Therapist must avoid being judgmental, instead allow him to address what makes
him anxious.
o Therapist must make client understand of their own thought, feelings and action.
6. Analysis of Transference
o Clients react to therapist as though they were a significant other.
o Counselor interprets the positive and negative feelings of the client.
o Release of feeling is an emotional catharsis.
o Clients become aware of the emotions and able to move onto another developmental
stage.
o Transference between client and therapist occur on unconscious level.
Client’s Experience in Therapy

 Type of Therapy:
1. PSYCHOANALYSIS
o Client must be a voluntary client, not involuntary.
o This is because the client will have the to give commitment in the process.
o In this stage, client will say whatever that comes into their mind and the therapist will
remain non-judgmental on its content throughout the whole process.
o Psychoanalysis attempts to help clients develop insight into deep-rooted problems
that are often thought to stem from childhood.
2. PSYCHOANALYTIC THERAPY
o This therapy engages in a more supportive intervention.
o Psychoanalytic therapy is based upon psychoanalysis but is less intensive (1-3
sessions per week).
o Client will talk about their life and the therapist will listen, this is known as talk
therapy. The therapist will look for patterns that may have cause the client’s
difficulties.
3. PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPY
o This approach evolved from the Psychoanalytic theory but it is more simplified in
terms of the length of the process and focus on more immediate problem (phobia,
anxiety problem).
o In psychodynamic therapy, the therapist will pay more attention to transference
manifestation (when the patient transfers feelings for others onto the therapist), the
meaning of client’s dream.

PIAGET'S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years

o The knowledge gained by the infant at the sensorimotor stage is obtained through
physical experience with the environment. The infant uses his or her senses to
experience the environment, and his or her physical motor actions to interact with it.
The reflexes that newborns use to build schemata are the sating point for cognitive
development.
 Preoperational stage: Ages 2 to 7
 o The preoperational stage extends roughly from four to seven years of age. (There
are, of course, individual differences in the ages of children at a particular stage)
Piaget uses the term operation to refer to actions based on logical thinking. The
actions of a child at the pre-operation stage are based on thought, but the actions do
not always seem logical from an adult perspective
 Concrete operational stage: Ages 7 to 11
o This is the first stage of operational or logical thought, in which schemata allow
students to realize that there is stability in the physical world and that reasoning
about the physical world can proceed logically. Because the logical schemata are still
new at this stage, students can best use them when considering objects and events
that are concrete. Many educators refer to the concrete operation stage as the
"hands on" period of cognitive development. Although the child can reason, his or
her ability to reason is limited to tangible objects and direct experiences.
 Formal operational stage: Ages 12 and up
o The final stage in Piaget's theory-begins roughly around eleven or twelve years of
age and continues into and throughout adulthood. Abstract reasoning is the hallmark
of the formal operations stage.
o Ordinality -the concept of a fixed sequence or order of stages
 Piaget's theory of development starts with innate reflexes. He assumes that children
are born with certain reflexes that allow them to interact with the environment. By using
the reflex intelligence to interact with the environment, the infant adapts.
 This capacity to think out an action before representing it Piaget calls mental invention.
At this same stage the infant is capable of "representation"- that is, he has the capacity
for imagining the environment other than as he directly perceives it. If the baby is asked.
"Where's mommy?", after mommy has just left the room, he will point to the door she
has passed through and say, "Der mommy He can conserve a part of the external world
as a mental image, at least for short time.
 Imitation, the capability to copy behaviors begins with behaviors that are already part of
the child's repertoire. For example, very young children can open and close their bands,
their behavior is related to the grasping reflex.
 Imitation continues to become more complicated as the child's repertoire of behaviors
increases. Toward the end of the sensorimotor stage, toddlers begin to display novel
 behaviors in an effort to "be like a fire fighter" or to be like an airplane or to "be like a
monkey" "This is called deferred imitation.
 This capability to replace one object with another or to used words to talk about actions
and experiences is called symbolic representation. It is a hallmark of the pre-operation
stage.
 Symbolic representation is the process whereby children learn to create their own
symbols and to use existing symbol systems to represent and operate on the
environment. When preoperational children develop the capabilities to create and use
symbols- symbolic representation-adults begin to consider "thinkers" However, teachers
need to remember that preoperational thinking is not logical.
 The most important symbol system is language which grows tremendously during the
pre-operation stage. Children's vocabularies increase several thousand percent. The
complexity of their grammatical constructions also increases dramatically. From a
developmental point of view, using language enhances the capability to think about
objects that are not present.
 The other hallmarks of pre-operation stage are cognitive characteristics that prevent
logical thinking perceptual centration, irreversibility, and egocentrism.
o Perceptual centration. Pre-operation children tend to focus their attention on only
one aspect of an object or problem. This tendency to perceive an object in a very
narrow way is termed perceptual centration, Piaget discovered perceptual centration
(and other cognitive characteristics) by having children respond to problems he
called conservation .
o Irreversibility. This refers to a person's inability to mentally reverse actions. The
preoperational child may see the water being poured back and forth between the
short beaker and the tall cylinder, but the child cannot perform the operation
"mentally. A second grader, who is preoperational, may know that 4+2=6, but may
be unable to solve the subtraction 6-2-?
o Egocentrism. This term refers to children's assumption that everyone's experience
af the world is the same as their own, and that they are. quite literally, the center of
everything Another form of egocentrism can be seen in what Piaget labeled
collective monologue. the phenomenon of children talking in groups without having a
conversation.
 Two hallmarks of concrete operational thought are reversibility and decentration. They
contribute to the other hallmarks of the stage: conservation and multiple classification.
 o Reversibility is the ability to mentally reverse events, such as the steps in the
amount- of water problem. Students at this stage can imagine the results of pouring
the water back and forth between containers of different shapes and sizes. Given the
numbers 12 and 6, a child who has learned product/quotient families could supply
the answer "2" as the number that when multiplied by 6 yields the product of 12 and
that when divided into 2 yields the quotient 6.
o Conservation is another property of logical thought wherein elements of a
wholencan be associated in various ways without changing the total. Thus, in the
problem of the ten sticks, the segments can be "associated" in a straight line or a
zigzag line, but the total distance of the path to be covered remains the same, or is
conserved.
o Identity is another property of logical thought added by Lavatelli (1972). He sun that
adentity operation is basically a null operation. The child can mentally cancel the
effects of any operation by combining it with its opposite.
o Abstract reasoning is the hallmark of the formal operations stage. Abstract
reasoning is the ability to think logically about intangibles. Students who reach the
stage of formal operations can begin to deal with possibilities. They can think in
terms of a hypothesis: If X... then Y...
o They can see beyond the here and now. They can verbalize the mental rules they
use in solving problems. The logical operations of the concrete operations stage can
be performed outside the presence of concrete objects themselves.

ERICKSON’S PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

 Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s controversial theory of
psychosexual development and modified it as a psychosocial theory. Erikson
emphasized that the ego makes positive contributions to development by
mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at each stage of development.
 Basic Cognitive Concepts
o Autonomy- This means self-government; freedom to act or function independently.
o Psychosocial- This refers to having both psychological and social aspects
 Trust vs. Mistrust
o Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of
age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and
looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
 o If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop
a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will
be able to feel secure even when threatened. If these needs are not consistently
met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop.
 Success and Failure in Stage One
o Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust,
the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other
people will be there as a source of support.
o Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. This infant
will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in
anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around
them.
 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
o Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of
psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to
approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on
developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of
independence.
o Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will.
o If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased
independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to
survive in the world.
o If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert
themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then
become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of
shame or doubt in their abilities.

 Initiative vs. Guilt

o Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves
more frequently through directing play and other social interaction.
o According to Bee (1992), it is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the
parents may see as aggressive."
 o During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with
other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the
opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.
o Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If
given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in
their ability to lead others and make decisions.
 Industry vs. Inferiority
o Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority
occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve.
o Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to
do things on their own.
o If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel
industrious (competent) and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals.
o If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the
child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach
his or her potential.
o Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.
 Identity vs. Role Confusion
o The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is identity vs.
role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years.
o During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity,
through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.
o According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a
reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate
sex role”.
o Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity. Fidelity involves being able to
commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may
be ideological differences.
o Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don’t know what I want to be
when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual
not being sure about themselves or their place in society.
 Intimacy vs. Isolation
 o Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development.
o This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately
18 to 40 yrs.
o During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships
with other people.
o Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense
of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.
o Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation,
loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of love.
 Generativity vs. Stagnation
o Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's
theory of psychosocial development.
o This stage takes place during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs.).
o Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results
in shallow involvement in the world.
o By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive.
o Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.
 Ego Integrity vs. Despair
o Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage
theory of psychosocial development.
o This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death.
o It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop
integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.
o Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilty about our past,
or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life
and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.
o Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom.

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

 Along with physical and cognitive development, every child progresses through phases
of emotional development. Arguably, all children differ in their individual development.
 Emotions are not as easy to study or recognize as cognition, and for many decades the
study of emotional development lagged behind study in other areas of child
development. However, by the early twenty-first century researchers had developed
several theories on emotional development.
 Emotional Development
o Emotional development is the emergence of a child’s experience, expression,
understanding, and regulation of emotions from birth through late adolescence.
o By toddlerhood and early childhood, children begin to develop more of a sense of
self. Emotions such as pride, shame, and self- recognition begin to merge.
o Emotional expression is still largely nonverbal, although some emotional language
may develop by age 20 months. For the most part, facial expressions, crying or other
vocal expressions, and gestures still express many of toddlers’ emotions. In early
childhood, verbal skills develop and with them, verbal reasoning.

 Emotions at School
o The interplay of emotional development, social development, and academic
performance is complex. If a child’s academic tasks are interrupted by problems with
peers, following directions, or controlling negative emotions, the child will have
trouble learning to read or staying on task in order educational activities.
o Emotional understanding can positively relate to adaptive social behavior, yet it can
negatively relate to internalizing behavior.
 Assessing Emotional Development
o Taking a preventative approach to challenging behaviors by designing programs that
engage students and teach them new social skills may ward off some challenging
behaviors.
o Assessment begins with deciding which behavior is the most challenging and needs
immediate intervention.
 Risk and Protection in Emotional Development
o Dr. Carolyn Saarni, professor of counseling of Sonoma State University (California)
has discussed two rules of emotional display, pro-social and self-protective.
o With Pro-social rules, a child alters his or her displays of emotion to protect another’s
feelings.
 o In self-protective display, the child masks emotions to avoid embarrassment or to
protect himself or herself from potentially negative consequences.
 Research on Classroom Strategies
o A framework that promotes positive relationships in the classroom helps prevent and
address challenging behavior.

KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

 Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to
explain the moral development of children, which he believed follows a series of stages.
 Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development: preconventional, conventional, and
postconventional. Each level has two distinct stages.
 During the pre-conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled.
Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers,
and they judge an action based on its consequences.
 During the conventional level, an individual’s sense of morality is tied to personal and
societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this
is now because they believe that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and
societal order.
 During the post-conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms
of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust
and should be changed or eliminated.
 Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for its cultural and gendered bias toward white,
upper-class men and boys. It also fails to account for inconsistencies within moral
judgments.
 The Heinz Dilemma
o A series of moral dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also
interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgement of each scenario.
 Level 1. Pre-conventional Morality
o Stage 1- Obedience and Punishment. The earliest stage of moral development
especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this
type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying
the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.
 o Stage 2- Individualism and Exchange. At this stage of moral development, children
account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve
individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of
action was the choice that best-served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this
point in moral development, but only if it serves one’s own interests.
 Level 2. Conventional Morality
o Stage 3- Interpersonal Relationships. Often referred to as the “good boy-good girl”
orientation, this stage of moral development is focused on living up to social
expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being “nice”, and
consideration of how choices influence relationship.
o Stage 4- Maintaining Social Order. At this stage of moral development, people
begin to consider society as a whole when making judgements. The focus is on
maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty and respecting
authority.
 Level 3. Post-Conventional Morality
o Stage 5- Social Contract and Individual Rights. At this stage, people begin to
account for the differing values, opinions and belief of other people. Rules of law are
important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon
these standards.
o Stage 6- Universal Principles. Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based
upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow
these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

 The key theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a very important role
in cognitive development.
 He believed that individual development could not be understood without looking into the
social and cultural context within which development happens.
 Scaffolding is Vygotsky’s term for the appropriate assistance given by the teacher to
assist the learner accomplishes a task.
Vygotsky 's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
 Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting cognitive development.
 o Vygotsky assumes cognitive development varies across cultures, whereas Piaget
states cognitive development is mostly universal across cultures.
 Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to
cognitive development.
o Vygotsky states the importance of cultural and social context for learning. Cognitive
development stems from social interactions from guided learning within the zone of
proximal development as children and their partner's co-construct knowledge.
o For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up will influence how they
think and what they think about.
 Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of language in
cognitive development.
o For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the
beginning of life, merging at around three years of age, producing verbal thought
(inner speech).
o For Vygotsky, cognitive development results from an internalization of language.
o According to Vygotsky adults are an important source of cognitive development.
 The More Knowledgeable Other
o The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to
someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner,
with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.
o For example, who is more likely to know more about the newest teenage music
groups, how to win at the most recent PlayStation game, or how to correctly perform
the newest dance craze - a child or their parents?
 Zone of Proximal Development
o The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is integrally related to the second
important principle of Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal Development.
o This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can
achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and
encouragement from a skilled partner.
o For example, the child could not solve the jigsaw puzzle (in the example above) by
itself and would have taken a long time to do so (if at all), but was able to solve it
following interaction with the father, and has developed competence at this skill that
will be applied to future jigsaws.
 o Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the
most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop
skills they will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions.
 Vygotsky and Language
o Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions, for
communication purposes. Vygotsky viewed language as man’s greatest tool, a
means for communicating with the outside world.
o According to Vygotsky (1962) language plays two critical roles in cognitive
development:
 It is the main means by which adults transmit information to children.
 Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS

 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory is one of the most accepted

explanations regarding the influence of social environments on human development.
This theory argues that the environment you grow up in affects every facet of your
life. Social factors determine your way of thinking, the emotions you feel, and your likes
and dislikes.
 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory
o If you change your environment, you’ll change. If you move to another country with a
different culture, your identity will certainly change. The same can happen if your
social role within one of the systems changes.
Five systems of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory:
 Microsystem
o The microsystem is made up of the groups that have direct contact with the
child. Family and school are some of the most important ones, although there can be
many other groups. The relationship between this system and a child’s development
is obvious. However, the influence can go both ways.
o The parents’ beliefs certainly affect who the child will end up becoming. But the child
is also capable of changing their family members’ beliefs as well. The same thing
happens at school and all the other groups that make up the microsystem.
 Mesosystem
 o The second system in Bronfenbrenner’s theory is made up of the relationships
between the groups from the first system. The parent-teacher relationship, for
example, has a direct impact on the child.
 Exosystem
o The third level also involves factors that affect a child’s life. However, the elements of
this system don’t have a direct relationship with them. One example of an exosystem
would be the company where the child’s parents work. This would affect the parents’
point of view, how much free time they have, and their well-being. Consequently, the
company impacts the child’s development as well.
 Macrosystem
o It contains those cultural elements that affect the child and everyone around them. A
couple of examples would be cultural values or an official religion.
o In this case, the macrosystem influences development because it determines how
the other systems can express themselves. Again, this is a case of indirect influence.
It affects development because it changes the groups that directly affect the child.
 Chronosystem
o Bronfenbrenner added this system to his theory later on. It refers to the stage of life
that the person is in regarding the situations they’re going through. For example,
the death of a loved one has a very different impact on a young person as opposed
to an elderly person.

QUESTIONS:
CHILD AND ADOLESCENCE

1. Teacher H begins a lesson on tumbling by demonstrating front and back somersaults in

slow motion and physically guiding his students through the correct movements. As his
students become more skillful, he stands back from the mat and gives verbal feedback
about how to improve. With Vygotsky's theory in mind, what did Teacher H do?

A. Guided participation
B. Peer interaction
 C. Apprenticeship
D. Scaffolding

2. The level that includes the interactions between the different microsystems in a person's
life is the ______?

A. Mesosytem
B. Macrosystem
C. Chronosystem
D. Exosystem

3. A teenager joining a jazz band would be an example of what psychosocial stage?

A. Trust vs Mistrust
B. Initiative vs Guilt
C. Identity vs Rule Confusion
D. Industry vs Inferiority

4. In a social studies class, Teacher P presents a morally ambiguous situation and asks
students what they would do. On whose theory is Teacher P technique based?

A. Vygotsky
B. Piaget
C. Kohlberg
D. Erickson

5. Successful completion of Erickson's 8th stage of pyschosocial development results in

which of the following virtues?

A. Hope
B. Fidelity
C. Wisdom
D. Competence

6. During this stage of moral development, a child’s sense of morality is externally

controlled.

A. Pre-conventional stage
B. Conventional stage
 C. In between pre-conventional and conventional stage
D. Post-conventional stage

7. What is an application of Vygotsky's idea of scaffolding?

A. Give the learners a task that challenge her ability.

B. From the start leave the learner to herself because she has the power for self
learning.
C. Don't spoil the learner by doing what she ought to do.
D. Give the learner the necessary assistance until she can be on her own.

8. Knowing that someone grew up before Tvs existed is an example of understanding

based on their _______.

A. Mesosytem
B. Macrosystem
C. Exosystem
D. Chronosystem

9. Which Erickson's psychosocial stages can be compared to Freud's oral stage of

development?

A. Shame vs Doubt
B. Initiative vs Guilt
C. Trust vs Mistrust
D. Industry vs Inferiority

10. In this stage, the child is aware of wider rules of society. At this point, a student is good
because of what society says.

A. Pre-conventional stage
B. Conventional stage
C. Post-conventional stage
D. In between conventional and post-conventional stage

11. From the point of view of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, how would one
explain why being born to a poor family makes a person work harder?

A. The macrosystem affects an individual's behavior.

 B. Culture determines a person's behavior.
C. A person's highest need is self-actualization.
D. Eros or life instinct helps the individual to survive.

12. At the high school level, Kohlberg's advice to teachers is for them to begin discussing
with students about abstract principles such as justice and human rights. On the average
in which moral development stage are high school students supposed to be?

A. Post-conventional stage
B. Conventional stage
C. In between conventional and post-conventional stage
D. That depends on the school culture

13. In which order do the 3 important goals during childhood be attained according to
Erickson?

A. Autonomy, initiative, trust

B. Trust, autonomy, initiative
C. Initiative, trust, autonomy
D. Autonomy, trust, initiative

14. The emergence of a child’s experience, expression, understanding, and regulation of

emotions from birth through late adolescence.

A. Physical Development
B. Social Development
C. Emotional Development
D. Moral Development

15. This therapy is based upon psychoanalysis but is less intensive (1-3 sessions per week).

A. Psychoanalytic therapy
B. Psychoanalysis therapy
C. Interpersonal therapy
D. Psychodynamic therapy

16. A series of moral dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also
interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgement of each scenario.
 A. Heinz Dilemma
B. Personal Dilemma
C. Ethical Dilemma
D. Structural Dilemma

17. At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and
judge actions based on how they serve individual needs.

A. Interpersonal Relationships Stage

B. Individualism and Exchange Stage
C. Universal Principles Stage
D. Maintaining Social Order Stage

18. To work for value internalization, which level of morality should we help young people
attain?

A. Post-conventional morality
B. Pre-conventional morality
C. Conventional morality
D. Between conventional and post-conventional morality

19. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict
with laws and rules.

A. Universal Principles Stage

B. Interpersonal Relationships Stage
C. Maintaining Social Order Stage
D. Individualism and Exchange Stage

20. This stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles.

A. Interpersonal Relationships Stage

B. Social Contract and Individual Rights Stage
C. Maintaining Social Order Stage
D. Obedience and Punishment Stage

21. Erikson believes that this psychosocial crisis occurs during what he calls the “play age,”
or the later preschool years.
 A. Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love)
B. Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (Hope)
C. Learning Initiative Versus Guilt (Purpose)
D. Learning Autonomy Versus Shame (Will)

22. Starting and ending the sessions on time.

A. Analysis of Transference
B. Dream Analysis
C. Maintaining the Analytic Framework
D. Interpretation

23. The successful young adult, for the first time, can experience true intimacy – the sort of
intimacy that makes possible good marriage or a genuine and enduring friendship.

A. Industry Versus Inferiority (Competence)

B. Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom)
C. Learning Autonomy Versus Shame (Will)
D. Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love)

24. Children may experience shame, even in reaction to emotions expressed.

A. Emotional Regulation
B. Emotions at School
C. Emotional Development
D. Entering School

25. She is Professor of counseling of Sonoma State University (California) has discussed
two rules of emotional display, pro-social and self-protective.

A. Linda Waggoner
B. Carolyn Saarni
C. Lisa Vollendorf
D. Alexa Sand

26. A framework that promotes positive relationships in the classroom helps prevent and
address challenging behavior.

A. Instructional Strategies
 B. Blended Learning Strategies
C. Classroom Strategies
D. Effective Teaching Strategies

27. Piaget assumes that children are born with certain reflexes that allow them to interact
with the environment.

A. Innate reflexes
B. Learned reflexes
C. Acquired reflexes
D. Adaptive reflexes

28. This is a concept of a fixed sequence or order of stages.

A. Ordinality
B. Cardinality
C. Nominal
D. Sequence

29. The capacity to think out an action before representing it.

A. Deferred imitation
B. Mental invention
C. Imitation
D. Representation

30. The capability to copy behaviors begins with behaviors that are already part of the child's
repertoire.

A. Deferred imitation
B. Mental invention
C. Imitation
D. Representation

31. Piaget uses this term to refer to actions based on logical thinking.

A. Operation
B. Preoperation
C. Operational stage
 D. Preoperational stage

32. This capability to replace one object with another or to used words to talk about actions
and experiences.

A. Representation
B. Symbol
C. Symbolic representation
D. Perceptual centration

33. This term refers to children's assumption that everyone's experience of the world is the
same as their own and that they are quite literally the center.

A. Egocentrism
B. Ethnocentrism
C. Egotism
D. Narcissism

34. This is the first stage of operational or logical thought.

A. Formal operational stage

B. Sensorimotor stage
C. Concrete operational stage
D. Preoperational stage

35. The ability to mentally reverse events ,such as the steps in the amount of water problem.

A. Decentration
B. Reversibility
C. Irreversibility
D. Conversation

36. It is the hallmark of the formal operations stage .

A. Formal reasoning
B. Basic reasoning
C. Abstract reasoning
D. Concrete reasoning
37. Another property of logical thought where in elements of a whole can be associated in
various ways without changing the total.

A. Decentration
B. Conversation
C. Irreversibility
D. Reversibility

38. Another property of logical thought added by Lavatelli ( 1972 )

A. Identity
B. Operation
C. Irreversibility
D. Reversibility

39. In this stage ,the infant uses his or her senses to experience the environment and his or
her physical motor actions to interact with it.

A. Sensorimotor stage
B. Preoperational stage
C. Concrete operational stage
D. Formal operational stage

40. Based on Freud's theory, which operate/s when student strikes a classmate at the height
of anger?

A. Ego
B. Superego
C. Id
D. Id and Ego interact

41. In what developmental stage is the pre-school child?

A. Infancy
B. Babyhood
C. Early childhood
D. Late childhood

42. The fourth year high school student is in the developmental stage of _______.
 A. Late childhood
B. Pre-adolescence
C. Adolescence
D. Early childhood

43. A year of transition from early childhood programs to a formal school setting and is
considered the first year of formal schooling.

