Applied Electricity

GET202
BY

ENGR. UYI AIYUDUBIE SAMSON

AIRFORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(AFIT)

1
 Ground Rules
• Lateness to class will not be excused, don’t come into the class after 20mins.
• You are not allowed to use your devices such as phones, laptops etc. without
permission
• Late submission of assignments will earn you a zero score in that
assignment.
• Copying of assignments is not allowed. It will earn you a zero in that
assignment.
• Not written in class wont be tolerated
• Cheating in a test or an examination will earn you EXPULSION from the
University.
• Respect each other in and out of class.
• There are a lot of very good and relevant materials for this course in the
library and on the internet. SEARCH…..
2
 Introduction to Transistors
• A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and
switch electronic signals.
• It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at
least three terminals for connection to an external circuit.
• A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of
terminals.
• Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than
the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides
amplification of a signal.
• Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many
more are found embedded in integrated circuits.
• The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern
electronic devices, and in modern electronic systems.
• Following its release in the early 1950s the transistor
revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for
smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, 3
 History
• Physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld filed the first patent for a transistor in Canada in 1925, describing a device
similar to a Field Effect Transistor or "FET". However, Lilienfeld did not publish any research articles about
his devices, nor did his patent cite any examples of devices actually constructed.

• In 1934, German inventor Oskar Heil patented a similar device.

• From 1942 Herbert Mataré experimented with so-called Duodiodes while working on a detector for a Doppler
RADAR system. The duodiodes built by him had two separate but very close metal contacts on the
semiconductor substrate. He discovered effects that could not be explained by two independently operating
diodes and thus formed the basic idea for the later point contact transistor.

• In 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at AT&T's Bell Labs in the United States observed that when
electrical contacts were applied to a crystal of germanium, the output power was larger than the input. Solid
State Physics Group leader William Shockley saw the potential in this, and over the next few months worked
to greatly expand the knowledge of semiconductors.
• The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce. According to physicist/historian Robert Arns, legal papers
from the Bell Labs patent show that William Shockley and Gerald Pearson had built operational versions
from Lilienfeld's patents, yet they never referenced this work in any of their later research papers or historical
articles. Thename 'transistor' is a portmanteau of the term 'transfer resistor‘
• The first silicon transistor was produced by Texas Instruments in 1954. This was the work of Gordon Teal, an
expert in growing crystals of high purity, who had previously worked at Bell Labs. The first MOS transistor
4
actually built was by Kahng and Atalla at Bell Labs in 1960.
 How importance is the transistor?
• Transistors are used in almost every electronic circuit. Moreover, they are used
inside Integrated Circuits (IC), logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, XOR, etc.), and many other
electronic components. On average, an IC contains 42 million transistors, and
an iPhone 11 houses 8.5 billion transistors
• Several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known as
discrete) transistors every year, the vast majority of transistors now produced are in
integrated circuits (often shortened to IC, microchips or simply chips), along with
diodes, resistors, capacitors and other electronic components, to produce complete
electronic circuits.
• A logic gate consists of up to about twenty transistors whereas an advanced
microprocessor, as of 2009, can use as many as 2.3 billion transistors (MOSFETs). "
About 60 million transistors were built this year [2002] ... for [each] man, woman,
and child on Earth.
• " The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous device.
• Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in
controlling appliances and machinery.
• It is often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a 5
 Internal Structure of transistor
Diode review
• Before going into the details of the transistor, let's first recall some points from the previous
lecture Introduction to Diode:
• A diode is a semiconductor device, that is developed when two types of semiconductor materials(i.e.
N-Type and P-Type) are joined together.
• In the construction of the diode, the PN junction is formed by the combination of P-type & N-type
material.
• Electrons(-ve charge) are major charge carriers in the N-Type material and Holes(+ve charge) are
major charge carriers in the P-Type material.