A. Kindergarten

B. Grade 1

C. Grade 2

D. Grade 3

44. The pre-adolescent period when sexual maturation occurs which occurs at various
stages, varies in the age at which it occurs.

A. Late Childhood

B. Early Adulthood

C. Late Adulthood

D. Puberty

45. "Do not cheat. Cheating does not pay. If you do, you cheat yourself" says the voiceless
voice from within you." In the context of Freud's theory, which is/are at work?

A. Id
B. Superego
C. Ego
D. Id and Ego interact

46. The child learns to respond to some of the demands of society (such as bowel and
bladder control).

A. Oral

B. Anal
 C. Phallic

D. Genital

47. The child continues his or her development but sexual urges are relatively quiet.

A. Oral

B. Anal

C. Phallic

D. Latency

48. Redirecting the feelings of hostility and violent action from self to another that is less
threatening from original source.

A. Repression

B. Denial

C. Displacement

D. Projection

49. Thinking or behaving in a way that is the extreme opposite to those that are of real
intention.

A. Reaction Formation

B. Rationalization

C. Repression

D. Regression

50. The avenue to study the unconscious material and giving the client insight into some
areas of unresolved problems.

A. Free Association

B. Analysis of Resistance
 C. Maintaining the Analytic Framework

D. Dream Analysis

ANSWER KEY
1. D. 11. D. 21. A. 31. A. 41. C.
2. A. 12. A. 22. C. 32. C. 42. C.
3. C. 13. B. 23. D. 33. A. 43. A.
4. C. 14. C. 24. D. 34. C. 44. D.
5. C. 15. A. 25. B. 35. B. 45. B.
6. A. 16. A. 26. C. 36. C. 46. B.
7. D. 17. B. 27. A. 37. B. 47. D.
8. C. 18. A. 28. A. 38. A. 48. C.
9. C. 19. A. 29. B. 39. A. 49. A.
10. B. 20. A. 30. C. 40. C. 50. D.

References:

Bergin, C. C. and Bergin, D. A. (2012).Child and Adolescent Development in Your

Classroom, Chronological Approach.USA:WadsworthCengage Learning. Bjorklund, D. F. and
BLASI, H. C. (2012). Child and AdolescentDevelopment. An Integrated
Approach.Canada:WadsworthCengage Learning.
Corpuz, B. B., et. al(2018).The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles.
Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. McLeod, S. (2020). Retrieved from
https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
https://psychohawks.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/screen-shot-2010-12-09-at-00-15- 49.png
https://educationlearningtoys.com/knowledge-base/piaget-vs-vygotsky/
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html
Corpuz, B.B., et. al (2018). The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning
Principles.Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Gordon, A.M. and Browne, K.W. (2017).
Beginnings & Beyond. Foundations in Early Childhood Education, 10th Edition. United States of
America:Cenage Learning. Havigurt’s Developmental Tasks (May 4, 2018).The Psychology
Notes HP. Online Resources for Psychology Students. Retrieved from
https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/development-tasks/ Levine, L. E. and Munsch, J.
(2016).Child Development from Infancy to Adolescence, An Active Approach. Thousand Oaks,
California. SAGE Publications, Inc. Santrock, J.W. (2016).Essentials of Life-span Development,
Fourth Edition.New York, NY. McGraw-Hill Education.https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-
hccc-ss-152-1/chapter/periods-of-development/
Corpuz, B. B., et. al(2018).The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles.
Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/importance-early-
childhood-development/introduction
 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
UNDERSTANDING DIVERSITY
If a group of people were ask to list down their characteristics and compare the, the
chances of having a good manner with exactly the same characteristics will be zero. Even twins
will have different personalities and characteristics. There are many factors that make one
person different from the other person.
I. DIVERSITY
 The uniqueness of each one that is the root of diversity.
 The English noun that captures the essence of difference is the word diversity.
 Diversity is from Latin word divertere, which means to turn away, separate, and oppose
(Latin Dictionary n.d.).
 The Collins dictionary defines diversity as “the state or quality of being different or
varied; a variety or assortment; a point of difference; the inclusion of different races,
genders , religions, etcs.
 In the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization's (UNESCO)
Guide on Ensuring Inclusion and Equity in Education (2017), diversity is defined as
"people's differences which may relate to their race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation,
language, culture, religion, mental and physical ability, class, and immigration status."
(UNESCO 2017).
 Diversity is an issue we have to face and conquer. As our communities become more
diverse, it is imperative that we make an effort to understand the different dimensions of
diversity, which is not just all about accepting, understanding, and tolerating one’s
uniqueness or differences. Accepting and celebrating the uniqueness of each individual
will allow for respecting different experiences and qualities of individuals that will open
up more avenues to solve problems and innovate. Collaboration and communication are
skills that are needed to develop and succeed. It is, therefore, important that we
understand our differences and master how these could be used to harness tolerance,
cooperation, and unity that will lead to productivity.

II. LODEN’S DIVERSITY WHEEL

In 1990, Marilyn Loden, an American writer, and Judy Rosener, a professor at the graduate
school in the University of California, Irvine developed a framework to respond to the flourishing
divergence in America’s labor force. Their goal was to capacitate people to make their voices
heard by pointing to their diversity and its impact on their person, their rights, and their freedom
(Lou and Dean 1991).

 The Diversity Wheel pointed to the significance of our social characters and the ways in
which people develop their identity when they are able to establish a connection with a
specific group of people. The wheel consists of primary or core and secondary
dimensions of diversity. The categories put forward the effect of these differences on a
person’s beliefs, expectations, and life experiences. The dimensions are the
components that comprise the whole person.
 The primary or core dimensions are in the inner circle. These are the stronger ones.
These are the characteristics we were born with or established by significant
 experiences we had or people we interacted with. These are considered to be distinctly
persuasive in establishing who we are-our principles, our sense of self, our image, our
perceptions, and how we think about others. These core dimensions or attributes are in
place or established and are the least likely to change. These core elements are age,
ethnicity, gender, physical abilities/qualities, race, income, sexual orientation, class, and
spiritual beliefs.
 The secondary dimensions are in the outer circle. These characteristics are also part
of our social identity, but they can change or be discarded as our life experiences impact
us. They are influenced by people we encounter, places we go to or live in, and
experiences we go through. The second dimension is composed of geographical
location, marital status, religious beliefs, parental status, income, education, work
experience, military experience, first language, family status, and work and
communication styles.
 Together, the core or primary dimensions and the secondary dimensions notably affect
our prior experiences, viewpoints, and principles, giving us an exclusive mind-set of the
world around us, making each one of us distinct individuals.
 Loden (1991) states that, “The Diversity Wheel is useful in explaining how group-based
differences contribute to individual identities.”
 Loden presents four principles for managing our own behavior in a global context
and interacting successfully with people globally. "The four principles are respect,
inclusion, cooperation, and responsibility or RICR" (Loden 1996). She defines each
principle as: "respect: treating others the way they wish to be treated; inclusion: making
certain everyone on the team is truly a part of the team's decision-making process;
cooperation: actively helping others succeed rather than competing or attempting to one-
up someone; responsibility: managing personal behavior to maintain a diversity-positive
environment and questioning inappropriate behavior when it occurs."

III. ABILITY (AND DISABILITY) AS A DIMENSION OF DIVERSITY

 Another dimension of diversity that is significant is the dimension of ability and disability.
 According to the Collins English Dictionary, ability refers to the possession of the
qualities required to do something; necessary skill or competence, or power.
 Disability, on the other hand, is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO n.d.) as
the umbrella term for impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions,
referring to the negative aspects of the interaction between an individual (with a health
condition) and that individual’s contextual factors (environmental and personal factors).
 This definition underscores that disability is not only a health issue, but also an issue that
affects a person’s state in life and the environment he/she is in. A person’s self-identity
and his/her perspectives of the world around him/ her are affected by both ability and
disability.
 The American Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) “defines a person with a disability as a
person who has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more
major life activity.
 “Disabilities may affect one’s senses or one’s mobility; they may be static or progressive,
congenital or acquired, formal (affecting the shape of the body) or functional, visible or
invisible” (Couser 2005).
 A person’s disability makes him/her a unique individual who is, at times, shunned from
places and activities. They have to be acknowledged as part of the spectrum of diversity.
 They have to be recognized as human beings who should not be discriminated against,
but rather understood, accepted, and tolerated. They have to be accorded their rights.
Disabilities have to be seen as a natural part of life and a natural part of diversity.

IV. THE DILEMMA OF DIVERSITY

 In this age of fast paced development where diversity plays a unique role, there are still
challenges that confront a lot of people who have been identified as “different.”
Discrimination issues around race, gender, age, and intellect still abound inspite of
charters, laws, and policies that uphold diversity.
 Children from indigenous groups have to go through an educational system that does
not consider their ethnic background, needs, and values. Though there is still so much
effort that needs to be put in so that diversity is accepted, respected, and tolerated, there
has been progress in a lot of areas.
 In government, the acknowledgment that diversity is an integral component of
community equates to laws and policies being passed to look out for the welfare of
people of diverse cultures and backgrounds. Therefore, is an integral component of life
and of living.

ADDRESSING DIVERSITY THROUGH THE YEARS: SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE

EDUCATION
I. MODELS OF DISABILITY
Smart's study in 2004

 emphasizes that models of disability are important as they serve several purposes: (1)
they provide definitions of disability, (2) they offer "explanations of causal and
responsibility attributions", (3) they are based on "perceived needs," (4) they inform
policy, (5) they are not "value-neutral," (6) they define the academic disciplines that
focus on disability, (7) they "shape the self-identity of PWDs," and (8) they can provide
insight on how prejudices and discriminations occur. This last statement, in particular,
has proven to be very powerful in helping us see how, to a certain extent, society is
unconsciously led to respond to disability.

A. The Moral/Religious Model

 Such perspectives are rooted in a moral or religious model of disability which sees
disability as either a blessing or a curse.
 It is characterized by notions of charity and caretaking.
 Jackson (2018) - protection is also a primary concern as there is an instinct to protect
both persons with disabilities for their vulnerability and the economic and social order
which might be disrupted by "deviant members" of society.
 It is considered the oldest model of disability and is evident in many religious traditions.
 Biblical scripture would refer to persons with chronic illnesses like leprosy as unclean,
while those considered demonically possessed may actually have had mental illnesses
or seizure disorders.
  In one strand of the moral/ religious model, disability is equated with the sin, evilness, or
spiritual ineptness of either the PWD or of a PWD's family member.
 In addition, some cultures who ascribe to a moral/religious model of disability may also
lean toward a type of mystical narrative. Their belief is that disabilities may impair some
senses yet heighten others, thereby "granting him or her 'special abilities to perceive,
reflect, transcend, be spiritual (Olkin 1999 as cited in Retief and Letsosa 2018).

B. The Biomedical/Individual Model

 What was not as apparent was how it paved the way for people to also shift mind-sets
from a religious perspective to a more evidence-based model of disability called the
biomedical (medical) model.
 PWDs are seen as persons who are ill and meant to be treated or "made more normal."
 "Disability is seen as a medical problem that resides in the individual. It is a defect in or
failure of a bodily system and as such, is inherently abnormal and pathological. The
goals of intervention are cure, amelioration of the physical condition to the greatest
extent possible, and rehabilitation (ie., the adjustment of the person with the disability to
the condition and to the environment). Persons with disabilities are expected to avail
themselves of the variety of services offered to them and to spend time in the role of
patient or learner being helped by trained professionals" (p. 26).
 Moral/religious perspective sees disability as something permanent, the biomedical
(medical) model considers disability as a "glitch" the PWD is born into, which needs
assessment and fixing.
 Oliver (1990) refers to the model as the individual model, Nankervis, 2006 as cited in
Jackson, 2018, p.3 describes it to be a normative model based on a person's levels of
deficiency "compared to a normative state" (Jackson 2018).

C. The Functional/Rehabilitation Model

 When World War I happened, communities witnessed perfectly healthy people leave to
serve the country only to come back disabled physically, neurologically, or mentally. It
was then that people started to realize that not all disabilities are inborn.
 Physical and Occupational Therapies soon became prevalent modes of rehabilitation for
much of the service-related injuries the soldiers sustained (Shaik & Shemjaz 2014)
(National Rehabilitation Information Center, 2018).
 The functional/rehabilitation model is quite similar to the biomedical model in that it
sees the PWD as having deficits. These deficits then justify the need to undergo
rehabilitative intervention such as therapies, counseling, and the like in the aim of
reintegrating the disabled into society.
 The main difference between the two models is in the concept of habilitation and
rehabilitation.
 The biomedical model often suggests habilitation, which refers to help given to those
whose disabilities are congenital or manifested very early in life in order to maximize
function.
  On the other hand, the functional/rehabilitation model refers to the assistance given
by professionals to those who have an acquired disability in the hope of gaining back
one's functionality.
 The biomedical and rehabilitative models, together with the dawn of clinic-based
assessments in the 1950s and its proliferation during the 1960s onward, show how
much society has placed value on convention, performance, and achievement. Anyone
whose performance does not fall within the norm of a population is automatically
deemed different and deficient.

D. The Social Model

 Clough (Clough & Corbett 2000) points out that the social (sociological) model
became society's reaction to how the biomedical perspective viewed disability.
 Mike Oliver, a lecturer in the 1980s who coined the term "social model" and is
considered one of its main proponents, wrote a position paper directly reacting against
how the medical field has been reinforcing a disabling view of PWDs.
 According to the sociological response, disability occurs as a result of society's lack of
understanding of individual differences, PWDs are seen as disabled not because they
are deficient but because society "insists" they are deficient and disadvantaged. Norms,
after all, are determined by society.
 Professor David Pfeiffer challenges the concept of norms: "It depends upon the concept
of normal. That is, being a person with a disability which limits my mobility means that I
do not move about in a (so-called) normal way. But what is the normal way to cover a
mile...? Some people would walk. Some people would ride a bicycle or a bus or in a taxi
or their own car. Others would use a skateboard or in line roller blades. Some people
use wheelchairs. There is, I argue, no normal way to travel a mile." (Kaplan 2000: 355).
 The underlying principle of the social model of disability is that disability is a social
construct, where standards and limitations that society places on specific groups of
people are what disable a person. With this perspective, everything from government
laws to education to employment opportunities to access to communal facilities take on
a different meaning.
 The World Health Organization (1980) differentiates between disability and
impairment.
 Impairment is seen as "any loss or abnormality of psychological or anatomical structure
or function" while disability refers to "any restriction or lack (resulting from an
impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered
normal for a human being".
 Kaplan (2000) agrees that if disability were to be seen as something natural and
expected, it could change the way we design our systems and our environments.
 Wendell (1996) as cited in Kaplan 2000: 356) relates: "The cultural habit of regarding the
condition of the person, not the built environment or the social organization of activities,
as the source of the problem, runs deep.
E. Rights-Based Model and Twin Track Approach

 The rights-based model of disability is a framework that bears similarities with the
social model. Although most practitioners see the two as one and the same.
 Degener (2017 in Retief & Letsosa 2018) argues their nuances. While the social model
reiterates social factors and dynamics that form our perceptions of disability, the rights-
based model "moves beyond explanation, offering a theoretical framework for disability
policy that emphasizes the human dignity of PWDs" (Degener 2017:43).
 The social model is mostly critical of public health policies that advocate the prevention
of impairment, the human rights model recognizes the fact that properly formulated
prevention policy may be regarded as an instance of human rights protection for PWDs"
(Degener 2017:52).
 A rights-based approach to education ensures that all energies are devoted to the
realization of each learner's right to education. It is built on the principle that education is
a basic human right and therefore all must have access to it.
 Lobbyists and practitioners now promote a twin track approach, which combines the
social model and the rights-based model.
 There are four key actors directly involved in such a model: (1) the government as duty-
bearers, (2) the child as the rights-holder, (3) the parents not only as duty-bearers but
also as representatives of the child, and (4) the teachers, both as rights-holders and
duty-bearers (Van den Brule- Balescut & Sandkull 2005).

II. WHAT IS SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION?

 Merriam-Webster Online (n.d.) defines education as "the action or process of teaching

someone especially in a school, college or university".
 According to Prensky (2014), "the real goal of education is becoming- becoming a 'good
person' and becoming a more capable person than when you started."
 William Butler Yeats, in the meantime, have said that "education is not the filling of a
pail, but the lighting of a fire" (Littky & Grabelle 2004).
 Espouses, we are taught that education has to address four aspects of learning:
Learning in order to know, learning in order to do, learning so we can live harmoniously
with others, and learning in order to be.
 Historically, Special Education has been regarded as "an attempt to increase the
fairness of universal public education for exceptional learners" because there are "those
with special difficulties or extraordinary abilities in learning" (Kauffman & Hallahan 2005).
Acknowledging learner differences, the essence of special education lies in its goal to
educate a certain population of students, particularly those at the tail ends of a normal
statistical distribution of performance (Thomas & Loxley 2001) (see Figure 2.4). In other
words, special education tries to ensure that those perceived to have difficulties learning
will be taught, albeit in a different way.

III. WHY INCLUSION?

  Inclusive education is an educational practice that places students with disabilities in
the general education classroom along with typically developing children under the
supervision and guidance of a general education teacher (Del Corro-Tiangco 2014).
 The global arena has been consistently vocal in its stand on children. persons with
disabilities, and education.
 In as early as 1948, there have already been worldwide declarations on children and
their right to be educated (Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948, United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989).
 In 1990, many countries banded together for the world declaration of Education for All
(EFA), which stated that all children must have access to complete, free, and
compulsory primary education.
 The UN Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities
(1993) was created. It is in this standard set of rules that each child's right to education
was affirmed. It is also in this directive that the importance of providing education in
integrated and general school settings was first specified.
 This mandate was immediately followed by the landmark policy on special education,
The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education
(1994), which reiterated that schools should accommodate all children, including the
disabled, the gifted, and the marginalized.
 These ground breaking directives eventually formed the foundation for other initiatives:
the World Education Forum Framework for Action and the Millennium Summit of the
United Nations, both of which happened in 2000; the EFA Flagship on the Right to
Education for PWDs in 2001; the UN Disability Convention in 2005; the UN Convention
on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in 2006; and the Education 2030 Framework
for Action following the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. All of these were
created with the same goal in mind: Inclusion.
 The Guidelines for Inclusion (2005) published by UNESCO enumerates four key
elements: (1) that inclusion is a process, that is, "a never-ending search to find better
ways to respond to diversity," (2) that inclusion involves a preventive dimension,
specifically in identifying and removing potential barriers to this process through
"collecting, collating, and evaluating information" for improving policy and practice, (3)
that inclusion is all about the "presence, participation, and achievement" or learning
outcomes of all types of students; and (4) that inclusion puts "particular emphasis on
learners who may be at risk of marginalization, exclusion, or underachievement," and
therefore, they must be consistently monitored and represented in the inclusive process.

Inclusion in Education Involves:

a. Valuing all students and staff equally

b. Increasing the participation of students in; and reducing their exclusion from; the
cultures, curricula, and communities of local schools
c. Restructuring the cultures, policies, and practices in schools so that they respond to the
diversity of students in the locality
d. Reducing barriers to learning and participation for all students, not only those with
impairments or those who are categorized as 'having special educational needs
 e. Learning from attempts to overcome barriers to the access and participation of particular
students to make changes for the benefit of students more widely
f. Viewing the difference between students as resources to support learning, rather than
problems to be overcome
g. Acknowledging the right of students to an education in their locality
h. Improving schools for staff as well as for students
i. Emphazising the role of schools in building community and developing values, as well as
in increasing achievement
j. Fostering mutually sustaining relationships between schools and communities
k. Recognizing that inclusion in education is one aspect of inclusion in society.
 The goal of inclusion is for every fabric of society to embrace diversity. It is for this
reason that all these treatises state the need for a paradigm shift to address the issues
of inclusion in education.
 Inclusive education is not merely a call toward educational reform for those with
additional needs. It is simply a call to improve the quality of education for all learners,
because "every learner matters and matters equally" (UNESCO 2017:12, 2005).
 This is also reflected in the current framework being followed for the implementation of
inclusive practices, which is the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
 The SDGs are considered road maps or blueprints that were developed by the United
Nations to ensure a better and sustainable future for everyone. It consists of 17 global
goals set by the United Nations for the year 2030, each addressing one specific area of
development. Of particular interest to the global education community, however, is SDG
4: "Ensure Inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all" (United Nations General Assembly). Therefore, the need to remove
all barriers to inclusion by addressing all forms of exclusion and marginalization is of
utmost importance.

"Philippine Laws for PWDs" (Pangalangan & Litong., 2014)

 BP 344 (1983)-Accessibility Law

 RA 7277 (1992) - Magna Carta for Disabled Persons
o Equal rights and privileges of PWDs on employment, education, health,
telecommunications, auxiliary social services, accessibility, political, and civil rights
o Penalties for violations of law
 Administrative Order 35 (2002) - National Disability Prevention and Rehabilitation
(NPDR Week) every 3rd week of July
 Guidelines in the Admission of Students with Disabilities in Higher Education and Post-
Secondary Institutions in the Philippines (2004)
 RA 9442 (2007)-Amendment of RA 7277 (Privileges to PWDs)
o to 20% discount privileges to PWDs
o Change name from "Magna Carta for Disabled Persons" to "Magna Carta for PWDs"
o Added a clause on deliverance from public ridicule and vilification
 NCDA Administrative Order No. 001, s. 2008- Guidelines on the Issuance of PWD ID
Cards relative to RA 9442
  RA 10070 (2010) - Amendment of RA 7277 (Implementation of Programs and Services
for PWDs in every province, city, and municipality-PDAO Law)
 RA 10366 (2013) - Accessible Polling Places for PWDs and Senior Citizens
 Proclamation No. 688, S. 2013-Declaring the Period of 2013-2022 as the Philippine
Decade of "Make the Right Real" for PWDs
 RA 10524 (2013) - Amendment of RA 7277 (Expanding the Positions Reserved for
PWDs)
o 1% of all government agencies, offices, corps shall be reserved for PWDs
o Private companies with over 100 employees are encouraged to reserve at least 1% for
PWDs
 RA 10754 (2016) - An Act Expanding the Benefits and Privileges of PWDs
o Exemption of VAT on the following sale of goods and services
o Inclusion of funeral services
 Civil Service Commission MC No. 20, s. 2017-express lanes for PWDs in all commercial
and government establishments
 RA 11228 (2019) - Amendment of RA 7277
o All PWDs shall be automatically covered by the National Health Insurance Program
(NHIP) of the PhilHealth and that the PhilHealth shall develop exclusive packages for
PWDs that will address their specific health and development needs.

MAKING SCHOOLS INCLUSIVE

 In 2002, Booth and Ainscow came up with an Index for Inclusion, which aims to direct
educational institutions toward developing their own next steps and action plans if they
want to restructure into becoming more inclusive.

I. UNIFYING FRAMEWORK

 Booth and Ainscow (2002) explained that these three dimensions (three dimension of
the Index) - creating inclusive cultures, evolving inclusive practices, and producing
inclusive policies-are interconnected and “chosen to direct thinking about school
change”.
1. DIMENSION A Creating inclusive cultures
Section A.1 Building community
Section A.2 Establishing inclusive values
This dimension creates a secure, accepting, collaborating, and stimulating
community, in which everyone is valued as the foundation for the highest
achievements of all.

2. DIMENSION B Producing inclusive policies

Section B.1 Developing the school for all
Section B.2 Organizing support for diversity
This dimension makes sure that inclusion permeates all school plans.
Policies encourage the participation of students and staff from the moment they join
 the school, reach out to all students in the locality, and minimize exclusionary
pressures.

3. DIMENSION C Evolving inclusive practices

Section C.1 Orchestrating learning
Section C.2 Mobilizing resources
This dimension develops school practices which reflect the inclusive cultures
and policies of the school. Lessons are made responsive to student diversity.

II. CREATING INCLUSIVE CULTURES

In 2017, UNESCO reported that there has been significant global improvement in
accessing education, specifically in the primary level for the last 15 years. However,
its 2016 Global Education Monitoring Report reveals that there are still an estimated
263 million children and youth aged 6 to 17 all around the world who are still not in
school at this time. The report also confirmed the continuous plight of women against
gender discrimination, among others. With increasing globalization and international
migration, the problem pertaining to inclusive education and how it affects PWDs
could not be more real.
1. What Stakeholders Can Do
Set the parameters for inclusion. The government has identified key people and
professions, and highlighted important factors leading to the success of inclusive
education-i.e., placement process, committees, staffing and responsibilities, teacher
training and compensation, incentives for private sector participation, and
collaboration of the Department of Education with other branches of government.
Build key people. The government recognizes the need for teacher training, both in
the special needs education and general education levels.
Identify and eradicate barriers. UNESCO’s Guide for Inclusion (2005) advocates
for the identification and removal of obstacles that have to do with transforming
prevailing attitudes and values on a systemic level.

Common Barriers to Inclusion

 Attitudes, values systems, misconceptions, and societal norms - can lead to prejudices
and/or actual resistance to implement inclusive practices (UNESCO 2005).
 Physical barriers - the lack of building, facility, transportation, or road accessibility are
types of physical barriers that can literally affect one's mobility.
 Curriculum - a rigid "one size fits all" type of curriculum that does not allow room for
individual differences can significantly stunt one's learning and opportunity for growth.
 Lack of teacher training and low teacher efficacy- whether training in teaching strategies,
using curriculum frameworks, or behavior and classroom management, lack of training
as well as low confidence in one's own skills can directly affect how inclusive practices
are implemented.
 Poor language and communication - language barriers may also directly have
implications on how well inclusive practices are implemented.
 Lack of funding – enough funding can allow for training more teachers as well as coming
up with more appropriate programs, instructional materials, or facilities; lack of funds can
be limiting and debilitating to schools.
 Lack of policies – policies have the ability to unify beliefs and mobilize resources;
unfortunately, lack of it can become a convenient justification for inaction.
 Organization of educational systems – centralized systems may have some type of
detachment in terms of implementing policies and seeing the reality of how such policies
are affecting learners and other stakeholders.
 Too much focus on performance-based standards-schools have also reportedly refused
inclusion because of fear that the presence of learners with additional needs will pull
down their rankings in standardized tests.
2. Special Education vs. Mainstreaming vs. Inclusive Education

 Mainstreaming shares more similarities with inclusion than with special education. Both
look at integrating the child with additional needs into a general education setting.

III. PRODUCING INCLUSIVE POLICIES

The following is a list of other possible steps that educators can take to facilitate the
much-needed societal shift and inform policy:

 Involve other sectors of society. Current training and awareness campaigns seem to
limit the movement of inclusion to a mere home- school relationship. At most, these are
extended to the departments for social welfare and health. However, for an inclusive set-
up to truly be successful, active involvement of the entire community must be ensured.
For instance, those in the business, commercial, security, and religious
 Collaborate. Whether creating an academic program specific to a child with additional
needs or creating a new legislative bill for the PWD community, collaboration is crucial.
 Recognize the shift in roles of the teachers. With the shift to inclusive education, the
role of special education (SPED) teachers suddenly seems to be reduced to only “as
needed.” As a result, the SPED teacher’s role no longer becomes that of an implementer
but that of a consultative nature instead. It also becomes the responsibility of the general
education teacher to know what to do when faced with a learner with additional needs in
his or her classroom.
 Include transitions in planning. An abrupt systemic change that is not well-planned or
that disregards practices-whether existing or implied-may hinder the shift to inclusion
and cause resentment from all stakeholders. Instead, current practices have to be
respected and honored so as to facilitate a gradual shift to inclusive education.

IV. EVOLVING INCLUSIVE PRACTICES

 Evolving inclusive practices is the third dimension to Booth and Ainscow’s framework
for schools (2002), where administrators must first try to create an inclusive culture
among its stakeholders, then build better, more all-encompassing policies.
 Two effective evidence-based inclusive practices that can be used in the classroom
are Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and Differentiated Instruction.
1. Universal Design for Learning
 UDL refers to the design of instructional materials and activities to make the
content information accessible to all children (Rose & Meyer 2006 as cited in
Turnbull et al. 2013).
 There are three elements to UDL:
1. Multiple means of representation
2. Multiple means of action and expression
3. Multiple means of engagement
 UDL PRINCIPLES
Principle 1: Equitable Use -Inclusive practices are designed to be useful,
appealing, and safe for all students, families, and professionals to use. Individual
differences and various contexts are respected.
Principle 2: Flexible Use -Inclusive practices are designed to accommodate the
individual preferences, abilities, and needs of all students, families, and
professionals. Flexibility in providing choices for methods and pacing are
exercised.
Principle 3: Simple and Intuitive Use- Inclusive practices are designed to be
easy for all to use and understand.
Principle 4: Perceptible Information – Inclusive practices are designed so that
they communicate valuable information to all through various formats.
Principle 5: Tolerance for Error - Inclusive practices are designed to minimize
errors and unintended consequences by providing safeguards and warnings to
assist all in using them safely.
Principle 6: Low Physical Effort – Inclusive practices are designed to be used
comfortably and efficiently without much effort from all.
Principle 7: Size and Space for Approach and Use. – Inclusive practices are
designed for use by all, regardless of their mobility, physicality, or way of
communication.
Principle 8: Community of Learners- Inclusive practices are designed to
promote social interaction and communication for all.
Principle 9: Inclusive Environment- Inclusive practices are designed to foster
acceptance and a sense of belongingness for all.

2. Differentiated Instruction
 According to Tomlinson (2010), differentiated (or differentiating) instruction is a
teacher’s response to students’ varying needs, interests, and learning styles.
 “It refers to a systematic approach to planning curriculum and instruction for
academically diverse learners. It is a way of thinking about the classroom with
the dual goals of honoring each student’s learning needs and maximizing
student’s learning capacity.” When teachers differentiate instruction, they use a
variety of teaching and learning strategies that are necessary to meet the diverse
needs of students in any class (Friend & Bursuck 2009).
 Bender in 2002 (as cited by Gentry et al. 2013) identified elements of the
curriculum that can be differentiated: (1) content, (2) process, (3) product, and (4)
learning environment in response to the students’ characteristics: interests,
 readiness, and learning profile. As an overview, differentiation is achieved by
providing materials and tasks:

a. At varied levels of difficulty;

b. With varying levels of instructional support;
c. By using multiple grouping arrangement;
d. That involve student choice; and
e. Use varied evaluation strategies.

CHILD FIND THROUGH A PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS

 Referral for evaluation and special education services begins by identifying students who
have additional needs and who may be at risk for developmental disabilities.
 School guidance counselors, early childhood teachers, primary school teachers, and
community-based daycare workers are often the first to notice such developmental
delays in children. In other instances, the parents themselves notice the delays and seek
consultation with pediatricians and other specialists.
PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS

 A child noted to have significant difficulties in relation to expected competencies and

developmental milestones may be referred by parents and teachers for observation and
assessment.
 Pre-referral team, is comprised of special education teachers, counselors.
administrators, and psychologists who collaborate to determine reasons for the observed
challenges (Hallahan et al. 2014). They collaborate to find ways to meet the needs of
children with developmental delays.
 Taylor (2009) provided an assessment model that begins with a pre- referral process.
Children with noted developmental delays and difficulties are identified through
observations and use of norm and criterion referenced tests.
 They are not immediately referred for special education testing but are first provided with
the necessary academic behavioral support needed to address noted challenges.
 Taylor (2009) explained that the initial step is to determine teachi as where & learner will
benefit from additional support through a variety of means.
 Very young students who are at-risk or suspected to have additional needs may also be
identified through community-based screening. Child development and social workers
use developmental screening tools such as the Early Childhood Care and Development
(ECCD)
PRE-REFERRAL STRATEGIES

 Essential in a pre-referral intervention is the use of pre-refer strategies that are designed
to provide immediate instructional and behavior management support to a child. Using
such strategies lessens the number of cases referred for special education and makes
efficient use of time and financial resources that could have been spent for special
education assessment (Heward 2013)
 Examples of pre-referral strategies are: observation of the child's behavior, including
interactions with parents, teachers, and peers; interview of parents and teachers to
 gather more information about the child; review of school records; and analysis of the
child's academic output through error analysis, portfolio assessment, and criterion-
referenced and curriculum- based assessment (Taylor 2009).

ASSESSMENT

 The process of collecting information about a child's strengths and needs. It uses a problem-
solving process that involves a systemie collection as well as interpretation of data
gathered(Salvia et al. 2013).
ASSESSMENT PURPOSES

 Variety of purpose in special and inclusive education It begins with Initial identification that
was explained in the previous section in Child Find and the pre-referral process. The results
of an assessment are used to decide on a child's educational placement and to plan
instructional programs for a child identified to have additional needs Progress monitoring
and evaluation of teaching programs and services is another purpose of which is to
determine how effective programs are to assist the inclusive teacher and the special
education teacher (Giulianis Pierangelo 2012).
 There are a variety of assessment methods that regular and special education teachers can
use. This section covers the following: (1) interviews, (2) observations, (3) checklists or
rating scales, and (4) tests.
METHODS OF ASSESSMENT
 Tests. School psychologists, educational diagnosticians, and other related professionals
use a variety of assessment tools to ensure that results are valid and reliable.
 Norm-referenced tests are standardized assessments that compare a child's
performance with a representative sample of students of the same chronological age.
Such tests are rigorously made by a team Results are reported as percentile ranks and
age and grade equivalent scores, which makes it easier for professionals to determine
class and individual performance. While such quantitative reporting makes it easier to
compare the test performance of children.
 Criterion-referenced tests compare a child's performance based on established
standards and competencies and can be used to describe student performance
(Jennings et al. 2006 as cited in Spinelli 2012)
• Such assessment data are more useful and relevant as these provide specific skills a child has
mastered and those that need additional instruction (Gargiulo 2012).
 Informal Assessment Professionals also use informal standardized assessments, which are
considered more a can be used primarily to describe performance and inform Su
assessments can be curriculum-based or performance-bas ach as the teacher-made
instruments used in classrooms and portfolio sessments
 Authentic Assessment. The use of tests, whether formal or informal, is only one method of
assessment. There are other ways of assessing students considered at-risk for
developmental delays or have additional needs.
 Highly recommended by professionals is the use of authentic assessment methods and
tools Authentic assessments provide students the opportunity to apply knowledge and skills
in meaningful, real-world settings.
 Observation is one example of Authentic assessment
 An example of authentic assessment is observation of young students as they interact with
family members, peers, and objects in naturally occurring activities across settings (eg.
home, school, playground, etc.), and routines During observations, teachers and specialists
can use running records which focuses on the occurrence of behaviors as they happen
sequentially Clay (2000 as cited in Dennis et al 2013)identified essential information to be
included in a running record
 Anecdotal records contain shorter descriptions of incidents or anecdotes that teachers and
specialists can use to analyze a student's behavior and plan strategies for a specific child or
group of children.
 Play-based assessment and portfolio assessment are other examples of authentic
assessment

ASSESSMENT PRINCIPLES
◼ Assessment practices should be anchored on principles as provided by the Division for Early
Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Student (DEC) (2014) Child- and family-centered
practices, a team-based approach application of individualized and appropriate process, and
use of genuine and meaningful communication that adhere to ethical and legal practices are the
recommendations provided by the DEC

1. PLACEMENT
 Assessment results are used to decide a child's approm education placement within a
continuum from the least to the most resim settings. During the evaluation, student
performance is assessed and the team determines if there would be any changes in the
educational placement within the continuum. Teams will base this on their observations,
assessment results, and other factors, with the goal to move toward the least restrictive
learning environment. Sound decisions are made to allow for fluidity in the child's placement
based on the child's strengths, abilities, and needs.
 A general education classroom is the least restrictive environment for a child with additional
needs. Access to the same learning experiences and opportunities is provided as to typically
developing students.
 It is considered as the "most normalized or typical setting" (Gargiulo, 2012). Additional
support in the form of accommodations or changes in expectations through curriculum
modifications may be provided but still within the same classroom as peers within the year
level.
 Another option for placement is to be in a general education class but the child receives
supplementary instruction and services such as speech. physical, and occupational therapy
or counseling services during the school day Options may be provided when such sessions
are conducted, either during school or as an after-school service
 Students who may be part of a general education class are pulled-out- of their class to
receive instruction from a specialist teacher in a resource room. In such a placement, it is
 assumed that the child will benefit more fromeither a small-group or individualized instruction
with a specialist teacher who will be able to more intensively target his learning needs.
 Moving up in the placement continuum, some students who need more intensive instruction
and supports are educated in a special education class in a special education school.
Teams of professionals, along with the special education teacher, work with students with
disabilities and additional needs in a highly specialized setting.
 On the other end of the continuum is the most restrictive or isolated setting, such as a
residential facility where students live and receive their educational support twenty-four
hours a day. Finally, children with multiple disabilities, often of the severe kind, are provided
with home or hospital based programs to manage their medical condition and learn as much
as they could.
 Inclusive education espouses that all students, to the maximum extent possible, is provided
access to general education classroom with the provision of support to remove barriers to
enable success..
ACCOMMODATIONS AND CURRICULAR MODIFICATIONS
 Students with disabilities and additional needs who are studying in an inclusive general
education classroom may need accommodations in the form of instructional support and
other supplementary services.
A. Accommodations
 Accommodations are supports provided to students to help gain full access to class content
and instruction, without altering the curriculum standards and competencies expected and to
demonstrate accurately what they know.
 Provided in a general education classroom for children with disabilities, barriers are removed
from accessing education. As a result, children can work around the effect of their
disabilities.
 Accommodations may be provided both during assessment and instruction, depending on
the learning profile and needs of a child and may vary in terms of presentation, response,
setting, and scheduling (Bee 2010).
RESPONSE ACCOMODATIONS
 allow students with disabilities and additional needs a variety of ways to complete
assignments. written tests, performance tasks, and other activities. Providing such
instructional and assessment supports allows them to aces the same learning experiences
as other students in a gene education classroom.
SETTING ACCOMODATIONS
 Changes in the location or conditions of the educational setting or environment may be
necessary for students who need support in terms of behavior, attention, and organization of
space and materials.
 Accommodation in a setting may allow a Ichild who gets easily distracted to work in a quiet
corner of the classroom in his own study carrel so that he will not be sidetracked by
environmental stimuli. Or a child who is still unable to read fluently may be allowed to take a
silent reading comprehension test In another room with a supervising adult just so she could
hear herself read aloud which helps her better understand he story.
SCHEDULING ACCOMODATIONS
 Changing time allotment, schedule of tasks and assessments. and management of time are
some types of schedulingaccommodations. Students with slower ability in processing
information and directions well as with focusing issues may need these types of
accommodation.
 Some examples of accommodation that can modify scheduling are: (1) extending time for
assignments and assessments; (2) providing breaks in between tasks; (3)providing a visual
schedule or a checklist of individual responsibilities (4) providing predictable routines and
procedures; and (5) providing an electronic device with alarms and cues.
B. MODIFICATION
 Curriculum modifications are provided for students with significan or severe disabilities
where content expectations are altered, and the performance outcomes are changed in
relation to what are expected of typically developing students of the same age (DEC 2007).
 Curricular modifications include changes in instructional level, content and performance
criteria, as well as the breadth and depth of content being learned by students. Students
with disabilities or additional needs may be given more, less, or different content and
resource materials altogether.
 Educational teams responsible for instructional planning may indicate curricular
modifications in the student's Individual Educational Pn (TEP) Such modifications are
needed so that students also have access to the eneral education curriculum

PARENT INVOLVEMENT
 Another component of an inclusive and special education is parent involvement. It has long
been established that parent involvement in education, planning, and management of
children Ith disabilities and itional needs is essential as they are the primary caregivers and
have direct infence on their children.
 Achored on Bronfenbrenner's Human Ecological Theory, which states that there are five
environmental systems the compr a child's social context. • microsystems, a child has direct
interactions with parents, teachers, peers, and others; while the
 Mesosystem refers to the linkages or relationships between microsystems such as the
connections between family experiences and school experiences and between family and
peers (Santrock 2011).
 The Division of Early Childhood of the Council of Exceptional Children (DEC) espoused the
use of family-centered practices in the assessment and instruction of young children.
Turnbull and Turnbull (2002 cited in Kirk et al. 2015) provided the principles of a family-
centered model: (1) honors the family choice by changing the power relationship between
professional and families, (2) abandons a pathology orientation and adopts a strengths
orientation, and (3) where the entire family becomes the unit of support and not just the child
with a disability and the child's mother (p. 19). In this way, the whole family is provided
support, capitalizing on the child and family members' strengths and resources, not on their
deficits and needs. Teachers and administrators may also be guided by these principles
when communicating and collaborating with parents and families of students with
disabilities.
 Parent involvement has been found to be directly related to academic achievement and
improvements in the school performance of ch trea Educational support and collaboration
with teachers have been found t promote child success in school (Reschly & Christenson
2009). Moreover programs for children with disabilities become more effective and
successful when children and families are involved (Newman 2004 cited in Hewa 2013).
Home-School Communication
 Having established the critical role of parents in a student's developmental and academic
progress and achievement, it is essential that there is a close home and school collaboration
and communication. To establish partnerships, problem-solving, two- way communication,
and shared decision making are some of the practices needed. Communicating with parents
may be done in several ways.


Parent-Teacher Conferences
 Parent-teacher conferences are face-to-face meetings held between parents and teachers.
Conducting such meetings is necessary so parents of students with disabilities and
additional needs will be able to share about their child's background, strengths and abilities,
history of difficulties, and practices they have been implementing at home as well as
interventions done with other specialists. Together with teachers, they can coordinate their
efforts and serv) at home. child both in school and home
Written Communication
 Home-school communication may also be conducted through written messages, such as the
use of a home-school communication notebook, where teachers and parents write
homework assignments, the student's behavior in the classroom, as well as progress on
program goals.
 A written communication may be time consuming, but some parents prefer this form of
collaboration as the messages are documented and they can provide a copy to a
developmental specialist when needed.
Digital communication
 A study found that parents and teachers perceive technology as an effective tool to promote
parent involvement and thus value its use for communication (Olmstead 2013). Because it is
instant and real-time, parents and teachers are immediately able to receive messages and
updates about the student.
Home-School Contracts
 It contains an agreement between teachers and parents regarding behavioral and/or
academic goals for a student with disability Just like any formal contract, this is a writtes
agreement between teachers, parents, and students(when appropriate) on specific
objectives and corresponding reinforcements or rewards when they are met.
 Parents also have strengths, abilities, Intuitive knowledge, and the commitment to help their
own child. They become advocates of their own children. To maximize their involvement,
 schools provide other opportunities such as parent education training, workshops, and
parent support groups.
a. Parent education may take the form of providing seminars and workshops to parents to
equip them with a better understanding of their child's disability and accompanying strengths,
uniqueness as well as specific techniques and strategies that they can practice at home.
b. Parentt support groups are also helpful as parents are able to ask other parents about tips
and techniques to work with their children. Parents should be empowered so that they can
participate in planning and organizing parent support groups Through such groups, parents can
draw support from one another during meetings as they share techniques and strategies, ever
frustrations and successes about their children.

Presented the different components of inclusive and special education, which include the
takwing pre referral, ascessment, placement, accommodationscurricular modifications, and
parent involvement. Across these components, a team approach is highly recommended where
each member-the child, parents, general education teacher, special education teacher,
therapists, and other specialists-coordinate and collaborate in planning and making decisions
for the child with disabilities.

TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT AMONG CHILDREN

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY OF ERIK ERIKSON
 It has eight stage theory that describes the changes one goes through in a lifetime
 Erikson's theory focus on the conflicts or crises one experiences through social interaction
 Starting from birth certificate, each person is faced with a conflict that needs to be resolved
since it has impact on the succeeding stages
 Psychosocial virtue emerges if one successfully overcomes the crises of each stage
STAGES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
◼ Infant
◼ Toddler
◼ Pre-schooler
◼ Grade-schooler
◼ Teenager
◼ Young adult
◼ Middle-age Adult
◼ Older Adult
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY OF JEAN PIAGET
• This theory is concerned with the thought process of a person and how they understand and
interact with the environment
• Piaget's theory focuses on children's intellectual development and it has 4 stages namely;
(1) Sensomotor Stage- from birth to two yrs old, a child's knowledge is limited to his or her use
of the senses
(2) Pre- operational Stage - from two to six yrs old, child's learn through the use of language
(3) Concrete Operational Stage - from 7 to 11 yrs old child begins to think logically and have
better understanding of mental operations
(4) Formal Operational Stage - from 12 yrs old to adulthood, a person has that ability to think in
abstract concept
SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF LEV VYGOTSKY
 Believes that children learn actively through hands-on experiences.
 Highlights the importance of others people such parents, caregivers, peers in developing of
children. Culture and interaction with others allows learning to integrate learning.
Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura
 Believes that learning takes place through observation and modeling. As a child observes
the actions of the people in his or her environment,new information is acquired and new
skills are developed
TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT
 The development of a child usually follows a predictable pattern. There are certain skills and
abilities that are observed to gauge a child's development are called developmental
milestones.
TYPICAL DEVELOPMENT
• Typical development refers to the normal progression where children grow by acquiring
knowledge, skills and behavior called developmental milestones at a certain time frame
ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT
• Development does not follow the normal course. Child is developing atypically when he/she
reaches a milestone earlier or later than other children's age.
• There are three accepted principles of child development are as follows;
1. Rate of development differs among children
2. Development occurs in a relatively orderly process
3. Development takes place gradually
DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
• The developmental milestones are categorized into four domains namely, physical, social and
emotional, language, and cognitive. The physical domain refers to the development of physical
changes such as size and strength.
• The development occurs in both gross and fine motor skills. The senses and their uses are
also part of the physical domain which is influenced by illness and nutrition.
•A child's experience, expression, and management of emotions along with the ability to
establish positive relationships with others refer to the social-emotional domain. This includes
both the intrapersonal and interpersonal processes that take place in a child.
•The language domain refers to the process of acquiring language in a consistent order without
the need for explicit teaching from the environment.
•Construction of thought process which includes remembering, problem solving, and decision
making refers to the cognitive domain.
STAGES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT Stages
• Along with age are used as ranges to mark significance in a human development timeline. In
each stage, growth and occur in the four domains mentioned above.
A. Infancy (birth to 2 years)
B. Early Childhood (3 to 8 years)
C. Middle Childhood (9 to 11 years)
D. Adolescence (12 to 18 years)
 Infancy (birth to 2 years) is a critical stage in child development because growth is rapid.
Many believe that this stage is the most important stage in one's life since the changes that
occur in infancy will affect the later stages of development.
 Known as the building block for the succeeding stages in the attainment of crucial
knowledge, skills and behaviors.
 Early Childhood (3 to 8 years old) is a period of life with slow growth and rapid development.
•Most psychologists label this stage as the exploratory and questioning stage since the
children enjoy discovering new things in their surroundings.
 Interactions with family and the people recur will help shape their development
 Middle Childhood (9 to 11 years) is a stage that brings various changes in a child's life.
Independence is a characteristic that children in this stage assert. Developing friendships is
another milestone that is evident in this stage. Children should be given more tasks to
develop their sense of responsibility to further develop their growing independence.
 Adolescence (12 to 18 years) is the period where puberty begins. the end of this stage, most
will have completed puberty. The child is no called a teen during this stage.
 The teen is becoming more vocal about his her opinions due to the development of a unique
personality. Peer pressure however, will be present, which is why guidance from parents
and guardian is very much needed.
 Behaviors that are atypical should be observed keenly and recorded carefully. At times, the
recorded observations might just be isol with no significant impact on later development.
However, they be early warning signs of needs. The observed patterns will be useful to
confirm if there is such a need.
LEARNERS WITH ADDITIONAL NEEDS
1. LEARNERS WHO ARE GIFTED AND TALENTED
Learners who are gifted and talented are students with higher abilities than average and are
often referred to as gifted students. This group refers to students whose talents, abilities, and
potentials are developmentally advanced. They require special provisions to meet their
educational needs, thus presenting a unique challenge to teachers. They often finish tasks
ahead and might ask for more creative tasks or exercises. Exciting and energizing activities
should be provided to continuously keep them motivated. This group includes students with
exceptional abilities from all socio-economic, ethnic, and cultural populations. What is the
difference then between gifted and talented? The term giftedness refers to students with
extraordinary abilities in various academic areas. However, talent focuses on students with
extraordinary abilities in a specific area.
To identify gifted and talented students, one must do the following:

 Locate the student's domain of giftedness

 Describe the student's level of giftedness
 Describe the student's fields of talent

Not all learners will exhibit the learning characteristics listed below. However, these are the
common manifestations of gifted and talented learners. One might possess a combination of
characteristics in varying degrees and amounts.