6
 Internal Structure of transistor cont’
• Transistors are made of a semiconductor material such as silicon,
germanium, and others.
• The addition of impurities into semiconductor wafers allows transistor
manufacturers to create n-type and p-type regions. This process is
called doping.
• Doping allows a semiconductor wafer, such as silicon, to divide into
two regions; n-type and p-type.
• What are these regions, and what is the difference between them? The
number of positive and negative charges present in that region is what
sets them apart.
• Negatively charged particles are called electrons, and the positively
charged areas are called holes because the absence of an electron
creates a “hole.” In an n-type region, the majority carriers are electrons,
while in a p-type region, the majority carriers are holes. 7
 Internal Structure of transistor cont’
• A transistor is made by sandwiching a p-type region between two n-type
regions, and vice versa.
• NPN and PNP are the two types of transistors, based on their internal
structure.
• The three terminals of a transistor originate from each of the three doped
regions present inside it.
• The middle zone is the base terminal, while the other two are emitter and
collector terminals.

8
 Classification of Transistor
• Transistor is an essential component is almost every electronic circuit like: Amplifiers,
Switching, Oscillators, Voltage Regulators, Power Supplies and most importantly, the Digital
Logic ICs.
• From the time of invention of the first transistor to the present day, transistors are classified
into different types depending either on their construction or their operation.
• The following tree diagram explains a Basic Classification of different
• The classification Transistor
of transistors types.
can be easily
Transistor Tree Diagram
understood by observing the above tree diagram.
• Transistors are basically classified into two types.
They are: Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) and
Field Effect Transistors (FET).
• The BJTs are again classified into NPN and PNP
transistors.
• The FET transistors are classified into JFET and
MOSFET.
• Junction FET transistors are further classified into
N–Channel JFET and P–Channel JFET depending
on their construction.
• MOSFETs are classified into Depletion Mode and
Enhancement Mode.
• Again, depletion and enhancement mode 9
transistors are further classified into respective N–
 Types of Transistor
Transistors are categorized by
• Semiconductor material: germanium, silicon, gallium arsenide, silicon
carbide, etc.
• Structure: BJT, JFET, IGFET (MOSFET), IGBT, "other types"
• Polarity: NPN, PNP (BJTs); N-channel, P-channel (FETs)
• Maximum power rating: low, medium, high
• Maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, radio frequency (RF),
microwave (The maximum effective frequency of a transistor is denoted by
the term FT, an abbreviation for "frequency of transition". The frequency of
transition is the frequency at which the transistor yields unity gain).
• Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta,
matched pair
• Physical packaging: through hole metal, through hole plastic, surface
mount, ball grid array, power modules
• Amplification factor hfe (transistor beta) Thus, a particular transistor 10may
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
• Let’s first look at bipolar junction transistors which are so named because they are made of two diode
junctions.
• A bipolar transistor comes in two flavors: NPN and PNP. The N and the P refer to whether the area of
semiconductor silicon is doped negatively or positively.
• A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) has three terminals connected to three doped semiconductor
regions. It comes with two types, P-N-P and N-P-N.
• The BJTs have three terminals named Emitter (E), Base (B) and Collector (C). The BJT transistors are
classified in to NPN and PNP transistors depending on the construction
• P-N-P transistor, consisting of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between two layers of P-doped
material. The base current entering the collector is amplified at its output.
• That is when PNP transistor is ON when its base is pulled low relative to the emitter. The arrows of
the PNP transistor symbol the direction of current flow when the device is in forwarding active mode.

11
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) cont’
PNP NPN BJT
BJT

12
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) cont’
• N-P-N transistor consisting a layer of P-doped semiconductor
between two layers of N-doped material. By amplifying current the
base we get the high collector and emitter current.
• That is when NPN transistor is ON when its base is pulled low relative
to the emitter. When the transistor is in ON state, the current flow is in
between the collector and emitter of the transistor.
• Based on minority carriers in the P-type region the electrons moving
from emitter to collector. It allows the greater current and faster
operation; because of this reason, most bipolar transistors used today
are NPN.
• A bipolar transistor consists of three pins: collector, base, and emitter.
For an NPN bipolar transistor the current will flow from the collector
to the emitter.
13
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) cont’
• For a PNP transistor the current will flow from the emitter to
the collector.
• For an NPN transistor to be turned on the base voltage must
be greater than the emitter voltage. The opposite is true for a
PNP transistor where the base voltage must be less than the
emitter voltage.
• In most circuits the emitter of an NPN will be tied to ground
(or tied to a resistor that connects to ground), and the emitter
of a PNP will be tied to the positive supply (once again
possibly through a resistor).
• The Bipolar Junction Transistors are only turned ON by the
input current, which is given to the base terminal. 14
NPN BJT Transistor

15
PNP BJT Transistor

16
 BJT regions of
operation
A bipolar transistor has three regions of operation 1) Active region 2) Saturation region 3) Cut-off region

Active region:
• This is the region in which transistors have many applications. This is also called as linear region. A transistor while
in this region, acts better as an Amplifier.