 High level of intellectual curiosity

 Reads actively
 High degree of task commitment
 Keen power of observation
 Highly verbal
 Gets bored easily
 Can retain and recall information
 Excited about learning new concepts
 Independence in learning
 Good comprehension of complex contexts
 Strong, well-developed imagination Looks for new ways to do things
 Often gives uncommon responses to common questions

Learners who are gifted and talented usually get bored since they have mastered the concepts
taught in classes. One thing that is common among gifted students is that they are very
inquisitive. Fulfilling their instructional needs may be a challenging task. These are some
suggested strategies for teaching gifted students:
 Teachers may give enrichment exercises that will allow learners to study the same topic
at a more advanced level.
 Acceleration can let students who are gifted and talented can move at their own pace
thus resulting at times to in completing two grade levels in one school year.
  Open-ended activities with no right or wrong answers can be provided, emphasizing on
divergent thinking wherein there are more possibilities than pre-determined answers
 Leadership roles can be given to gifted students since studies have shown that gifted
students are often socially immature.
 Extensive reading on subjects of their own interest may be coordinated with the school
librarian to further broaden their knowledge.
 Long-term activities may be provided, that will give the gifted students an opportunity to
be engaged for an extended period of time.

2. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY SEEING

 Students in the classroom will exhibit different levels of clarity of eyesight or visual
acuity. There may be some students with hampered or restricted vision. Learners with
difficulty seeing are those with issues regarding sight that interfere with academics. The
definition from Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) states that “an
impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child’s
educational performance, which includes both partial sight and blindness.” These
students may need to have their eyesight corrected by wearing glasses or other optical
devices.
 Learners with difficulty seeing often have physical signs, such as crossed eyes,
squinting, and eyes that turn outwards. They may also be clumsy, usually bumping into
objects which causes them to fall down. They like to sit near the instructional materials
or at times would stand up and go near the visual aids.

 Learners with difficulty seeing may also show poor eye-hand coordination. This can be
seen in their handwriting or poor performance in sporting activities. Another indication is
poor academic performance as these students might have difficulty reading as well as
writing.

 Good visual ability is critical in learning. Most school lessons are done through
blackboard writing, presentations, or handouts, in most major subjects. Visual
impairments, whether mild, moderate, or severe, affect the student’s ability to participate
in normal classroom activities. In the past, students who are visually impaired are placed
in special institutions. Nowadays, most are enrolled with other children who are not
visually impaired.

Modification in teaching is needed to accommodate students with difficulty seeing. The

following strategies may be considered:
 If the use of books is part of your lesson, students with difficulty seeing should be
informed ahead of time so that they can be ordered in braille or in an audio recorded
format.
 Portions of textbooks and other printed materials may be recorded so that visually-
impaired students can listen instead of focusing on the visual presentation.
 All words written on the board should be read clearly.
 Students with difficulty seeing should be seated near the board so that they can easily
move close to the instructional materials used during the lesson.
 A buddy can be assigned to a student with difficulty seeing as needed. This can be
crucial to assist in the mobility of the student such as going to the other places in school
during the day.
 Students with difficulty seeing might need more time to complete a task or homework.
This might be on a case to case basis.
 Teachers should be aware of terminology that would require visual acuity (such as over
there or like this one) which the impaired student may not possess.

3. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY HEARING

 This refers to students with an issue regarding hearing that interferes with
academics. The definition from Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
defines it as “an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that
adversely affects a child’s educational performance but is not included under
the definition of ‘deafness”.

 Deafness is considered when hearing loss is above 90 decibels. A hearing loss

below 90 decibels is called hearing impairment.

 The main challenge of hearing-impaired students is communication, since most of

them have varying ways of communicating. The factors affecting the development
of communication skills include intelligence, personality, the degree and nature of
deafness and residual hearing, family environment, and the age of onset. The latter
plays the crucial role in the development of language as those who have hearing loss
present at birth are more functionally disabled than those who lose hearing after
language and speech development.

To identify learners with difficulty hearing, observe a student and see if he/she does the
following items below.
 Speaking loudly
 Positioning ear toward the direction of the one speaking
 Asking for information to be repeated again and again
 Delayed development of speech
 Watching the face of the speaker intently
 Favoring one ear
 Not responding when called
 Has difficulty following directions
 Does not mind loud noises
 Leaning close to the source of sounds

 Most learners with difficulty hearing use various methods of communication. The
most common is the use of hearing aids, combined with lip-reading. These students
are referred to as “oral” since they can communicate thru speech as opposed to sign
language. They might have delayed communication skills since the development of
vocabulary is slower. They understand concepts when the sentence structure is
simpler. Interacting with students can be a challenge so they prefer to work on their
 own. Some hearing-impaired students use note-takers in class since it is difficult to
lip- read and take notes simultaneously.

 There is an assumption that the only adjustment for hearing impaired students is to
make all instructional materials and techniques in written format. These are other
ways to adapt to hearing-impaired students:

 Teachers should help students with difficulty hearing to use the residual hearing
they may have.
 Teachers should help students develop the ability for speech reading or watching
others' lips, mouth, and expressions.
 Teachers should be mindful to face the class at all times when presenting
information while ensuring that the students with difficulty hearing sit near them.
 Exaggerating the pronunciation of words should not be done for it just makes it
difficult for the student with difficulty hearing.
 Directions, as well as important parts of the lesson, should always be written on
the board.
 Written or pictorial directions instead of verbal directions may be given.
 Steps to an activity may be physically acted out instead of verbally given.
 A variety of multi-sensory activities should be given to allow the students to focus
on their learning strengths.
 Teachers should be more patient when waiting to hear a response from a
hearing-impaired student which may take longer than usual.

4. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY COMMUNICATING

Some learners are observed to have difficulty communicating, either verbally expressing
their ideas and needs and/or in understanding what others are saying. Some may have
had a clinical diagnosis of a disability while others display developmental delays and
difficulty in the speech and language domain.

Types of Communication Impairments and Disorders

Communication is the interactive exchange of information, ideas, feelings, needs, and
desires between and among people (Heward, 2013). Communication is used to serve
several functions, particularly to narrate, explain, inform, request (mand), and express
feelings and opinions.

How is speech different from language?

Speech is the expression of language with sounds, or oral production. Speech is
produced through precise physiological and neuromuscular coordination: (1) respiration
(act of breathing), (2) phonation (production of sound by the larynx and vocal folds), and
(3) articulation (use of lips, tongue, teeth, and hard and soft palates to speak).

Language is used for communication, a formalized code used by a group of people to

communicate with one another, that is primarily arbitrary (Heward, 2013). People decide
on symbols, their corresponding meaning, and rules that make up a language. There are
five dimensions of language that describe its form (i.e., phonology, morphology, syntax,
content, and use (pragmatics).
Components of language
1. Phonology - refers to the sound system of a language. A phoneme is the smallest
unit of sound within a language. For instance, the word dog is made up of three
phonemes, namely /d/-/o/-/g/ while beans has four phonemes, /b/-/ea/- /n/-/s/.
2. Morphology -refers to the smallest unit of language that has meaning and which are
used to combine words. Sounds, syllables, or whole words are examples of
morphemes.
3. Syntax – is the system of rules governing the meaningful arrangement of words,
which also include grammar rules. For instance, the sentence, Ready get for the
exam does not make sense until arranged in the right sequence as Get ready for the
exam.
4. Semantics - refers to the meanings associated with words and combination of words
in a language. This also includes vocabulary, concept development, connotative
meanings of words, and categories.
5. Pragmatics revolves around the social use of language, knowing what, when, and
how to communicate and use language in specific context. There are three kinds of
pragmatics skills: (1) using language for different purposes (e.g., narrating,
explaining, requesting, etc.), (2) changing language according to the context (e.g.,
talking to a peer as compared to speaking to a well-respected professor), and (3)
following rules for conversations and story-telling (e.g., taking turns, rephrasing when
unclear, how to use facial expressions and eye contact, etc.) (American Speech-
Language Hearing Association, 2011 cited in Heward, 2013).

Speech Impairments are communication disorders such as stuttering, impaired

articulation, and language or voice impairment. Such disorders are significant enough
that they can adversely affect a student’s academic performance.

Types of Speech Impairments

1. Articulation disorder
A child is unable to produce a given sound physically. Severe articulation
disorder may render a child’s speech unintelligible. Examples are substitutions,
omissions, distortions, and additions of speech sounds.

2. Phonological disorder
A child produces multiple patterns of sound errors with obvious impairment of
intelligibility. There is also noted inconsistent misarticulation of sounds (i.e.,
sometimes a child is able to articulate it but not in other words).
3. Fluency disorder
Difficulties with the rhythm and timing of speech. Stuttering is an example
marked by rapid-fire repetitions of consonant or vowel sounds especially at the
beginning of words, prolongations, hesitations, interjections, and complete verbal
blocks (Ramig & Shames, 2006 cited in Gargiulo 2012).
4. Voice disorder
Problems with the quality or use of one's voice resulting from disorders of the
larynx. Voice may be excessively hoarse, breathy, or too high- pitched.
  There are different types of language disorder-expressive, receptive, and a combination
of the two. An expressive language disorder interferes with the production of language.
A child may have very limited vocabulary that impacts communications skills or misuses
words and phrases in sentences. On the other hand, a receptive language disorder
interferes with the understanding of language. A child may have difficulty understanding
spoken sentences or following the directions a teacher gives. Some children may be
found to have a combination of receptive and expressive language disorder.

How do specialists determine a speech and/or language problem?

 A comprehensive speech and language evaluation to determine the presence of a
communication disorder involves several components (Heward 2013).

1. Case history and physical examination. Assessment always begins with the case
history that provides the specialist the necessary background about the child's birth and
developmental history, health record, achievement test scores, and adjustment in
school. The specialist examines the child's Oral-Peripheral Mechanism which includes
the mouth, noting irregularities in the tongue, lips, teeth, palate, or other structures that
may affect
2. Hearing. Hearing is tested to determine whether an organic hearing problem is the
cause of the suspected communication disorder, as discussed in the previous section.
Thus, hearing impairment needs to be treated to develop speech and language skills.
3. Articulation. A child’s articulation skills are assessed, which includes identifying speech
errors (
4. Phonological awareness and processing. Phonological awareness and processing
skills provide the foundation for beginning to read in young children (Adams 2013).
Children with difficulties in processing sounds in language as well as in hearing,
segmenting, and identifying phonemes in words may experience problems with
expressive and receptive spoken language as well as in learning how to read.
5. Overall language development and vocabulary. Formal tests may be used to
measure a child’s overall language development and vocabulary as these affect how
well a child is able to understand and use language in spontaneous speech and in
academic settings.
6. Assessment of language function. Language is used to serve several functions such
as to request, name, imitate, ask, and converse among others. B. F. Skinner (Sundberg
2007 cited in Heward 2013), emphasized how language is used rather than the structure
and form of language.
7. Language samples and observation in natural settings. Language difficulties may
also be identified through play-based, authentic assessment where a specialist plays
with a child during which spontaneous speech and verbalizations can be elicited.
Observations in natural settings, such as a child’s home or school, allows the specialist
to sample the child’s language in daily activities and observe parent and child interaction
and communication as part of holistic assessment. These are used to supplement
assessment information gathered in clinical settings.

Different strategies and accommodations may be used to provide a level playing field
for children with communication difficulties or disorders.

1. Universal Design for Learning

Use of UDL in the classroom allows children to learn information, demonstrate
understanding, and stay engaged in multiple ways (i.e., multiple means of presentation,
expression, and engagement). Because of weaknesses resulting from communication
difficulties or disorders, teaching and learning practices as well as assessment should be
presented in different modalities, such as visual, auditory, and kinesthetic-motor or tactile.

2. Practical Tips for the Classroom

In addition to using UDL, there are practical tips and techniques that teachers can use to
provide students with communication difficulties the support they need in order to be
successful. The following list provides practical suggestions that teachers can use in the
classroom. These suggestions are best implemented in a classroom that promotes a
supportive and respectful culture, one that acknowledges and accepts diversity, and allows
accommodations for learners with difficulties.

5. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY MOVING/WALKING

 When a child has difficulty moving and/or walking, the physical domain of development
is affected. Examples of physical disability are developmental coordination disorder or
dyspraxia, stereotypic movement disorder, tics and cerebral palsy.

 Developmental coordination disorder as described in the DSM-5 (American

Psychiatric Association 2013), refers to significant and persistent deficits in coordinated
motor skills that are significantly below expected typical development.

Signs of developmental coordination disorder

1. Early Childhood - Difficulty in tying shoelaces, button- ing, using spoon and fork,
and getting dressed; problems in jumping, skipping, catching, and kicking a ball;
a higher tendency to bump into things, to fall over, or to drop things
2. School-Age - The difficulties in early childhood be- come more pronounced; tries
to avoid sports; works on writing tasks for a longer period of time in comparison
to typically developing peers
 Dyspraxia, used synonymously with developmental coordination disorder, is a term
often used by occupational therapists.
 Stereotypic movement disorder, is characterized by repetitive, seemingly driven, and
nonfunctional motor behavior (e.g., hand shaking or waving, body rocking, head
banging, self- biting, hitting own body).
 Cerebral Palsy refers to a disorder of movement and posture that results from damage
to the areas of the brain that control motor movement (Kirk et al. 2015). This damage to
the brain can occur before, during, or after birth due to an accident or injury.
Classifications of cerebral palsy

A. Monoplegia- Only one limb is affected (upper or lower)

B. Hemiplegia - Two limbs on the same side of the body affected
C. Triplegia - Three limbs are affected
D. Quadriplegia - All four limbs, both arms and legs, are affected; movement of the
trunk and face may also be impaired
E. Diplegia – Legs are affected, less severe involvement of the arms
 F. Double hemiplegia – Impairment primarily involves the arms, less severe
involvement of the legs.

 First and foremost, children with motor difficulties and disabilities need primary
intervention with specialists such as physical and occupational therapists. These
professionals are responsible for setting goals in motor development, planning, and
mobility as well as in providing teachers and others with information about the child's
physical conditions, limitations, and abilities (Kirk et al. 2015).

 Physical accessibility of a school and classrooms to children with motor

difficulty/disability is essential. Ramps and elevators for schools with multiple levels of
buildings is necessary, as well as the provision of wheelchairs. Providing such structures
and supports ensure that children with motor difficulty/disability would be able to access
as well as move around the classroom safely.

 The type of accommodations given will always be relative to the strengths, abilities, and
difficulties of the child. For a child with developmental coordination or stereotypic
movement disorder who struggles or is unable to write but has adequate articulation and
language skills, he/she may benefit from being given accommodations in the way
understanding is demonstrated (i.e., response). Some of the recommendations for a
child with such a profile may include the following: (1) assigning an adult or a peer to be
a scribe when accomplishing written tasks may be an option and (2) being given a pencil
or pen grip and different size/ diameter for a pencil for those with poor fine-motor control.

6. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY REMEMBERING AND FOCUSING

 The International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health of the World Health
Organization (2001) provides definitions of specific mental functions and focusing.
Memory functions include short-term memory, long- term memory, and retrieval, while
attention functions include sustaining, shifting, dividing, and sharing attention.

A. LD
Students with Learning Disability (LD) and/or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD) are characterized by having difficulties with memory and attention functions.
The subsequent sections present the definition, identification, and learning
characteristics for each disability.
It was Samuel Kirk who coined the term, “learning disability” in 1962 when he met with
parents and families as they discussed about students who encountered pronounced
difficulties in school despite having average to above-average intelligent.

National Joint Commission define Learning Disabilities (1990) as :

 “Learning disabilities is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of

disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of
listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities.
 The term Learning Disability is differentiated from Specific Learning Disability
which focuses on difficulties in "one or more basic psychological processes
 involved in understanding or in using language, spoken, or written, which may
manifest as difficulties in the ability to listen, think, spark, read, write, spell, or do
mathematical calculations" (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 1997 in
Hallahan, 2014, p. 168).

There are different types of specific learning disabilities for each type difficulty
namely, Dyslexia for difficulties with reading, spelling, and oral reading fluency;
Dyscalculia for difficulties in math computation, problem- of solving, and analysis;
and Dysgraphia for difficulties with handwriting and written expression.

B. ADHD
One intervention that has been reported to be effective in helping students with ADHD is
the use of the Daily Report Card (DRC), which is an individualized intervention to
manage target behaviors of a child (Moore et al.2016). It begins with an assessment
through observation and teacher/ parent interviews to determine specific behaviors that
need to be managed and/or developed in a student.

7. LEARNERS WITH DISABILITY WITH SELF-CARE

 Self-care often refers to a person’s capacity to perform daily living activities or specific to
body care such as the following skills: washing oneself, brushing teeth, combing,
trimming nails, toileting, dressing, eating. Drinking, and looking after one’s health.

 Intellectual disability is a developmental disorder that includes deficits in intellectual

and adaptive functioning across domains of conceptual, social, and practical that occur
during the developmental period.
 Young children suspected to have cognitive deficits which manifest as difficulties with
self-care can be identified at a very young age. The traditional approach to measuring
levels of severity of ID was determined through the use of intellectual tests:

• Mild level - IQ 50-70

•Moderate - IQ 35-50

•Severe – IQ 20-35

• Profound - IQ below 20

 Specific have been found to be effective in teaching students with difficulty with self-
care, namely the use of direct/explicit instruction, task analysis, forward and backward
chaining, as well as the use of video modeling. It is essential that the instructions
given are simple and straight forward and that hands-on, experiential activities are used.
  Task analysis is a behavioral approach that breaks down a complex
behavior or task into step-by-step procedures, thereby providing modeling
and ample practice for the student with difficulties.
 Forward chaining, the program begins with the first step in the sequence,
such as getting the toothbrush and toothpaste, then providing the needed
hand-over-hand assistance, and then gradually fading verbal and then
gestural prompts.
 Backward chaining, the teacher models all the steps from the beginning and
then allows the child to do the last step of the behavior chain with assistance
and prompts.
 The use of video-based intervention including video modeling and video
prompting for teaching daily living skills, such as brushing teeth, setting a
table, washing dishes, etc. has been found effective for learners with
intellectual and learning difficulties (Rayner 2011, Bellini & Akullian 20017
cited in Heward 2013).

LEARNING IN OTHER MARGINALIZED GROUPS

I. MARGINALIZATION IN EDUCATION

 The theory of marginalization can trace its roots to the 'theory of the marginal man'
which, at first, pointed to the peculiar personality traits that arise when a person is
situated in a marginal position among two social environments that are not completely
matched (Dickie-Clark, 1966 as cited in Messiou 2012).
 Robert Park and Everett B. Stonequist's analysis of the 'marginal man' focuses on an
individual who is born and raised in one culture and is immersed in a different prevailing
culture. This transition situates the individual in an enduring interaction and connection
with a different culture, religion, language, race, and political belief brought about by
schooling, inter-cultural marriage, emigration, or other reasons (Goldberg 1941).
 Park aptly identifies this individual as "person who becomes a 'cultural hybrid' living and
sharing intimately in the life of two distinct peoples unwilling to break with his past and
not accepted by the outside world".
 A crisis experience' becomes a personal concern when the individual is rejected (Green
1947).
 Marginalization naturally starts even before children get into school and persists until
they become adults.
 "Marginalization basically arises from culturally deeply-embedded values, beliefs,
standards, norms, and other factors which determine acceptability within a certain social
frame" (Petkovsca 2015).
 The United Nations Development Programme of 1996 (as cited in Messiou 2012)
defines marginalization as "the state of being considered unimportant, undesirable,
 unworthy, insignificant, and different, resulting in inequity, unfairness, deprivation, and
enforced lack of access to mainstream power" (p.1).
 Marginalization in education originates from culturally intense beliefs, values, and typical
norms that regulate recognition or acknowledgment of other people within a specific
social standard. It is a "form of acute and persistent disadvantage rooted in underlying
social inequalities." Its existence is a result of policies and processes that sustain this
prejudice to a group or to some individuals.
 The report also states that those who are marginalized usually exhibit lower levels of
educational attainment (UN Global Monitoring Report 2010). The highest form of
marginalization, therefore, is an insufficiency in the availability of education.
 Messiou (2012) discussed the issue about labeling, wherein a learner is categorized as
belonging to a certain group depending on the learner's needs or challenges. This refers
to learners with special needs.
 In some countries, labelling meant supplemental resources specially in education-certain
teaching-learning strategies, techniques, physical and emotional requirements, and
services are provided for the learner.
 In other countries, labelling would only have detrimental effects to learners being
shamed and ridiculed.
 Messiou (2003) explored how marginalization is experienced by primary school
students. He proposed that marginalization can be conceptualized in four general ways:
1. The child experiences some kind of marginalization that is recognized by almost
everybody, including himself/herself
2. The child feels that he/she is experiencing marginalization whereas most of the others
do not recognize this
3. When a child is found in what appears to be marginalized situations but does not feel it,
or does not view it as marginalization
4. When a child is experiencing marginalization but does not admit it

II. MARGINALIZATION AND INCLUSION

 Messiou (2012) manifests how young people's "voice" can intensify systems, processes,
and experiences in congruence with inclusive education.
 "Voice" is clearly identified as one of the student's rights. It means "having a say, as well
as referring to language, and emotional components as well as non-verbal means that
are used to express opinions" (Thomson 2008 as cited in Messiou 2012).
 In the book "Confronting Marginalisation in Education" Messiou (2012) posits a
framework that focuses on the collaborative activity between young people and adults in
education that promotes inclusion.
 It also takes into consideration other factors that contextualize marginalization like the
curriculum, systems within the society, or the effects of administration and management
on the everyday lives of teachers and young people in schools.

III. DIFFERENT LEARNERS IN MARGINALIZED GROUPS

A. Child Laborers/Domestic Workers
  The International Labor Organization (ILO) describes child labor as "work that
deprives children of their childhood, their potential, and their dignity, and that is harmful
to physical and mental development."
 Child labor is caused by poverty, the lack of education, and the lack of schools.
 By law, a child is a human being who is below the age of 18 (The World Counts 2014).
 The ILO on child labor that was presented in Geneva in 2017 noted a big decline in child
labor over the years but still presents the following statistics: "A total of 152 million
children-64 million girls and 88 million boys- are in child labor globally, accounting for
almost one in ten of all children worldwide. Nearly half of all those in child labor-73
million children in absolute terms-are in hazardous work that directly endangers their
health, safety, and moral development. Children in employment, a broader measure
comprising both child labor and permitted forms of employment involving children of
legal working age, number 218 million."
 A large number of child laborers are unable to get an education because of poverty,
situations of armed conflict, and calamities.
 In June 2015, the theme of World Day Against Child Labor was "No to: Child Labor-Yes
to Quality Education." The challenge was to grant free, mandatory, and quality education
for all children at least to the minimum age for admission to employment covering those
currently in child labor.

B. Indigenous People

 There is no commonly acknowledged meaning of the term indigenous people. José R.

Martínez Cobo's Study on the Problem of Discrimination against Indigenous Populations
presented a "working definition of indigenous communities, peoples, and nations" (as
cited in State of the World's Indigenous People 2010):
 "Indigenous communities, peoples, and nations are those which, having a historical
continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories,
consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing on those
territories, or parts of them.
 They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve,
develop, and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories and their ethnic
identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their
own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal system.
 This historical continuity may consist of the continuation, for an extended period
reaching into the present of one or more of the following factors:
a. Occupation of ancestral lands, or at least of part of them;
b. Common ancestry with the original occupants of these lands;
c. Culture in general, or in specific manifestations (such as religion, living under a tribal
system, membership of an indigenous community, dress, means of livelihood, lifestyle,
etc.);
d. Language (whether used as the only language, as mother-tongue, as the habitual
means of communication at home or in the family, or as the main, preferred, habitual,
general or normal language);
e. Residence in certain parts of the country, or in certain regions of the world; and
f. Other relevant factors.
 Indigenous person is one who belongs to these indigenous populations through self-
identification as indigenous (group consciousness) and is recognized and accepted by
these populations as one of its members (acceptance by the group).
 Based on several sources including the work of the Working Group on Indigenous
Populations, the provisions of convention No. 169 of the ILO, and the contents of the
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, indigenous peoples
possess one or all of the following characteristics: "they are descendants of the peoples
who inhabited the land or territory prior to colonization or the establishment of state
borders; they possess distinct social, economic, and political systems, languages,
cultures, and beliefs, and are determined to maintain and develop this distinct identity;
they exhibit strong attachment to their ancestral lands and the natural resources
contained therein; and/or they belong to the non-dominant groups of a society and
identify themselves as indigenous peoples" (Minority Rights: International Standards and
Guidance for Implementation, UN and Geneva 2010).
 In the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007),
indigenous people are acknowledged to have suffered from "historic justices as a result
of their colonization and dispossession of their lands, territories, and resources, thus
preventing them from exercising, in particular, their right to development in accordance
with their own needs and interests."
 The very first State of the World's Indigenous Peoples (SOWIP) (2010) prepared by the
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) highlighted very
disturbing statistics on indigenous people's sufferings both in developing and developed
countries: human rights abuses committed against them, marginalization, excessive
poverty, absence or lack of quality education, poor health, unsanitary and poor living
conditions, malnutrition, unemployment and unequal opportunities for employment, and
expulsion from their lands.
 Mr. Sha Zukang, Under-Secretary-General for Economic and Social Affairs, in his
foreword for the SOWIP (2010) said that even their languages, their value systems,
culture, traditions, and their way of life is being continuously vulnerable to threats of
destruction.
 Focusing on education, indigenous people generally lack access to education because
they usually stay in places that are quite far from schools and also because of their
marginalized status in the community.
 The curriculum of the schools they get into, if there is a school available for their children
to go to, is not adapted to their culture and language. They are not included or even
consulted in decision-making processes that identify the kind of education they need, the
curriculum that will be implemented, and the teachers who will teach them. Even the
materials that they use are problematic because these feature stereotypical and
inaccurate views on indigenous people.
 A consequence of all these is an "education gap"-in the same countries, there are less
indigenous students who enroll, more indigenous students who dropout, and lower
achievement outcomes than non-indigenous people.
 Another consequence is the destruction of their culture and the loss of their identity.
  The Declaration of Rights of Indigenous People (2007) notes that quality education is
significant for indigenous people. It declares that indigenous people have the right to
build and manage their own system of education using their own language, considering
their very own cultural diversity. It declares that indigenous people have the right to use,
pass on, and invigorate their languages, traditions, beliefs, value systems, literature,
culture, ceremonies, practices, and way of writing to the next generations of children
through education UNESCO has international frameworks, guides, guidelines, tools, and
tool kits for ensuring inclusion and equity for indigenous people in education.
 For inclusion to take root in education, awareness, respect, and tolerance for cultural
diversity are significant components.

C. Abused Children

 The World Health Organization (WHO) defines child maltreatment as "the abuse and
neglect that occurs to children under 18 years of age.
 It includes all types of physical and/or emotional ill-treatment, sexual abuse, neglect,
negligence, and commercial or other exploitation, which results in actual or potential
harm to the child's health, survival, development, or dignity in the context of a
relationship of responsibility, trust, or power.
 Exposure to intimate partner violence is also sometimes included as a form of child
maltreatment."
 (WHO 2016) Child maltreatment is identified globally as a valid "social, public health,
and human rights issue."
 Child maltreatment or child abuse is a serious matter that has direct, extensive, and life-
time effects on children. It may lead to physical harm or impairments, negatively affect
cognitive functioning and socio-emotional adjustment, weaken the nervous and immune
systems, and lead to death.

D. Refugees or Displaced Children

 The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) defines refugee as
"someone who has been forced to flee his or her country because of persecution, war, or
violence.
 A refugee has a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion,
nationality, political opinion, or membership in a particular social group. Most likely, they
cannot return home or are afraid to do so.
 War and ethnic, tribal, and religious violence are leading causes of refugees fleeing their
countries." (UNHCR).
 An internally displaced person, or IDP, is "someone who has been forced to flee their
home but never cross an international border. These individuals seek safety anywhere
they can find it-in nearby towns, schools, settlements, internal camps, even forests and
fields.
 Unlike refugees, IDPs are not protected by international law or eligible to receive many
types of aid because they are legally under the protection of their own government."
(UNHCR)
  The refugees and the internally displaced children have something in common-they are
not in their homes, they are not secure. There is also a big possibility that they could be
or are separated from their family, friends, and community. They are lonely and feel they
are treated unfairly. They are in a situation that does not allow them to enjoy freedom of
movement and also freedom to go to school. They are often mixed with people from
different cultures and beliefs. They live in tents or desolate housing facilities that are
boxed in by barbed wires or fences. They are in distress, scared, and uncertain about
what is going to happen to them, for how long and what their future is going to be like.
 The Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention of Child's Rights emphasize that
education is the right of every person, every child. This means that education policies
are in place.
 The 2030 United Nations Agenda for Sustainable Development considers education as
essential to the advancement of humankind. It is clearly stated that "UN Sustainable
Development Goal #4, which calls for ensuring inclusive and quality education for all and
promoting lifelong learning. Its specific objectives include: ensuring that all girls and boys
have access to quality early childhood development, care, and pre-primary education so
that they are ready for primary education, eliminating gender disparities in education,
and ensuring equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the
vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples, and children in
vulnerable situations by 2030."

Hindrances to the quality of education given to these children:

1. Countries that host them are unable to protect refugee rights to education simply
because they themselves have a distended system of education and vulnerable
government and economic institutions.
2. Because of the length of time refugees and displaced children are in resettlement and
refugee areas, educational resources given to them do not allow for quality education-
shifts to accommodate children, over tire the teachers, and shorten learning time.
3. Language and the lack of materials is also a concern.
4. The children who have been exposed to war and violence demonstrate signs of psycho-
social problems that are not addressed (Cardarelli 2018).

E. Children in Conflict Zones

 "All wars, whether just or unjust, disastrous or victorious, are waged against the child."-
Eglantyne Jebb
 In December 2018, Manuel Fontaine, UNICEF Director for Emergency Programs, said,
"Children living in conflict zones around the world have continued to suffer through
extreme levels of violence over the past 12 months, and the world has continued to fail
them.
 It is said that children in counties that are at war are being used as "human shields,
killed, maimed, or recruited to fight.
 Rape, forced marriage, and abduction have become standard tactics in conflicts from
Syria to Yemen, and from the Democratic Republic of the Congo to Nigeria, South
Sudan, and Myanmar (UNICEF Press Release 2018).
  "The UN has identified 6 categories of human rights violations against children, known
as the 6 grave violations.
 These violations include the killing and maiming of children, the abduction of children,
the recruitment or use of children as soldiers, sexual violence against children, attacks
against schools or hospitals, and the denial of humanitarian access. The first 4 are direct
acts of violence against children, and the last 2 are indirect actions that cause harm to
children and directly relate to health care and health workers.
 There are countless effects of armed conflict on children who are very vulnerable and
unable to protect themselves. The effect on the children's education: enrolment is going
down, a lot of children are dropping out of school, school conditions are bad, there are
low levels of educational attainment, and abuse is committed. (Kadir et al. 2018)

THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

DEFINITIONS OF CURRICUM

 Curriculum as a list of subjects. Suggest that curriculum is the “permanent” or the

traditional subjects offered in the school curriculum such as Mathematics, Language,
Science, Music, Arts, and others.
 Curriculum as learning experiences. Includes students’ curricular and co-curricular
activities and the learning experiences they encounter inside or outside the school.
 Curriculum as intended learning outcomes. List of learning competencies or
standards that students should learn in school.
 Curriculum as planned learning experiences. Documents specifying contents,
objectives, or general ideas of what students should know in schools or in a specific
discipline.
 Curriculum as a discipline. It has its own principles, theories, and practices.
 Curriculum as content or subject matter. Views the curriculum as a series of topics
under each subject area.
TYPES OF CURRICULUM OPERATING IN SCHOOL

 Recommended curriculum. The curriculum may come from a national agency like the
Department of Education, Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Department of
Science and Technology (DOST) or any professional organization who has stake in
education. For example, the Philippine Association for Teacher Education (PAFTE) or
the Biology Teacher Association (BIOTA) may recommend a curriculum to be
implemented in the elementary or secondary education.
 Written Curriculum. It includes documents, course of the study or syllabi handed down
by the school districts, division, departments or colleges of implementation. An example
of this is Basux Education Curriculum (BEC) and lesson plans.
 Different planned activities which are put into action in the classroom compose the
taught curriculum. It varies according to the learning style of students and the teaching
styles of the teachers.
 Supported Curriculum. These are the materials which should support or help in the
implementation of a written curriculum. This includes the material resources such as
textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials, laboratory equipment, playgrounds, and
other facilities.
 Assessed Curriculum. Refers to a tested or evaluated curriculum. Assessment tools
like a pencil-and-paper test, authentic instruments like portfolio are being utilized.
 Learned Curriculum. Refers to the learning outcome achieved by the students.
 Hidden Curriculum. This is the unintended curriculum which is not deliberately planned
but may modify behavior or influence learning outcomes. Peer-influence, school
environment, physical condition, teacher-learner interaction, mood of the teacher and
other factor make up the hidden curriculum.

OTHER TYPES OF CURRICULUM

 Entitlement Curriculum. It refers to what the people or the general society believed the
learners should expect to learn in the educational system for them to become good
members of the society.
 Null or Censored Curriculum. This refers to various curriculum contents or topics that
must not be taught to the students. (Tanner & Tanner, 2007)
THINGS TO CONSIDER IN DESIGNING CURRICULUM

Two major forces considered in designing curriculum.

 Horizontal Organization. Referred to as scope and horizontal integration that is

concerned with the arrangement of curriculum components at any point in time
(Print, 1993)
 Vertical Organization. Focuses on the spiral progression of curriculum contents.

CURRICULUM CONCEPTIONS

 Academic Rationalist Conception. Oldest among the curriculum conceptions.

Stresses the importance of different bodies of knowledge, known as disciplines or
subject areas, as the focus of the curriculum.
 Cognitive Processes Conceptions. Develop a repertoire of cognitive skills that are
applicable to a wide range of intellectual problems.
 Humanistic Conception. Stresses the idea that curriculum or education is an
instrument for developing the full potential of individuals.
 Social Reconstructionist Conception. Views the school or schooling as an agency for
social change.
 Technological Conception. Preoccupied with the development of means to achieve
curriculum or educational goals.
 Eclectic Conception. Where curriculum workers find themselves aligning their ideas
with two or more curriculum conceptions.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN CAREER AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION

 ---As a curriculum is being developed, the career and technical educator is obligated to
deal with these concerns in such a way that quality is built into the "finished product" or
graduate.
  Data-based

 The contemporary career and technical and technical curriculum cannot function
properly unless it is data-based.
 Curriculum content decisions should be made after a variety of data, such as
student characteristics and the nature of the occupation being prepared for, have
been gathered and examined.
 In fact, the use of data as a basis for curriculum decisions cannot be
overemphasized.

 Dynamic
 Just as career and technical and technical education is in a dynamic state, its
curricula must likewise, be dynamic.
 Provision must be made to redirect, modify, or even eliminate an existing
curriculum anytime this action can be fully justified.

 Explicit Outcomes
 To the extent that outcomes are explicit, we will be able to tell whether students
achieve them and how the outcomes relate to a particular occupation or field.
 This is perhaps the most commanding reason for ensuring that curriculum
outcomes are clear and precise.
 However, these goals are only valid to the extent that they can be communicated
in a more explicit manner.

 Fully Articulated
 Curriculum articulation may involve the resolution of content conflicts across different
areas or the development of a logical instructional flow from one year to the next.

Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principle.

 Tyler's Model show that in curriculum development, the following consideration should
have made: (1) Purpose of the school, (2) educational experiences related to the
purposes, (3) Organization of the experiences, and (4) Evaluation of the experiences.
  Hilda Taba She believed that teachers who teach or implement the curriculum should
participate in developing it.

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

 Perennialism - to educate the rational person; to cultivate the intellect. It focuses in

classical subjects, literary analysis; curriculum is constant.
 Essentialism - to promote the intellectual growth of the individual and educate a
competent person. It focuses in the essential skills of the essential subjects of English,
Math, History, and Foreign Language.
 Progressivism - to promote democratic and social living. Curriculum is focused on the
students' interest, human problems and affairs.
 Reconstructionism - to improve and reconstruct society Education for change.
Curriculum focus on present and future trends and issues of national and international
interests.

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

 Frank Bobbit (1876-1956)- Presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes in

students need. Curriculum prepared students for adult life.
 Werret Charters (1875-1952) - He gives emphasis on students' need. The listing of
objects and matching these with corresponding activities ensures that the content or
subject is related to objects.
 William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) - Curricula is purposeful activities which are child-
centered. The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth. The
curriculum develops social relationship and small group interaction.
 Harold Rugg (1876-1960) Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child
centered. The curriculum develops social studies and the teacher plans curriculum in
advance.
 Hollis Caswell (1901-1988) - Sees curricula as organized around social function of
themes, organized knowledge and learners interest. He believed is a set of experience.
  Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)- He believed curriculum is based on students need and
interest. To Tyler, curriculum, is always related to instruction. The curriculum aims to
educate generalists and not specialists.

DEVELOPING TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM LEADERS

 Teacher Empowerment. Teachers need to be empowered to make important decisions,

solve problems, take actions, and innovate in their own schools and classes.
 Efficient System. Teachers need to work in an efficient working environment. They
need to be part of a system that is collaborative, professional, and effective.
 Mentoring System. Teachers, especially the neophyte teachers, need mentoring from
effective and model mentors.
 Administrative Support. Teachers will need full support from the administration
especially when they want to innovate or develop good programs for the school and for
their students.
 Learning Community. Teachers must experience to work in a learning community
where all behave as professionals avoiding any forms of professional jealousies and free
from insecurities.

TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM LEADERS IN THE K-12 EDUCATION REFORM

Republic Act 10533 (Enhanced Basic Education Act of the Philippines).

 Includes specific provisions for teachers and principals to exercise leadership roles not
only instruction but also in curriculum.
 Latest educational reform in Philippine Education signed into law by President Benigno
Aquino III last May 15, 2013.The Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 popularly
known as K to 12 includes on (1) year of Kindergarten education, six (6) years of
elementary education, and six (6) years of secondary education. This six-year secondary
education includes four (4) of junior high school and two (2) years of Senior High School.
With K to 12, the existing 10 years of basic education is increased to 12 years with
Kindergarten education as a prerequisite to entry in Grade 1.
  When K to 12 was launched in 2012, many Filipinos were apprehensive because of the
addition of two (2) more years in secondary schooling.
 Others said, the K to 12 program is doomed to fail since it does not address the basic
problems in education like lack of classrooms, chairs, books, teachers, quality teaching
and many more.

Republic Act 9155 (Governance of Basic Education Act of 2001).

 Specifies important provisions wherein teachers play important roles to promote and
protect the rights of every citizen to quality basic education.

Republic Act 10157 (The Kindergarten Education Act).

 Integrates kindergarten education in the formal education system of the country.

In organizing or putting together different learning contents the following principles were
suggested by Palma, 1992:

 Balance - curriculum content should be fairly distributed in-depth and breadth of the
particular learning area or discipline.
 Articulation - when each level of subject matter is smoothly connected to the next,
glaring gaps and wasteful overlaps in the subject matter will be avoided. Teamwork
among teachers will enhance the articulation of contents in the curriculum.
 Sequence - is the logical arrangement of the subject matter. It refers to the deepening
and broadening of content as it is taken up in the higher levels.
 Integration - the horizontal connections are needed in subject areas that are similar so
that learning will he related to one another.
 Continuity - learning requires continuing application of the new knowledge, skills,
attitudes or values so that these will be used daily living. It is the constant repetition,
review, and reinforcement of learning.

CONTENT, INPUT, PRODUCT, PROCESS (CIPP)

  Context - the environment of the curriculum. The real situation where the curriculum is
operating is its context
 Input- the ingredients of the curriculum which includes the goals, instructional strategies,
the learners, the teachers, and contents and all the materials needed.
 Process- the ways and means of how the curriculum has been implemented
 Product - indicates if the curriculum accomplishes its goals. It will determine to what
extent the curriculum objectives have been achieved.

CURRICULUM APPROACHES

 Behavioral Approach - behavioral approach to curriculum is usually based on a

blueprint. In the blueprint, goals and objectives are specified, contents, and activities are
also arranged to match the learning objectives. Behavioral approach which was started
with the idea of Frederick is aimed to achieved efficiency.
 Managerial Approach - the principal is the curriculum leader and at the same time
instruction leader who supposed to be the general manager.
 System Approach - in the system approach to curriculum, the parts of the total school
district or school are examined in terms of how they relate each other. The
organizational chart of the school represents system approach.
 Humanistic Approach - It is rooted in the progressive philosophy and child-centered
movement. It considers the formal or planned curriculum and the informal or hidden
curriculum. The learner is at the center of the curriculum.

THINGS TO CONSIDER IN IMPLEMENTING THE CURRICULUM

 Government Requirements. Include memoranda, policies, guidelines, and

requirements from the Department of Education, Commission on Higher Education, and
the Technical Education Skills Development Authority.
 School Philosophy, Vision and Mission, and Core Values. Must be considered at the
school level especially when selecting the specific contents and learning experiences for
all students enrolled in each program.
 Learning Environment. Includes the various school facilities required for the
implementation of each program.
  Needs and Demands of the Society. Curriculum can address these needs and
demands in the macro level by adding subjects or contents, or in the local school level
by integrating specific competencies in the various syllabi for each course.
 Needs of the Students. Including interests, are considered when the school develops
academic policies and in the preparation of course syllabi.
 Faculty Expertise. The faculty is considered as the most important assets of each
school, college or university.
 The Changing Nature of Knowledge. Includes the theories and research from different
areas and professional organizations in the academe that are also influential in the
implementation of the curriculum.

CURRICULUM WORKERS

 Teachers. The most visible among the curriculum workers. Develop lesson plans, unit
plans, yearly plans, and syllabi for each subject they teach.
 Principals. The chief academic and administrative officer of the school. Provide
curricular and instructional leadership and supervision to the teachers and other school
personnel in the local context. Check the lessons plans developed by each teacher.
 Curriculum Consultants. Individuals with a rich experience on doing curriculum
projects related to curriculum planning, curriculum development, and curriculum
evaluation.
 District Supervisors. Responsible for supervising the implementation of the curriculum
in the district level. Help the principals ensuring that the programs of the Department of
Education are implemented in their respective schools.
 Education Supervisors. Assigned to specific subject areas in basic education they help
the district office of the DepEd in supervising the implementation of projects and
programs specific for each subject area.
 Division Superintendents. The chief academic officer of each division. They supervise
the implementation of the DepEd curriculum, programs, and projects in the division level
for both public and private schools.
 Regional Directors. Manage the programs and projects of the Department of Education
in the regional level.
  Education Program Specialists. Work at the national level or at the central offices of
the Commission on Higher Education and the Department of Education. They assist two
government agencies in the development of curriculum policies that will help teachers
and other curriculum leaders in the implementation of curriculum.
 Technical Panels and Technical Committees. Professors and individual experts from
different disciplines ad fields that assist the Commission on Higher Education in
developing curriculum, formulating curriculum policies, and evaluating the compliance of
higher education institutions to CHED program standards.

THINGS TO CONSIDER IN DESIGNING CURRICULUM

Two major forces considered in designing curriculum.

 Horizontal Organization. Referred to as scope and horizontal integration that is

concerned with the arrangement of curriculum components at any point in time
(Print, 1993)
 Vertical Organization. Focuses on the spiral progression of curriculum contents.

Aims of Elementary Education (Education Act of 1982) - in the elementary level, school
through their curricula should aim to provide learning experiences which increase the child's
awareness of and responsiveness to the changes in the society; provide knowledge and
develop skills, and attitudes values essential to personal developments.

• Cognitive Domain - domain of thought process

• Affective Domain - domain jnvaluinh, attitude, and appreciation

• Psychomotor Domain - domain of the use of psychomotor attributes.

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION DEFINED

  It is one of the most crucial processes in curriculum development although many
education planners would say "A good plan is work half done."
 Putting into practice the written curriculum has been designed in syllabi, course of study,
curricular guides, and subjects.
 Ornstein Hunkins in (1998) defined curriculum implementation as the interaction
between the curriculum that has been written and planned and the persons (teachers)
who are in charge to deliver it.
 Loucks and Lieberman (1983) define curriculum implementation as the trying out of a
new practice and what it looks like when actually used in a school system.
 In higher Education, Curriculum implementation happens for the course, a degree
program, the institution, or the whole higher education system.
 It requires time, money, personal interaction, personal contacts, and support.

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AS A CHANGE PROCESS

 Kurt Lewin (1951), the father of social psychology explains the process of change. The
model can be used to explain curriculum change and implementation.
 Two forces that oppose each other: Driving force and Restraining force; when these two
forces are equal, the state is equilibrium or balanced. However, when the driving force
overpowers the restraining force, then change will occur.
 According to Lewin, change will be better if the restraining forces shall be decreased,
rather than increasing the driving force.

CATEGORIES OF CURRICULUM CHANGE (MCNEIL IN 2000 CATEGORIZED

CURRICULUM CHANGE AS FOLLOWS:

 Substitution. The current curriculum will be replaced or substituted by a new one.

 Alteration. There is a minor change to the current existing curriculum.
 Restructuring. Building a new structure would mean major changes or modifications in
the school system.
 Perturbations. These are changes that are disruptive, but teachers have to adjust to
them within a fairly short time.
  Value Orientation. To Mcniel, this is a type of curriculum change. Perhaps this
classification will respond to the shift in the emphasis that the teachers provide which are
not within the mission or vision of the school or vice versa.
 As a process, curriculum implementation should be developmental, participatory and
supportive.
 DEVELOPMENTAL in the sense that it should develop multiple perspectives, increase
integration and make learning autonomous, create a climate of openness and trust, and
appreciate and affirm strengths of the teacher. There should be teacher support in trying
new tasks, reflection on the new experiences and challenge.
 There are simple stages in the developmental changes process for teachers. First, is
orientation and preparation

PARTICIPATORY

 For curriculum implementation to succeed, it should be participatory, especially because

other stakeholders like peers, school leaders, parents and curriculum specialists are
necessary.
 This should be coupled with organizational structure, principal style, students’ population
characteristics and other factors.
 Participation builds a learning community which is very necessary in curriculum
implementation.

SUPPORTIVE

 Requires in the process change.

 The school leader or head should provide full school or institutional support to the
implementation of the new curriculum.
 Time is an important commodity for a successful change process; Time is needed by the
teachers to plan, adapt, train or practice, provide the necessary requirements and get
support; Time is also needed to determine when the implementation starts and when it
will conclude since curriculum implementation is time-bound.
IMPLEMENTING A CURRICULUM DAILY IN THE CLASSROOMS

DepEd Order No. 70 s. 2012.

 Teachers of all public elementary and secondary schools will not be required to prepare
detailed lesson plans.

LEVELS OF KNOWLEDGE

 Factual knowledge. Ideas, specific data or information

 Conceptual knowledge. Words or ideas known by common name, common features,
and multiple specific examples which may either be concrete or abstract. Concepts are
facts that interrelate with each other to function together.
 Procedural knowledge. How things work, step-by-step actions, methods of inquiry.
 Metacognitive Knowledge. Knowledge of cognition in general, awareness of
knowledge of one's own cognition, thinking about thinking.

Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO) should be written in a SMART way.

 SPECIFIC
 MEASURABLE
 ATTAINABLE
 RESULT ORIENTED(Outcomes)
 TIME-BOUND

ii. Subject Matter or Content. (SM)

 Comes from a body of knowledge (facts, concepts, procedure and metacognition) that
will be learned through the guidance of the teacher. Subject matter is the WHAT in
teaching.

ii. Procedure or Methods and Strategies

  This is the crux of curriculum implementation. How a teacher will put life to the intended
outcomes and the subject matter to be used depends on this component.
 Students have different learning styles. There are many classifications of learning styles
according to the different authors.
 Multiple Intelligence Theory of Howard Garner implies several learning styles.

SEQUENCING CURRICULUM CONTENT

Print (1993) identified the following design principles that are most commonly
used to sequence the curriculum contents:
 Simple to Complex. This is traditionally applied to disciplines like Math, Language,
Science, or Music. Arranged in a progressive-spiral sequence.
 Prerequisite Learning. This principle is followed in subjects and courses that largely
consist of laws and principles like Geometry, Algebra, and Physics. To understand the
laws and principles, students should learn the basic prerequisite knowledge and
concepts.
 Chronology. This design principle suggests sequencing of content according to
chronology of events. History is an example.
 Whole-to-Part Learning. This is a deductive approach to designing contents. One must
see the big picture of ideas to understand the specific concepts and skills.
 Increasing Abstraction. Content can be sequenced according to the idea or principle
that a student can learn most effectively if the concept or skill is related or relevant to
own personal experiences.

TEACHING PROCESS

 Planning phase - includes decision about the learners' need, the achievable goals and
objectives to meet the needs, selection of content, strategies most fit to carry out the
goals, and the evaluation process to measure learning outcomes.
 Implementation phase - thinks a process to put into action the different activities in
order to achieve the objectives through the subject matter. Two important players are
involved: the teacher and the learner.
  Evaulation phase - a match of the objectives with the learning outcomes will be made.
This phase will answer the question if the plans and implementation have been
successfully achieved.

ELEMENTS OF A CURRICULUM

 Curriculum Intent. The term used by Print (1993) to mean the direction that curriculum
developers wish to take as a result of participating in the curriculum. It includes the aims,
goals, and objectives.
 Learning Experiences. Include all instructional strategies that are useful for the
implementation of the curriculum. These may appear in a form of activities, strategies,
methods, or approaches that are useful in implementing the curriculum in teaching the
content.
 Evaluation. Includes the different ways of tools used for evaluating whether or not the
curriculum intents were realized.

THE THEORY

The following principles should be kept in mind when framing a curriculum.

 The Conservative Principle. It has been stated that nations live in the present, on the
past and for the future. It means that the present, the past and the future needs of the
community should be taken into consideration.
 The Forward-looking Principle. Children of today are the future citizens of tomorrow.
Their education should be such as to enable them to be progressive minded persons.
 The Creation Principle. Enable the child to exercise his creative and constructive
powers. To discover and to develop special interests, tastes and aptitudes.
 The Activity Principle. The curriculum should be thought in terms of activity and
experience, rather than of knowledge to be acquired and facts to be stored.
 Principle Preparation for Life. The most important principle in the construction of the
curriculum. We have to prepare him in such a way as he is capable of facing the various
challenges of the complex problems of the future.
 Child-centered Curriculum. It is true that the child is to be prepared for life. But this
does not mean that his immediate interests should be sacrificed for the sake of the
future.
 Principle of Maturity. Curriculum should be according to the grade of the pupils and to
their stage of mental and physical development.
 Principle of Individual Differences. Individuals differ in taste, temperament, skill,
experience, aptitude, innate ability and in sex. The curriculum should be adapted to
individual differences.
 Vertical and Horizontal Articulations. Each year’s course should be built on what has
been done in previous years and at the same time should serve as basis for subsequent
work. It is absolutely essential that the entire curriculum should be coordinated.
 Principle of Linking with Life. The community needs and characteristics should be
kept in view while framing the curriculum.
 Principle of Comprehensiveness and Balance. Curriculum should be framed in such
a way as every aspect of life of life i.e., economic relationships, social activities,
occupations and spiritual life, is given due emphasis.
 Principle of Loyalties. The curriculum should be planned in such a manner that it
teaches a true sense of loyalty to the family, the school, the community, the town, the
province, the country and the world at large. It should enable the child to understand that
there is unity in diversity.
 Flexibility. Curriculum should take into consideration the special needs and
circumstances of the pupils. Curriculum should have variation according to the specific
needs of locality.
 Principle of Core or Common Subjects. There are certain broad areas of knowledge,
skill and appreciation with which all the children must be made conversant and these
should find a place in the curriculum.
 Principle of Leisure. According to Herbert Spencer, Literature, Music and Art occupy
the leisure part of life and should, therefore, occupy the leisure part of education.
 Principle of All-round Development of Body, Mind and Spirit. All kinds of
experiences should be provided to the students so that they may develop all their
powers.
 Principle of Democracy, Secularism and Socialism. Curriculum should be such as it
trains the child to imbibe ideals and values of a democratic, secular and socialist state.
  Principle of Character Building. Curriculum should provide those activities and
experiences which promote human and social values.
 Principles of Dignity of Labour. Curriculum should make provision for socially useful
productive work. The students should be provided opportunities to learn from the use of
hands

WAYS OF LEARNING

 Learning by trail and error - this type of learning is related to the stimulus-response
theory of learning. Reaction, action and reaction where the beginning reaction is due to a
stimulus
 Learning by conditioning - Training is the simple term to describe learning here.
Learning here us a product of what the individual does which will result to either pleasant
or unpleasant behavior. Drill and practice are some learning activities based on
conditioning
 Learning by insight - in this type of learning a higher level of intelligence is being
utilized. Insight is looking into oneself with deeper thinking.
 Learning by observation and imitation through modeling - this process of learning
assumes that one learns from someone. It is through observation and imitation from a
model that a person will be able to do a similar thing. Anchored on the social learning of
Albert Bandura, learning is observation and imitation requires a model, hence it is
refereed to as "no trial" learning.

SIX FEATURES OF A CURRICULUM

 Who teaches? - The Teacher

 Who do the teachers teach? - The Learners
 What do tie teachers teach? - Knowledge, Skills, Values
 How do teachers teach? - Strategies and Methods
 How much of the teaching was learned? - Performance
 With whom do we teach? - Community Partners
 Curriculum Monitoring - determines how the curriculum is working, such that the
monitoring report becomes the basis of a decision on what aspects have to be retained,
improved, or modified.
 Curriculum Evaluation - as part of total education evaluation refers to a systematic process
of judging the value, effectiveness and adequacy of a curriculum: its process, product, and
setting which will lead to informed decision.
 School-based Evaluation - is an approach to curriculum evaluation which places the
content, design, operation, and maintenance of evaluation procedure in the hands of the
school personnel.
 Accreditation - this is a voluntary process of submitting a curricular program to an external
accrediting body for review in any level of education: basic, tertiary or graduate school to
assure standard.
 Curriculum Assessment - is the process of collecting information for use in evaluation.
 Intended Curriculum - refers to a set of objectives set at the beginning of any curricular
plan. It established the goal, the specific purposes, and the mediate objectives to be
accomplished.
 Implemented Curriculum - refers to the various learning activities or experiences of the
students in order to be achieve the intended curricular outcomes.
 Achieved Curriculum - refers to the curriculum outcomes based on the intended and
implemented curriculum. It is now considered the product.
 Supplantive Approach - this is referred to as direct instruction. In here, teacher attempts to
promote learning by providing explicit directions and explanations regarding his to do a tank.
 Generative Approach - this referred to as "comstructivist" or "developmental". In here the
teacher function as a facilitator who takes a less central role in a learning process that is
student-directed.
 Evaluation - process of using information that is collected through assessment. It is the
process of something or the extent to which goals are being achieved. It is the judgement
we make about the assessment of students learning based on establish criteria.
 Inference - is the process of arriving at a logical conclusion from the body of evidence.
 Instruction - refers to the various ways of teaching, teaching styles, approaches,
techniques, and steps in delivering the curriculum.
 In GENERIC COMPETENCY MODEL learners are enrolled in three to four linked or related
courses or subject areas.
 Third Elementary Education Program. (TEEP) - the project focused only on the
elementary level and the goals were improved learning achievement, improved completion
rates, access to quality elementary education.
 Secondary Education Improvement and Development Program (SEDIP) - its purpose
was to improve equitable access to secondary education in poverty affected areas.

THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN DELIVERING THE CURRICULUM

 The role of technology in the curriculum springs from the very vision of the e-Philippine
plan (e stands for electronic).
 This points to the need for an e-curriculum or a curriculum that delivers learning
consonant with the Information Technology and Communications Technology (ICT)
revolution.
 This framework presupposes that curriculum delivery adopts ICT as an important tool in
education while users implement-learning strategies that conform to the digital
environment.
 Thus among the educational goals desired for achievement is the honing of
competencies and skills of a new breed of students, now better referred to as a
generation competent in literacies to the 3 Rs (or reading, 'riting and 'rithmetic) but
influences, more particularly: problem-solving fluency, information access and retrieval
of text/images/sound/video fluency, social networking fluency, media influence, and
digital creativity fluency.

EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM

 Curriculum evaluation is a component of curriculum development that responds to public

accountability.
 It is establishing the merit and worth of a curriculum.
 Merit refers to the value and worth of the curriculum. Test results will only be used as
one of the pieces of evidence of evaluation.

1. Curriculum Program Evaluation

 Refers to the overall aspects of a curriculum as a subject, degree program,
curriculum reform program and the like.
  Program Evaluation will be using program evaluation models like Bradley
Effectiveness Model, Tyler's Objectives Centered Model, Shufflebeam's CIPP
Model, and Scriven's Consumer-Oriented Model among others.

2. Components of a Curricular Program

 This will cover separate evaluations for a curriculum component such as (1) Achieved
Learning Outcomes (2) Teaching Learning Process (3) Instruction Materials (4)
Assessment of the Learning Outcomes.
 Curricular program component evaluation refers directly to the assessment of
curriculum contents and processes as implemented every day in view of the learning
outcomes as either formative or summative.

CURRICULUM EVALUATION MODELS

Bradley Effectiveness Model

 In 1985, L.H. Bradley wrote a hand book on Curriculum Leadership and Development.
This book provides indicators that can help measure the effectiveness of a developed
or written curriculum.

Stake Responsive Model

 Is oriented more directly to program activities than program activities than program
intents.

"It takes the whole village to educate a child" is an old proverb that came from Africa.

PEDAGOGICAL APPROACHES TO DELIVER THE CONTENT AND ACHIEVE THE

OUTCOMES
  Face-to-Face (F2F). A traditional delivery mode where the teacher and the students
are physically present to hold classes in a designated place. One class can be taken
as a whole group or small groups at one setting. The different strategies maybe
utilized appropriate to the student grouping.
 Distance Learning or Remote Learning. On line or printed module. Distance
learning is a delivery mode where the students and teachers are not physically present
in one designated place or classroom.
 Blended Learning or Flexible Learning. This is a combination of the F2F and the
Distance learning. The whole course will be using the two delivery modes and should
be reflected in the curriculum syllabi.
 Experiential Learning. (Lifelong learning). Following the theory of learning by
doing, experiential learning approach allows the learners to experience learning first
hand. Sometimes it is also called immersion, apprenticeship or practicum.

ACRONYMS

BEC - Basic Education Curriculum

PTA - Parent Teacher Association

CHED - Commission on Higher

PRC - Professional Regulation Commission

DOST - Department of Science and Technology

PAFTE - Philippines Association for Teacher Education

BIOTA - Biology Teacher Association

BEE - Bureau of Elementsry Education

BSE - Bureau of Secondary Education

INSET - In-service training for Teacher

NCBTS - National Competency-Based Teacher Standard

TESDA - Technical Education and Skills Development Authority

OJT - On the Job Training

CDC - Curriculum Development Committee

References:

G.T. Pawilen (2015), Curriculum Development. A Guide for Teachers and Students.

G.T. Pawilen (2019), The Teacher and the School Curriculum. A Guide to Curriculum
Development Practice

P. Bilbao, F. Dayagbil, B. Corpuz (2020), The Teacher and the School Curriculum

P. Bilbao, P. Lucido, T. Iringan, R. Javier, Curriculum Development

P. Sharma (2009), Curriculum Planning and Development

S.S. Verma (2013), Curriculum Planning and Development

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING)

REVIEWER

Nature of Inquiry-Based Learning

Inquiry, in its simplest definition, is a process of asking questions. According to the Future of
Jobs Report during the World Economic Forum, top three of the ten skills needed in this age are
complex problem solving, critical thinking and creativity (Gray, 2016) which all start from the
process of asking.
Chisholm and Godley (2011) purport that inquiry-based instruction (181), which is also referred
to as inquiry-based learning (IBL), offers an especially appropriate approach to learning about
science since IBI can provide students with opportunities to investigate and learn practical skills
through hands-on activities. As for mathematics, IBI can help students focus on how to solve
problems in different but logical ways.
Types of Inquiry

VIU (2020) presented four types of inquiry that can be used in facilitating classes. These are:
1. Structured Inquiry - This lets the students follow the lead of the teacher as the entire class
engages in one inquiry together.
2. Controlled Inquiry - The teacher chooses topics and identifies the resources the students
will use to answer questions.
3. Guided Inquiry - The teacher chooses topics or questions and students design the product
or solution.
4. Free Inquiry - Students are allowed to choose their own topics without any reference to a
prescribed outcome.

Nature of Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning is an approach that involves a process of inquiry and solving open-
ended questions that serve as the main problem that the learners will work on. The type of
questions posited is focused on a specific content standard and its application to real life issues.
It also requires more than one answer or solution.
Ali (2019) described PBL as a process that is used to identify problems with a scenario to
increase the knowledge and understanding. In her research article, she proposed the following
five principles of PBL that can be considered by teachers in planning or using the approach:
1. Independent and self-directed learning
2. Learning happens in a group and teacher is a facilitator.
3. All groups have to participate equally.
4. Students learn about motivation, teamwork, problem-solving and engagement with the
task.
5. Materials such as data, photographs, articles, can be used to solve the problem. (p. 73)
Lo (2009, p. 208) proposed a six-stage process that was used in the adoption of the online PBL:

1. Identifying the problem - current issues that do not have just one answer or one definite
solution;
Brainstorming - generate ideas; tackle the problem through self- directed questioning;
arouse students' intrinsic motivation;
2. Collecting and analyzing the information members to collect information: posting what they
found and what they learned; collaborative collection of useful information,
3. Synthesizing information assigning group solving the problem through relevant
data synthesized; knowledge building:
4. Co-building knowledge learning problem/ issue, and presentation of the solution to the
5. Refining the outcomes-giving of feedback and suggestions by the instructor to help
students improve; learning from other group's presentation.

The Bands in Dale's Cone of Experience

  Direct purposeful experiences - These refer to foundation of experiencing learning.
Using the senses, meaningful knowledge and understanding are established. This is
experiential learning where one learns by doing.
 Contrived experiences - It is in this category that representations such as models,
miniatures, or mock ups are used. There are things or events that may be beyond the
learners’ grasp and so contrived experiences can provide a substitute.
 Dramatized experiences - These are commonly used as activities that o students to
actively participate in a reconstructed experience through playing or dramatization.
 Demonstrations - When one decides to show how things are done, demonstration is the
most appropriate experience. It is an actual execution of a procedure or a process.
 Study trips - These are actual visits to certain locations to observe, situation or a case
which may not be available inside the classroom.
 Exhibits - These are displays of models such as pictures, artifacts, posters, among others
that provide the message or information. These are basically viewed, however, there are
currently exhibits that allow the viewers manipulate or interact with the display and as a
result, the exhibit becomes more engaging and fun.
 Television and motion pictures - This technology equipment provide a two- dimensional
reconstruction of a reality. These allow learners to experience the situation being
communicated through the mediated tools. They provide a feeling of realism as viewers try
to understand the message portrayed by actors in the films.
 Still pictures, Recordings, Radio - Still are pictures or images. Together in this category
are the audio-recorded materials or information broadcast through the radio.
 Visual symbols - These are more abstract representations of the concept or the
information. Examples of these are information presented through a graph or chart. For
example, a process can be presented using a flow chart.
 Verbal symbols - This category appears to be the most abstract because they may not
exactly look like the concept or object, they represent but are symbols, words, codes or
formulae.

TPACK is a framework that combines the teacher's three knowledge areas: technological
knowledge, content knowledge, and pedagogical knowledge. This framework shows the
interconnectedness of content knowledge with pedagogical knowledge and the integration of
technology in making teaching more engaging, relevant and effective.

Another important model in the integration of technology in instruction;

SAMR is a model designed to help educators infuse technology into teaching SAMR is and
learning. Developed by Dr. Ruben Puentedura, the model supports and enables teachers to
design, develop, and infuse digital learning experiences that utilize technology (Nov 9, 2013)

S stands for Substitution. It is literally using technology as an alternate for the regular item that
is employed in augmenting or assisting instruction.
A is Augmentation. In this part of technology integration, there is a functional improvement in
the use of a technology tool. With the google map, you can use the features available such as
measuring the distance from one point to another.
M means Modification. In this level, technology is used to redesign a lesson. When studying
geography for example, google applications have panoramio.
R represents the idea of creating something from the regular item. This is Redefinition.
Technology allows the creation of a new concept that has not been previously conceptualized.
Puentedura labels this as the transformation of learning.

Learners can become...

Contributors - Learners can upload materials such as a video or an audio, post a message,
submit an output in a dropbox or add documents and eBooks and add a picture or contribute to
a digital world using a 'popup.'
Creators - Students can collate a digital portfolio or commonly known as an ePortfolio or create
a virtual poster or an interactive resource. They can produce a digital story, edit the entries and
share.
Communicators - Using technology tools, students can chat with peers.
Collaborators - Capstone projects can Students can participate in posting ideas in a Forum
where there can be an be outputs of collaboration. asynchronous discussion.

Types of Assessment

1. Formative assessment - provides feedback and information during the instructional process,
while learning is taking place, and while learning is occurring.
2. Summative assessment - takes place after the learning has been completed and provides
information and feedback that sums up the teaching and learning process.
3. Diagnostic assessment - can help you identify your students' current knowledge of a
subject, their skill sets and capabilities, and to clarify misconceptions before teaching takes
place. Knowing students' strengths and weaknesses can help you better plan what to teach and
how to teach it.
4. Authentic assessment - describes the multiple forms of assessment that reflect student
learning, achievement, motivation, and attitudes on instructionally relevant classroom activities.

Teaching with Contrived Experiences

Contrived experiences - these are "edited" copies of reality and are used as substitutes for
real things when it is not practical or not possible to bring or do the real thing in the classroom.
The atom, the planetarium is classified as models.
Model - a "reproduction of a real thing in a small scale, or large scale, or exact size but made of
synthetic materials. It is a substitute for a real thing which may or may not be operational"
(Brown, et al,1969). The planetarium may also be considered a mock up.
Mock up - "an arrangement of a real device or associated devices, displayed in such a way that
representation of reality is created. A special model where the parts of a model are singled out,
heightened and magnified in order to focus on that part or process under study.
Specimen - any individual or item considered typical of a group, class or whole.
Simulation - a "representation of a manageable real event in which the learner is an active
participant engaged in learning a behavior or in applying previously acquired skills or
knowledge" (Orlich, et al, 1994).

Teaching with Dramatized Experiences

Dramatized experiences can range from the formal plays, pageants to less formal
tableau, pantomime, puppets and role-playing.

Plays - depict life, character, or culture or a combination of all three. They offer excellent
opportunities to portray vividly important ideas about life.
Pageants - usually community dramas that are based on local history, presented by local
actors. An example is a historical pageant that traces the growth of a school.
Pantomime - the "art of conveying a story through bodily movements only"
Tableau - (a French word which means picture) is a picture-like scene composed of people
against a background. It is often used to celebrate Independence Day, Christmas, and United
Nations Day.
Types of Puppets

Shadow puppets - flat black silhouette made from lightweight cardboard and shown behind a
Screen Rod puppet - flat cut out figures tacked to a stick, with one or more movable parts, and
operated from below the stage level by wire rods or slender sticks
Hand puppets - the puppet's head is operated by the forefinger of the puppeteer, the little
finger and thumb being used to animate the puppet hands
Glove-and-finger puppets - make use of old gloves to which small costumed figure are
attached
Marionettes - flexible, jointed puppets operated by strings or wires attached to a cross bar and
maneuvered from directly above the stage.

Meaning of Educational Technology

The word “technology” comes from the Greek word techne which means craft or art.
Based on the etymology of the word “technology”, the term educational technology, therefore,
refers to the art or craft of responding to our educational needs.
Many people think that technology refers only to machines such as computers, tv,
videos, and the like. All these forms are part of technology but educational technology is all of
these and more, technology is not machines.
Educational Technology
 It is a “planned, systematic method of working to achieve planned outcomes – a process not
a product. So, educational technology refers to how people use their inventions and
discoveries to satisfy their educational needs and desires, i.e., learning.

 Educational technology is a broad term. However, it is given a narrow meaning, to mean just
hardware. It refers to the use of all human inventions and discoveries to satisfy our
educational need and desire, i.e., learning. These inventions and discoveries can be
 devices, tools, equipment, activities, procedures and processes. Included among these
human inventions are the various educational media.

 Educational technology is more than instructional technology in the same way that
education is more than instruction. Technology integration is part of instructional technology
which, in turn, is part of educational technology. Educational Technology is different from
technology in education. The latter refers to the application of technology in the operation of
education institutions while the former refers to the application of technology in the
educative process that takes place in such education institutions.
Technology: Boon or Bane
Technology contributes much to the improvement of the teaching-learning process and
to the humanization of life. It is indeed a blessing. But when not used properly, it becomes a
detriment to instruction and human progress and development.
Technology is made for man and not man for technology. Technology is made for the
teacher and not the teacher for technology. This means that technology is meant to serve man
in all aspects of life including instruction. It is man, and in the context of the classroom, the
teacher, who determines how technology ought to be used in order to reap the maximum
benefits that come along with technology.

The Roles of Educational Technology in Learning

Technology can play a traditional role, i.e., as delivery vehicles for instructional lessons or in a
constructivist way as partners in the learning process.

 From the traditional point of view, technology serves as source and presenter of knowledge.
It is assumed that “knowledge is embedded in technology and the technology presents that
knowledge to the student” (David H. Jonassen, et al, 1999).

 From the constructivist point of view, educational technology serves as learning tools that
learners learn with. It engages learners in active, constructive, intentional, authentic, and
cooperative learning.
Whether used from the traditional or constructivist point of view, when used effectively, research
indicates that technology not only “increases students’ learning, understanding and
achievement but also augments motivation to learn, encourages collaborative learning and
supports the development of critical thinking and problem-solving skills” (Schacter and
Fragnano, 1999).

ICT Competency Standards for Philippine Pre-Service Teacher Education

1. If there is one thing that changed the world so fast, it is Technology.
ICT Competency Standards (CHED-UNESCO) as provided in the 2017, Policy, Standards and
Guidelines (PSG) for Pre-service Teacher Education
The program outcomes for teacher education degrees clearly state that every future
teacher: “demonstrate proficiency in the development and utilization of Information,
Communication and Technology (ICT) resources in promoting quality teaching-learning
process”
2. Likewise, the Department of Education issued Department of Education Order 42, s. 2017
mandating the use of the Philippine Professional Standard for Teachers (PPST) to start with
the Beginning Teachers who are the fresh graduates from the teacher education program.

3. An international organization for educational technology called International Society for

Technology in Education (ISTE), established standards for both teachers and students.

The Basic Concepts in ICT

1) Technology – refers to a mix of process and product used in the application of knowledge.
It includes tools from pencil and paper to the latest electronic gadgets and tools for practical
tasks.
2) Information and Communication Technology Literacy or ICT Literacy – is the use of
digital technology, communication tools and/or networks to access, manage, integrate,
evaluate, create and communicate information in order to function in a knowledge society.
3) Educational Technology – refers to the use of technology in teaching and learning.
Educational technology includes both the non-digital (flip charts, pictures, models, realias,
etc.) and digital (electronic tools: hardware, software and connections, etc.).
4) Digital Literacy – is the ability to find, evaluate, utilize, share and create contents using
information technologies and the Internet (Cornell University). According to American Library
Association (2018), digital literacy is the ability to use information and communication,
requiring both cognitive and technical skills.
5) Digital Learning – is any type of learning that is accompanied by technology or by
instructional practice that makes effective use of technology. It encompasses the application
of a wide spectrum of practices which included blended or virtual learning. It can come as
online or off-line which utilizes digital technology.
6) On-line digital tools and apps use an Internet connection to access the information
needed. A common example is Skype. It is a telecommunication application software
product that specializes in providing video chat and voice calls between computers, tablets,
mobile devices via Internet and to regular telephones.
7) Off-line digital tools and apps can still be used even if there is no internet access. Among
these are Canary Learning, Pocket, Evertone, ibooks, KA LITE downloaded in edtech
review.
8) Instructional technology – is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization,
management, evaluation of the processes and resources for learning.
9) Software – refers to program control instructions and accompanying documentation; stored
on disks or tapes when not being used in the computer. By extension, the term refers to any
audiovisual materials (Smaldino, 2005).
10) Multimedia – is a sequential or simultaneous use of a variety of media formats in a given
presentation or self-study program (Smaldino, 2005).
11) Internet – is a massive network of networks, a networking infrastructure. It connects millions
of computers together globally, forming a network in which any computer can communicate
with any other computer as long as they are connected to the Internet. It is generally defined
as a global network connecting millions of computers.
12) World Wide Web (www) – is also called the Web which is a graphical environment on
computer networks that allows you to access, view and maintain documentations that can
include text, data, sound and videos. It is a way of accessing information over the medium of
the internet. It is an information sharing model that is built on top of the Internet.
13) Web access – is the ability of the learner to access the Internet at any point during the
lesson in order to take advantage of the array of available educational resources.
14) Webquest – is an inquiry-oriented lesson format in which most or all information that
learners work with comes from the web. These can be created using various programs,
including simple word processing documents that include links to websites.
15) Productivity tools – refer to any type of software associated with computers and related
technologies that can be used as tools for personal, professional or classroom productivity.
16) Technology tool – is an instrument used for doing work. It can be anything that help you
accomplish your goal with the use of technology.

According to Egbert (2009) there are three categories of knowledge namely: declarative
knowledge, structural knowledge, and procedural knowledge.
a. Declarative Knowledge – consists of the discrete pieces of information that answers the
questions what, who, when, and where. It is often learned through memorization of facts,
drills and practice. It can be learned by simple mnemonics or conceptual maps. Declarative
knowledge is the fundamental knowledge necessary for students to achieve more complex
higher order thinking such as critical thinking, inquiry and production.
b. Structural knowledge – consists of facts or pieces of declarative knowledge put together to
attain some form of meaning. It can be presented by concept maps, categorization or
classification.
c. Procedural Knowledge – is knowledge in action or the knowledge of how to do something.
It is based on facts but learned through the process of procedural knowledge. It is indicated
by a performance task or graphical representation of a concept.

Creativity is characterized as involving the ability to think flexibly, fluently, originally, and
elaborately (Guildford, 1986 & Torrance, 1974 in Egbert, 2009). Flexibly means able to use
many points of view while fluently means able to generate many ideas. Originally implies
being able to generate new ideas and elaborately means able to add details. Creativity is not
merely a set of technical skills, but it also involves feeling, beliefs, knowledge and motivation.

The New ICT Technologies

More recent technological innovations increased the reach and speed of communications which
can be grouped into three categories:
1. Information Technology – includes the use of computers, which has become
indispensable in modern societies to process data and save time and effort. What are
 needed will be computer hardware and peripherals, software and for the user, computer
literacy.
2. Telecommunication technologies – include telephones (with fax) and the broadcasting
of radio and television often through satellites. Telephone system, radio and TV
broadcasting are needed in this category.
3. Networking technologies – the best-known networking technologies is Internet, but
has extended to mobile phone technology, Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP) satellite
communications and other forms of communications are still in their infancy. In addition
to Internet, this category also includes mobile telephone, cable, DSL, satellite and other
broadband connectivity.

 One of the significant activities that can be done together by a mathematics or science
teachers and students is to do research. As they do research together, the opportunity to
share resources and inputs can be aided by technological tools.

 Community of Learning is a group of education and training providers working together to

help learners achieve their full potential.

Types of ePortfolios
 Ideal portfolio - It contains all work of students. It is not given to provide students a
grade.
 Showcase/Professional ePortfolios - These ePortfolios are primarily a way to
demonstrate (showcase) the highlights of a student's academic career.
 Documentation portfolio - It involves a collection of work over time showing growth
and improvement reflecting students' learning of identified outcomes.
 Learning ePortfolios - These portfolios are typically created by a student as part of a
learning activity as a way to demonstrate learning and the learning process. These
portfolios are often shared with other students to elicit peer feedback. Learning portfolios
support the idea of formative feedback as an essential part of the learning process.
o Evaluation/Assessment ePortfolios - The teacher may utilize this for both formative
and summative assessments feedback.
Social, Ethical and Legal Responsibilities in the Use of Technology Tools and Resources
Digital Citizenship vs. Global Citizenship
o Digital citizenship is an idea that all persons using the internet have civic rights and
responsibilities. It centers around safe, and ethical use of technology.
o Global citizen sees the world as a community in which all people live and prosper
together. He/she understands that his/her actions contribute to the values of the entire
planet and he/she is concerned on how he/she participates in and contributes to the
entire world.
o A digital citizen adheres to guidelines that govern the ethical and responsible use of
technology and acts responsibly in all relationships and interactions in the digital world.
o Global Digital Citizen.
 A global digital citizen is a responsible, ethical citizen leveraging technology to foster
community on a global scale through connection and compassion, The Global Digital Citizen
understands that we can govern technology for the benefit of both ourselves and others. It is a
citizen that views the world as an interconnected community.

These five tenets are the essence of what it means to be a great Global Digital Citizen.
Personal responsibility
o Personal responsibility includes demonstrating how we manage ourselves matters such
as personal finance, ethical and moral boundaries, personal health wellness, and
relationships of every kind, both online or offline.
o For the student, this kind of responsibility means taking ownership of his/her learning.
Developing and a sense of accountability for lifelong learning in our students prepares
them for the workplace.
o These are places where they must often think and act independently take initiatives on
their own.
o Encouraging this in the classroom as early as possible can help students develop high-
level critical thinking and problem-solving abilities to assist them in every aspect of their
lives. and
Global citizenship
o The Global Digital Citizen understands that technology has dissolved boundaries
between all the world's people. We now communicate, collaborate, and celebrate across
all levels of society. We are now all global citizens. Our students must realize, among
other things, that we aren't isolated from each other anymore.
o A deep understanding of this new global interconnectedness can encourage them to be
aware of the issues, traditions, values, and cultures of other citizens. This leads to
cultivating understanding, acceptance, compassion, and humility.
Digital citizenship
o Digital citizenship covers appropriate and exemplary behavior in our online
environments. It's about working towards making our transparent digital world safe for
ourselves and others.
o Just like personal responsibility, this involves moving accountability for appropriate
behavior to our students. We teach them how to govern their behavior, act in just and
moral ways, and lead by good example in all online associations. In doing so, they foster
independence within themselves and hopefully light the way for others to do the same.
Altruistic service
o Altruism is defined as "having a selfless concern for the well-being of others." The Global
Digital Citizens acknowledge that they share this world with many different people.
 o These ideals apply to the people we know, but also to those we don't know. These
include embracing the opportunity to exercise charity and goodwill for the benefit of
others. The practice of altruistic service provides opportunities for our students to create
meaningful connections to the real world.
o It gives them the chance to reach out to others and do things that can make a person's
experiences better or easier in everyday life. This produces a sense of community and
well-being for all.

Environmental stewardship
o This practice is all about common-sense values and an, appreciation for the beauty and
majesty that surround us every day.

Why Do We Need to be Global Digital Citizens?

Here's an idea from Watanabe-Crockett (2017). Personally, we face the daily possibility of
online fraud, identity theft, and online bullying. We place our entire lives and their contents in the
digital stratosphere willingly, and often without considering the consequences. The dangers of
this are real. What is needed is people who will advocate and demonstrate the kind of self-
governance that will keep us safe from harm both online and offline. Globally, even as
technologically intertwined as we are, there is also a level of disconnection in our lives. We are
more connected than ever and yet often less tuned into others than ever. Global Digital Citizens
see the need that all diversity has to be recognized, honored, and cherished for present and
future generations. They also see the need for harmony and connection in a world transforming
as rapidly as ours. Digitally, our Internet is unchecked and growing wild, which is a good thing.
Online information is expanding at a staggering rate. Online perils do exist, and the Global
Digital Citizen sets an example to others on how to navigate them safely and securely. A good
helping of common sense goes a long way in this regard. Altruistically we have more means to
help others. Thanks to technology. Crowdfunding and crowdsourcing help us give back to local
and global communities. Social media can become a support network for those of us who are in
mental, and emotional need. The Global Digital Citizen can lead the way.

Environmentally we continue to face growing threats such as climate change, resource

depletion, industrial pollution, digital pollution, and more. Global Digital Citizens seek to combat
the biggest challenges to our environmental health. They foster solutions that work to the benefit
of the entire planet.

Elements of Digital Citizenship

Digital citizenship is now a component of digital citizenship, and is in fact one of the facets of
Global Digital Citizenship. Under digital citizenship, there are nine elements; digital access,
digital commerce, digital communication, digital literacy, digital etiquette, digital law, digital rights
and responsibilities, digital health and wellness, and digital securities:
Digital access
o Equal digital rights and electronic access is the starting point of digital citizenship. Digital
access is supposed to be available to all in the same manner that education is made sure by
the Philippine government to be available to all citizens.
o Currently, on this matter, the Republic Act 10929 was signed on July 25, 2016 requiring all
public places in the country to have free internet access.
o Public places in this act covers national and local government offices, public basic education
institutions, state universities and colleges and TESDA technology institutions, public. parks
and barangay reading centers, public airports and seaports, and public transport terminals.
o Despite this law, however, many are still deprived of internet access and therefore deprived
of some resources. To become productive citizens, we need to provide and expand access
to technology and we need to be committed that no one is denied digital access.
Digital commerce

 Technology users need to understand that a large share of market is being done
electronically. Nowadays people shop through different websites and even do online
transactions for banking. Many other online transactions are occurring including the illegal
downloading, pornography, and others thus a safe and secure online shopping and other
commercial transactions have to be done.
 With this, an e-commerce act or RA 8972 was signed in July 2000.
 This Act aims to facilitate domestic and international dealings, transactions, arrangements,
agreements, contracts and exchanges and storage of information through the utilization of
electronic, optical and similar medium, mode, instrumentality and technology to recognize
the authenticity and reliability of electronic documents related to such activities and to
promote the universal use of electronic transaction in the government and general public.
Digital communication

 It is another element of Digital Citizenship that we seem to be embracing

wholeheartedly. Digital communication is the electronic exchange of communication
which includes emailing, texting, instant messaging, utilizing cell phones, etc.
 As digital communication continues to grow, it is important that we do not forget how to
communicate face to face. We have to utilize digital channels of communication to
enhance our ability to communicate, but do not allow it to replace our ability to
communicate.
Digital literacy

 As digital citizens, it is our responsibility to develop and continually enhance our

technological knowledge. We should support and encourage the acquisition of
technological knowledge by others. We should model the positive and proactive use of
technology for good causes, personal and professional growth and education.

Digital Etiquette
  This refers to the electronic standards of conduct or procedure.
 This is often seen as one of the most pressing problems when dealing with Digital
Citizenship. Imagine a teenager who spreads hate speech about a classmate online. Or
one who browses Facebook while attending Mass. Browsing social media sites have
become so addictive that young people tend to lose distinction between what is
appropriate and what is not. It begins with rules. It is not enough however to create rules
and policies, everyone must be taught to become responsible digital citizens.
Digital Law

 Digital law refers to the electronic responsibility for actions and deeds.
 The digital world is so huge that there should be order, discipline, and ethical use.
Plagiarism, copyright infringement, hacking of information, identity theft are crimes that
are commonly violated by online users.
 As digital citizens, we must be aware of these illegal behaviors so that we can avoid
them and report those who illegally engage in them.
Digital Rights and Responsibilities

 "For every right, there is a corresponding duty and for every privilege, there is a
corresponding responsibility." The privileges of digital access come along with
responsibility. Just as the Philippine constitution protects us with rights of being Filipino
citizens such as the right to privacy, we also have the responsibility to be cautious in our
online activities such as posting our photos and videos online.
Digital Health and Wellness
o Our physical and psychological well-being in a digital technology world should be a
priority. Many illnesses have become associated with technology use such as carpal
tunnel syndrome, eyestrain and childhood obesity as an effect of children's prolonged
sitting in front of the computer screen.
o Technology has also posed an inherent danger of addiction and threat from online
predators. Thus, children and adults alike must learn how to protect themselves as
digital citizens through education and training.
Digital Security

 How to keep oneself secure in any community is a major concern. If we keep our homes
safe with gates and locks, we also need to protect the information that we provide online
with privacy setting and strong passwords. We also need to have virus protection and
backups of our data.
 As responsible digital citizens, we must know how to keep our data, our money, and our
identity from all hazards in the digital world.

Project-based Learning and Multimedia:

Project-based learning redefines the boundaries of the classroom. No longer are
students confined to learning within four walls.
Project-based multimedia learning
 is a teaching method in which students “acquire new knowledge and skills in the course
of designing, planning, and producing multimedia product.” (Simkins, et al. 2002.)
 implies the use of multimedia and the learning activity includes a project.
 is most of all anchored on the core curriculum.
 addresses the basic knowledge and skills all students are expected to acquire as laid down
in the minimum competencies of the K to 12 basic education.
 is “value added to your teaching. It is a powerful motivation
• Project-based multimedia learning has seven key dimensions
1. Core curriculum - project-based multimedia learning should address the basic knowledge
and skills all students are expected to acquire, and should not simply be an enrichment or
extra-credit activity for a special few.
2. Real-world connection - The project seeks to connect students’ work in school with the
wider world in which students live.
3. Extended time frame - A good project is not a one-shot lesson. It extends over a significant
period of time. The actual length of a project may vary with the age of the students and the
nature of the project. One project may take days or weeks. Others may take a month or two.
It is important that students are given enough time to enable them come up with a
substantial final product from which they can derive pride and a clear sense of
accomplishment.
4. Student decision making - Teacher is in charge and so the students understand that there
are decisions which only the teacher can make. Students, however, are given considerable
leeway in determining what substantive content would be included in their projects as well
as the process for producing them.
5. Collaboration – it is working together jointly to accomplish a common intellectual purpose in
a manner superior to what might have been accomplished working alone. The goal is for
each student involved to make a separate contribution to the final work and for the whole
class to accomplish greater things than what each individual student can accomplish all
alone.
6. Assessment – Students must be clarified on what is expected of them and on how they will
be assessed. In project-based multimedia learning, they are expected to show evidence that
they gained content information, became better team members, could solve problems and
could make choices. Students are also expected to assess their own media products so
they can improve on them.
There are three (3) assessment concerns in project-based multimedia learning:
1. activities for developing expectations
2. activities for improving the media products
3. activities for compiling and disseminating evidence of learning.

7. Multimedia - In multimedia projects, students do not learn simply by “using” multimedia

produced by others; they learn by creating it themselves.

• Steps on the Process of Multimedia Creations

1. Planning - Setting a goal, choosing a theme specifying the purpose.
2. Researching – Collecting information from a variety of sources.
3. Organising - Arranging and displaying the ideas (writing, layout, graphics, etc.)
4. Developing - Putting everything into the computer
5. Communicating - Presenting the project to an audience
6. Evaluating - What worked? What needs improvement?

• Assessment in a Constructivist, Technology-Supported Learning

 In a constructivist classroom, learning transcends memorization of facts. We should go
beyond memorizing for tests and we should not study only for a passing score and a
passing grade.
 The traditional paper-and-pencil tests are not adequate to assess learning in a constructivist
technology-supported learning.
 The authentic forms of assessment such as performance and product assessment, are
more reliable and adequate to measure students’ communication, analytical, integrative,
evaluative and collaborative skills.
 In a technology-supported learning environment, the students are not only users of
technology product, they themselves are authors of technology product.
 Scoring rubrics are, therefore, a must in assessment.

• Roles and Functions of an Educational Media Center (EMC)

 An Educational Media Center (EMC) is a facility of the school system tasked to acquire,
maintain, care and promote the full effective use of educational media.
 It houses both old and new technologies meant to make learning more efficient and
effective.
 It facilitates and ensures the optimum use of all instructional media.
 It organizes learning activities for students and teachers alike for them to upgrade and
improve on their technology manipulative skills all for the purpose of motivating them to
keep on developing their communication, analytical, integrative, creative and collaborative
skills for meaningful lifelong learning.
 This is made possible only by an EMC that is adequately equipped not only with material
resources but most important of all by manpower resources, the media specialists and the
assistants.
• Development and Use of Non-Digital or Conventional Materials
 Instructional materials are defined as print and non-print items that are rested to impact
information to students in the educational process (Effiong & Igiri, 2015).
 Examples of instructional materials are drawings, kits, textbooks, posters, magazines, flip
chart, newspapers, diorama, pictures, recording videos and the like.
 Instructional materials are the supplementary materials, which help the teacher to make
his/her presentation concrete, effective, interesting, meaningful and inspiring.
 The primary aim of teaching materials is to provide the teachers the layout of the way for
teaching in the classroom.
 Instructional materials refer to any preexisting materials that are being incorporated, as well
as to those that will be specifically developed for the objectives (Haigler, 2014).
• Instructional materials
1. Diorama - are small scenes created of layers of materials, all depicting a similar concept or
theme. They usually display a historical time period, a nature scene, or a fictional situation.
2. Nature Table - This is a table that contains objects and/or scenes related to the current
season, or upcoming festival or a symbol of an ecosystem.
3. Writing Board - A writing board can display information written with chalk (chalkboard or
blackboard) or special pens (whiteboard). Although there are usually more effective methods of
transmitting information, the writing board is still the most commonly used visual aid.
4. Flip chart - It is a large tablet or pad of paper, usually on a tripod or stand.
5. Zigzag board - It is a multi-board series of three or four rectangular boards. They are joined
together along the sides by hinges so that they can be easily folded up and carried. Each board
can be of a different type, for example, a whiteboard, a chalkboard, a flannel board and so on.
The size of the boards for the zigzag multi-board depends on what you want to use them for.
6. Wall display - A wall display is a collection of many different types of items and materials put
up on a wall to make an interesting and informative display. In a classroom, the display can
consist of the students’ own work. In development work it can be used to convey information to
the community.
7. Rope and Pole display board - This kind of display board is invaluable where there are few
solid walls for displaying information. It has no solid backing and can be made quickly for
teaching, training and when working with communities.

• Guidelines when designing conventional instructional materials:

1. Unity - Use only one idea for each visual aid and include a headline.
2. Simplicity - Make ideas and relationships simple and easy to recall. Avoid cluttering a visual
with too many words, numbers, or graphics. The audience should be able to grasp the concept
in 10 to 15 seconds.
3. Legibility - Make letters big and readable for all in the audience,
4. Consistency - Use the same type style and art style.
5. Clarity-Avoid type that is too small to read; avoid all caps.
• Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
 This refers to various tools and devices or gadgets used in communicating,
disseminating, creating, storing and managing information.
 Teachers can employ ICT tools in their ways of engaging learners by communicating,
disseminating, and managing information.
 There are tools that can be used in providing practice or provide the chance to apply
 Some Digital Tools:
a. Using Mobile Phone and the QR Code
- It is a code that was created by a Japanese corporation Denso-Wave in 1994.
 - Effectively and efficiently connecting the physical world with the electronic world, QR
stands for 'Quick Response.'
- It allows the readers to decode the information at a high rate of speed.
b. Using Laptop and the Infographics
- An infographic is a visual representation or an image such as a diagram, chart or picture
representing information or data.
- It is eye-catching and makes use of clear layout, attractive colors and hues, and
caricatures that provide a cohesive presentation of the information
- One tool that can be used in creating infographics is Canva. It has several infographics
template for education.

 Creating ePortfolio as a Technology Tool

 Portfolios are one good means of keeping things in order.

 A learning portfolio is a collection of student work that exhibits students’ effort, progress,
achievements and competencies gained during the course.
 Nowadays, it is possible to have online portfolios by creating sites. This is also called the
ePortfolio or digital portfolio.
 This can be used as a digital archive that can contain the same materials as a physical
portfolio but can have more such as multimedia productions, relevant online links or
references, digital stories or video blogs, powerpoint presentations, photographs and
other ICT materials.

 Reflections
- A major element in a portfolio whether it is online or not, is the writing of the reflection.
- It is thinking-aloud, a way of documenting what they are thinking.
- There are many models that can be used as a guide in writing reflections. One is the
Gibb’s reflective cycle model (1988).

 Gibb’s Reflection Cycle

1. Description – What happened
2. Feelings – What were you thinking and feeling?
3. Evaluation – What was good and bad about the experience?
4. Analysis – What sense can you make of the situation?
5. Conclusion – What else could you have done?
6. Action Plan- If it arose again, what would you do?

• Producing Learning Resources Using Technology Tools

 Instructional Materials (IMs)

 It helps to improve students’ knowledge and skills and it is very helpful to a teacher to
manage his class requirements.
 Using instructional materials in mathematics and science classes makes mathematics
and science learning fascinating and authentic.
  It enables both the teacher and the student to participate enthusiastically in the
mathematics and science learning activities, hence, giving the students the opportunity to
master the mathematics and science knowledge and skills aimed by their lessons.
 By the use of well- prepared IMs, teachers’ self-confidence to deliver their lessons is also
heightened while the students are also given the opportunity to actualize their learning.
 Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)
 can be significantly useful as tools for mathematics or science instruction because there
are interrelated content topics to be covered in mathematics and science, the use of
technology will be of great advantage.
 With the integration of ICTs in teaching mathematics and science, the need to process
data quickly and integrate voice, music, video, pictures and text in the lessons can be
fully addressed.
 Instructional tools provide the much-needed sensory experiences needed by the
learners for an effective and meaningful behavioral change (Ajoke. 2017).
 Slavin (2010) also added that, a well-planned and imaginative use of visual aids in
lessons should do much to banish apathy, supplement inadequacy of books as well as
arouse student’s interest by giving them something practical to see and do and at the
same time helping to train them to think things out themselves.
 These instructional materials can be certainly prepared with the support of technologies.

 Computer-Based Instructional Tools and Materials in Mathematics or Science

Teaching

A. Mathematics and Science Instructional Materials Supported by Technology Tools

1. Instructional Charts - Charts can help mathematics and science learners present data in a
more comprehensive form or enable students to read with greater understanding data and
concepts.
2. Posters - Many of the schools in the Philippines have been requiring the students to
participate in poster making activities to funder develop their creativity and to help the
express their ideas though a pictorial device.
3. Math Drill Apps - Drill activities in mathematics provide speed and accuracy practice to
students. These are used to develop the computational skills of students when properly
given especially in basic education answers and getting feedback, the second one allows
verbal answering.
4. Science Apps - Science Net Links (AAAS, 2020) made a compilation of STEM- related
apps for both the iPad and Android phones. These applications will enhance the learning of
students in the different field in the sciences.
5. Slide - Among the various types of materials that are available for projection, slides and film
strips are the foremost visual aids.
6. Work Sheets and Forms - A worksheet is not only completed on printed materials but
these can also be accomplished through the web. By the use of some word processing
software like Microsoft Word, a teacher can also develop electronic forms.
7. Newsletters - Preparing a newsletter will develop the concept formation of students as well
as their mathematical and scientific vocabulary building and technical writing skills through
drafting, revising, editing and publishing.
8. Pamphlets - A pamphlet is a small, unbound booklet focused on a single subject, often
educational in nature. They are written for the layman, simply and without excessive jargon.
9. Brochures - A brochure is used to advertise a company and its products or services (Lucid
Press, 2020).
10. Cartoons - A cartoon is a simple picture of an amusing situation, sometimes it is a satirical
comment on a serious or topical issue. A strip cartoon is a sequence of framed drawings,
which tell a story. Cartoon pictures enable people to discuss sensitive issues and so are
useful for teaching and training.
11. Journals - Journals are records of personal insights and experiences of teachers to be able
to manage the reflections and insight interactions in the class.
12. Bulletins Boards - Digitally, a teacher can develop an online bulletin board where he or she
may post some mathematics and or science activities or information that are helpful for the
students' acquisition of the mathematics or science competencies.

With the advent of web-based word processing software and with the exposure of a lot of
students to new innovative media tools, explore the following online Microsoft Word Alternatives
(Investintech, 2020).
Drop Box Paper
Dropbox Paper is a free online word processor offered by the online cloud storage
provider. To start using it, you will need a Dropbox account. Once logged in, you get full access
to the online suite. The minimalist interface is very intuitive, and its simplicity allows you to focus
on your content. You can also do a number of things that go beyond creating a textual
document. You can add rich media, such as audio, video and images. Dropbox Paper also
allows you to access apps that let you embed Trello cards, Youtube videos or SlideShare
decks. Other collaborative features include document link-sharing, creating and assigning
checklist items to members or embedding one of your Dropbox documents. Dropbox Paper,
overall, does an excellent job at creating dynamic documents you can share and access online.
Office Online
For Microsoft Word and Office aficionados, the best possible free online alternative for
their document editing needs is definitely Word online, which comes as part of the Office Online
suite. Although free MS Word web app is not a full-fledged version of its paid counter it allows
you to open, create and edit Word documents onl Also, it offers some additional benefits of
online software tools For example, you are able to see and access updates from co-authors
your does literally from anywhere in real time with only an Interne connection and the latest
2016 version. You can share and collaborate on documents. An equally alluring feature of Office
Online is te cross-platform compatibility. So, if you're a Chromebook or Linu OS user, MS Word
web app is the most elegant way to get access to Microsoft's document editing features for free!
Google Docs
Google Docs allows you to create, collaborate and share documents, spreadsheets,
presentations, drawings and even forms Google Docs is packed with features, which can be
further extended with various add-ons. While it will automatically save the file online and store it
there, you can also have the documents published as a web page, downloaded, or emailed as
an attachment in Word, ODT, PDF, plain text or RTF formats. You can invite collaborators to
work on the document with you or only allow others to view it without the ability to edit. And if
you are apprehensive of having to depend on the Internet connection for document processing,
don't worry. You can enable Google Docs offline access and keep editing your documents even
when you are disconnected from Internet. All it takes is a free Google account.
Etherpad
Etherpad is an online document editor primarily intended for collaborative editing in, as
the site claims. "really real time". It's an open source, highly customizable tool for online
document collaboration with friends, fellow students and classmates, or colleagues at work. One
of its advantages, especially appealing to users who are reluctant to use services which require
email registration, is that there is no sign up with Etherpad. All you need to do is start a new pad
and share the link to it with your collaborators. You can also invite them by email if you prefer.
After that, you can start working on the planned writing project together, in real-time, even if you
are miles apart.
Zoho
Zoho offers around 20 free online applications, including Writer for word processing. You
can link your Zoho account to your Google and Yahoo accounts, as well. The Writer's interface
shouldn't cause anyone problems as it is comfortably familiar.
The Use of Visual Aids
Visual aids are an important part of or presentations because they provide support for
both the speakers and listeners during the presentation. Visual aids can be used to give tire
details about the topic, help the audience members to understand what is being said, and serve
as a concrete reminder of the message for both the audience and the presenter. The type of
visual aid used can vary depending on the topic of the presentation. Visual aids helped cater to
different learning styles. Some of the students who are not savvy at paper written presentations
are motivated at using presentation software applications. In mathematics or science learning,
visual aids help students who are weak at acquiring a mathematical or scientific skill to be
motivated to participate in the presentation and become valuable members of their groups.
Performing Self-Reflections
The final stage of each oral presentation involves students writing a self-reflection of
their own presentation. Through this activity, writing skills are further enhanced together with the
ability of the students to do self-reflection.
Mathematics Learning Via Digital Tools
Mathematical skills can be fully developed when we allow students to use digital tools as
additional resources for math learning. Also, aside from primary sources, students can use
digital applications to come up with a math investigatory project that promotes their
mathematical skills to solve real. world problems or scenarios promoting PBL
Digital math tools like IXL are helpful for students to practice and reinforce math skills (Hollands
& Pan, 2018). In the work of Stephan (2017), a digital math tool like Mathletics provide some
advantages: (a) learners are motivated and engaged; (b) an effective supplementary digital tool
for extended practice; (e) aligned with core curriculum and math standards; and (d) provide
ways for faculty to differentiate learning, individualize learning, and provide instant feedback.
Cozad & Riccomini (2016) said that digital- based fluency interventions show promise to
promote fluency in students with mathematics difficulties considering that digital tools can
provide immediate feedback and require less organization than paper-and-pencil interventions
do. Mascia, Perrone, Bardi, Agus, Penna, & Lucangeli (2018) enumerated the positive impacts
of digital tools on math learning such as accuracy, speed, sematic and syntactic numerical
knowledge and spatial orientation.

The following compilation of math digital tools are presented by Jansen (2019):
GeoGebra
GeoGebra is a dynamic mathematical software program It is made for every level of
education, from beginner to expert. This app combines hometry, algshra, spreadsheets, graphs,
sumers and analysis, calculus in one user belly package. The community of GeoGebrs is
expanding very last and has millions of users worldwide. They are the number one provider of
dyn mathematical software all over the world.
Geometry Pad
Geometry Pad offers a fun way to learn geometry and practice important constructions.
It's your personal assistant in learning geometry. Students can easily present their geometric
constructions, take measurements, use experiment with a lot of different geometric shapes. the
compass and
Photomath
This app will help you understand mathematical problems with content to improve your
math skills. Every month they solve and explain more than 1 million math problems. By
scanning your math problem, this app will help you instantly with solving it. You can do this by
using the camera on your mobile device. After it finds out what your math problem is, the app
gives you a step- by-step explanation. Photomath explains you the calculation steps with
animations just like a teacher would do, in real life!

Khan Academy
The Khan Academy app uses instructional math videos, practice exercises, and has a
personalized learning dashboard so you can study at your own pace in and out of the
classroom. All of the content they offer is free because they want to provide a free world-class
education for anyone and anywhere. Khan Academy is a non-profit organization that works with
a community of volunteers and sponsors.
Ling virtual laboratory improved the performance of students in esity (Eljack, Alfayez, &
Salernan, 2020), successful strategy in practical ses in a hybrid PBL curriculum (Dund, Restini,
Wolff, Faria, Couto, stelt, 2019); increased motivation and understanding of students in physics
(Mirik & Saka, 2018); and showed a favorable result on both the cognitive act and science
laboratory environment in teaching waves and sounds Maulidah & Prima, 2018).
The following are examples of virtual laboratory or simulation apps:
Virtual Labs
 Virtual Labs project is an initiative of Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD),
Government of India under the aegis of National Mission on Education through Information and
Communication Technology (NMEICT). This project is a consortium activity of twelve
participating institutes where IIT Delhi is a coordinating institute. It is a paradigm shift in ICT-
based education.
It is guided by the following objectives:
(1) to provide remote access to Labs in various disciplines of Science and Engineering. These
Virtual Labs would cater to students at the undergraduate level, post graduate level as well as to
research scholars.
(2) to enthuse students to conduct experiments by arousing their curiosity. This would help them
in learning basic and advanced concepts through remote experimentation.
(3) to provide a complete Learning Management System around the Virtual Labs where the
students can avail of the various tools for learning, including additional web-resources, video-
lectures, animated demonstrations, and self-evaluation.
(4) to share costly equipment and resources, which are otherwise available to a limited number.
of users due to time constraint on time and geographical distances.

Interactive Physics Simulations

The Physics website is a collection of interactive physics simulations. It is a work in
progress, and likely always will be. Content will be added as time allows. All of the content on
this site was created by Tom Walsh. He recently retired after teaching high school physics for
27 years, and AP Physics for 25 years. He allows anybody to use any of the content on this site
for non-profit educational purposes.
Virtual Biology Lab; An Inquiry-based Learning Environment
Virtual Biology Lab is a free, online educational resource provided for educational
purposes. VBL simulates natural environments with the way life responds to changing
conditions. We provide a world to be explored rather than a path to be followed Background
information and technical instruction help student learn by experimentation. Parameters and
conditions adjust easily for observable effects and consequences. Because these are stochastic
simulations, no two runs are identical. The data generated are biologically realistic and are
displayed numerically and graphically. Typically, students will design experiments and conduct
them using our models but collect and analyze their data in other software.
HTML5 Simulations
HTML5 simulations are interactive ways to teach the sciences to the students. They can
change the data input to see the changes in the expected output. This site presents simulations
in these areas: Physics, Biology, Chemistry, Earth Systems, Astronomy and Mathematics.
Lab Options for Distance Delivery
You can find a compilation of digital technology, simulations and 3D model applications
in this site. Online simulations can let students explore concepts and test their predictions
without purchasing anything beyond access to the website, if needed.
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (TTL) REVIEW QUESTIONS

Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. What is an approach that involves a process of inquiry and solving open-ended questions?
a. Problem-Based Learning
b. Inquiry-Based Learning
c. Research-Based Learning
d. Both a and b

2. What are the top three of three ten skills needed in this age according to the Future of Jobs
Report during the World Economic Forum?
a. Active learning, critical thinking and creativity
b. Analytical thinking, innovation and active learning
c. Complex problem solving, critical thinking and creativity
d. Analytical thinking, innovation and creativity

3. This lets the students follow the lead of the teacher as the entire class engages in one
inquiry together.
a. Controlled inquiry
b. Structured inquiry
c. Free inquiry
d. Guided Inquiry

4. This generates ideas, tackle the problem through self- directed questioning, arouse
students' intrinsic motivation.
a. Identifying the problem
b. Synthesizing
c. Collecting
d. Brainstorming

5. These are commonly used as activities that o students to actively participate in a

reconstructed experience through playing or dramatization.
a. Exhibits
b. Television and motion pictures
c. Contrived experiences
d. Dramatized experiences

6. What is an ePortfolio?
a. A collection of student work that exhibits students’ effort, progress, achievements
and competencies gained during the course
b. A collection of toys used for entertainment in the classroom
c. A collection of food used for cooking classes
d. A collection of punishment materials in the classroom

7. What is a QR code?
a. A code used to identify students in the classroom
 b. A code that connects the physical world with the electronic world
c. A code used for punishment in the classroom
d. A code used for decoration in the classroom

8. What is the purpose of writing reflections in a portfolio?

a. To entertain the teacher
b. To punish the student
c. To document what the student is thinking
d. To create a noisy environment in the classroom

9. What kind of sensory experiences do instructional tools provide for learners in mathematics
and science?
a. Olfactory experiences
b. Auditory experiences
c. Tactile experiences
d. All of the above

10. Which of the following is NOT a computer-based instructional tool or material for
mathematics or science teaching?
a. Posters
b. Newsletters
c. Science Apps
d. Physical textbooks

11. Computer-assisted test gives immediate corrective feedback and it is most useful when
a. immediate and frequent
b. reliable and subjective
c. communicated in a judgmental way
d. subjective and valid judgment

12. Teacher Martha might choose to use more traditional testing methods over authentic or
performance assessments because
I. authentic assessments require considerable technical knowledge
II. authentic assessments need teachers' productivity tool
III. authentic assessments are more difficult to administer

a. I only
b. II only
c. III only
d. I, II and III

13. Erwina keeps samples of all of her writing by scanning them and putting them in one folder.
On a regular basis, students and their teacher review work in these folders for the purpose
of assessing improvement over time. Then, Erwina uploaded them on her blog. What do you
call this?
a. Portfolios
b. Progress report
 c. Diary
d. Journal

14. Teacher Chris wants her students to clearly understand what it takes to get a good grade on
the Social Studies project she just assigned. She explains that to get an Outstanding rating,
the project must include at least four pictures, have at least six pages of content, and list at
least eight references. Similar, less-stringent criteria are given for the lower grades. This is
an example of
a. scoring rubric
b. grading to criterion
c. normative grading
d. criterion-referenced testing

15. What is the content of an ePorfolio?

a. The length of the portfolio
b. The goal and purpose of the portfolio
c. The pictures incorporated in the portfolio
d. The characteristics of the students evaluate

16. The final stage of each oral presentation involves students writing a self-reflection of their
own presentation.
a. Performing Self-Reflections
b. Presentation Skills
c. The Use of Visual Aids
d. Organization of the Presentation

17. It is a free online word processor offered by the online cloud storage provider.
a. office Online
b. Etherpad
c. Drop Box Paper
d. Google Docs

18. It allows you to create, collaborate and share documents, spreadsheets, presentations,
drawings and even forms.
a. office Online
b. Etherpad
c. Drop Box Paper
d. Google Docs

19. It is an online document editor primarily intended for collaborative editing in, as the site
claims. "really real time".
a. office Online
b. Etherpad
c. Drop Box Paper
d. Google Docs

20. A math digital tool that offers a fun way to learn geometry and practice important
constructions.
 a. Photomath
b. Geometry Pad
c. Khan Academy
d. GeoGebra

21. This category appears to be the most abstract because they may not exactly look like the
concept or object they represent but are symbols, words, codes or formulae.
a. Visual symbols
b. Verbal symbols
c. Study trips
d. Exhibits

22. This framework shows the interconnectedness of content knowledge with pedagogical
knowledge and the integration of technology in making teaching more engaging, relevant
and effective.
a. SAMR
b. TPACK
c. ASSURE
d. All of the above

23. Describes the multiple forms of assessment that reflect student learning, achievement,
motivation, and attitudes on instructionally relevant classroom activities.
a. Summative assessment
b. Formative assessment
c. Diagnostic assessment
d. Authentic assessment

24. What is art of conveying a story through bodily movements only?

a. Pageants
b. Tableau
c. Pantomime
d. Play

25. What are the puppet's head that is operated by the forefinger of the puppeteer, the little
finger and thumb being used to animate the puppet hands?
a. Glove-and-finger puppets
b. Marionettes
c. Hand puppets
d. Shadow puppets

26. What is project-based multimedia learning?

a. A teaching method that involves using multimedia to create a project
b. A teaching method that only uses paper-and-pencil tests
c. A teaching method that involves only lectures and memorization
d. A teaching method that involves watching videos to learn

27. What is the importance of the core curriculum in project-based multimedia learning?
 a. It should be ignored
b. It should only be an enrichment or extra-credit activity for a special few
c. It should be addressed by project-based multimedia learning
d. It should only be addressed by traditional teaching methods

28. What are the three assessment concerns in project-based multimedia learning?
a. Assessment, collaboration, and multimedia
b. Activities for developing expectations, activities for improving the media
products, and activities for compiling and disseminating evidence of learning
c. Researching, developing, and evaluating
d. Planning, organizing, and communicating

29. What is the main purpose of an Educational Media Center (EMC)?

a. To acquire, maintain, care and promote the full effective use of educational media
b. To house old technologies only
c. To facilitate and ensure the optimum use of paper-and-pencil tests
d. To organize learning activities for students only

30. What are instructional materials?

a. Materials used for punishment in the classroom
b. Print and non-print items used to impact information to students
c. Materials used for decoration in the classroom
d. Materials used for student entertainment in the classroom

31. What is the primary aim of teaching materials?

a. To provide the teacher with the way for teaching in the classroom
b. To entertain students in the classroom
c. To punish students in the classroom
d. To create a noisy environment in the classroom

32. It uses instructional math videos, practice exercises, and has a personalized learning
dashboard so you can study at your own pace in and out of the classroom.
a. Photomath
b. Geometry Pad
c. Khan Academy
d. GeoGebra

33. It is an initiative of Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Government of India

under the aegis of National Mission on Education through Information and Communication
Technology (NMEICT).
a. Virtual Labs Project
b. Wolfram Alpha
c. Interactive Simulations
d. Interactive Physical Simulations

34. Which statement applies to correctly to Edgar Dale's Cone of Experience?

a. The closer you are to the base, the more direct the learning experience becomes.
b. The farther you are from the bottom, the direct the learning experience becomes.
 c. The closer you are to the base; indirect the learning experience becomes.
d. The farther you are from the base, direct the learning experience becomes.

35. As implied in the Cone of Experience, which will work best for kindergarten children?
a. Videos
b. Audio recordings
c. Books
d. Real-life experiences

36. Which literacy is referred as a core skill in the 21 st century essential in developing the ability
to work well with others by tapping on each other's talents and skills?
a. Creativity
b. Collaboration
c. Critical Thinking
d. Citizenship

37. How can one become a global digital citizen?

a. By adopting a new identity in the virtual world
b. By acting responsibly in both offline and online activities
c. By acting appropriately when seen by the people in the community
d. By behaving appropriately when the situation demands for it

38. Mrs. Diaz is able to pay her household bills through bank transfer from her bank account.
Which element of digital citizenship is she benefiting from?
a. Digital access
b. Digital commerce
c. Digital communication
d. Digital rights and responsibilities

39. With the hope of having easy money, Madelyn clicks on all promos that pop- up on her
screen. By doing so, which threatens her digital security?
a. Internet virus
b. Hacker
c. Carpal tunnel
d. Password theft

40. Which of the following is the proper use of technology for altruistic service?
a. Using social media sites to campaign for a social advocacy
b. Hacking bank accounts to help the poor
c. Creating prank accounts to malign the practices of the government
d. Spreading chain prayers through messenger

41. Who among the following is NOT considered as a global digital citizen?
a. Diana takes care of her gadgets and burns them when no longer useful.
b. Marlon uses social media to campaign for support to the victims of calamities.
c. When meeting people online Rosie never gives out her personal information to others.
d. When collaborating with other people online, Dina is conscious of their values and
culture.
42. It is an inquiry-oriented lesson format in which most or all information that learners work with
comes from the web.
a. Web access
b. World wide web (www)
c. Webquest
d. Internet

43. It refers to how people use their inventions and discoveries to satisfy their educational needs
and desires.
a. Educational Technology
b. Instructional Technology
c. Information Technology
d. Technology Integration

44. It is the fundamental knowledge necessary for students to achieve more complex higher
order thinking such as critical thinking, inquiry and production.
a. Procedural Knowledge
b. Declarative Knowledge
c. Narrative Knowledge
d. Structural Knowledge

45. This refers to any type of software associated with computers and related technologies that
can be used as tools for personal, professional or classroom productivity.
a. Technology Tool
b. Software
c. Educational Tool
d. Productivity Tool

46. It includes the use of computers, which has become indispensable in modern societies to
process data and save time and effort.
a. Educational Technology
b. Instructional Technology
c. Information Technology
d. Learning Technology

47. Which of the following does not describe Educational Technology?

a. An art or craft of responding to our educational needs.
b. The application of technology in the operation of education institutions.
c. The application of technology in the educative process that takes place in such
education institutions.
d. A planned, systematic method of working to achieve planned outcomes

48. An order issued by the Department of Education which mandates the use of the Philippine
Professional Standard for Teachers (PPST) to start with the Beginning Teachers who are
the fresh graduates from the teacher education program.
a. Department of Education Order 42, s. 2016
b. Department of Education Order 48, s. 2017
 c. Department of Education Order 42, s. 2017
d. Department of Education Order 48, s. 2016

49. It is the ability of the learner to access the Internet at any point during the lesson in order to
take advantage of the array of available educational resources.
a. Web access
b. World wide web (www)
c. Webquest
d. Internet access

50. A group of education and training providers working together to help learners achieve their
full potential.
a. Community of Learning
b. International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE)
c. CHED-UNESCO
d. Educational Organization
ANSWER KEY

1. A 11. A 21. B 31. A 41. A

2. C 12. D 22. B 32. C 42. C
3. B 13. A 23. D 33. A 43. A
4. D 14. A 24. C 34. A 44. B
5. D 15. B 25. C 35. D 45. D
6. A 16. A 26. A 36. B 46. C
7. B 17. C 27. C 37. B 47. B
8. C 18. D 28. B 38. B 48. C
9. D 19. B 29. A 39. A 49. A
10. D 20. B 30. B 40. A 50. A