• This region lies between

saturation and cutoff.
• The transistor operates in active
region when the emitter
junction is forward biased and
collector junction is reverse
biased.
• In the active state, collector
current is β times the base
current, i.e.
• When operating in the active region the transistor acts as an amplifier. The voltage between the base and emitter
pins (commonly called VBE) controls the amount of current that flows between the collector and the emitter.
• This is an exponential relationship so the smallest change in VBE can have a huge impact on the collector current.
• Since this base-emitter junction is really just a diode the voltage (VBE) will always be close to 0.7V. 17
 BJT regions of operation
Saturation
cont’
• In the saturation region a bipolar
transistor is fully on and acts as a
closed switch between the collector
and emitter pins.
• This is the region in which transistor
tends to behave as a closed switch. The
transistor has the effect of its collector
and Emitter being shorted.
• The collector and Emitter currents are
maximum in this mode of operation.
• The transistor operates in saturation
region when both the emitter and
collector junctions are forward biased.
• As it is understood that, in the saturation
region the transistor tends to behave as
a closed switch
• we can say that
18
BJT regions of operation
cont’

19
Note
VCC of a bipolar junction transistor is the DC voltage that is Graphical Representation of BJT regions of operation
20
supplied to the collector of the transistor
 Bipolar Transistor (BJT) Configurations
• With three terminals assigned to a BJT or a bipolar transistor, it becomes possible
for us to configure these devices in unique ways in a circuit depending on the
application requirement.

• In each of these configurations we have one input option, one output option, where
the emitter acts like a common terminals for both the options.

• Each of these configurations have the ability to produce unique output results
depending on the various parameters used in the configuration layout.

• Following are the three bipolar transistor configurations with their own unique output
characteristics and attributes:

1) Common Base Configuration – shows Voltage Gain without any Current Gain.
2)Common Emitter Configuration – shows both Current and Voltage Gain.
3)Common Collector Configuration – shows Current Gain but no Voltage Gain
21
 Bipolar Transistor (BJT) Configurations
cont’
The Common Base (CB) Configuration
• In a common base mode which is also called grounded base, the base terminal of the BJT is
used as the common terminal for both input and output of the configuration.
• The input signal is fed across the base and emitter of the BJT, and the resulting output signal is
derived across the base and the collector terminals of the BJT.
• The base signal is always referenced to the emitter terminal and its potential level.

The diagram for this configuration can be seen in the following diagram.

• Here the input current applied to the emitter

happens to be relatively larger since this
current is the sum of the base current and
collector current.
• On account of this, the output current at the
collector becomes less compared to the
input emitter current, providing a net current
gain of unity to this type of mode of operation.
• To be precise, in a common base
configuration the input signal gets attenuated.
22
 Bipolar Transistor (BJT) Configurations
•
cont’
A common base BJT circuit behaves like a non-inverting amplifier circuit, due to the fact that its
output signals is always in-phase with the input signal, meaning the output precisely replicates the
input signal's polarity without changing its attributes.
• This configuration is normally avoided since it creates a rather high voltage gain characteristics,
wherein the input characteristic can be compared to a forward biased diode and the output
characteristics to an illuminated LED.
• Additionally this kind of bipolar transistor arrangement features a high ratio of output to input
resistance or more notably “load” resistance ( RL ) to “input” resistance ( Rin ) presenting it a value of
“Resistance Gain”. As a result the voltage gain ( Av ) for a common base configuration is presented as:

23
 Bipolar Transistor (BJT) Configurations
cont’Emitter (CE) Configuration
The Common
• In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the input signal is placed across the base
and the emitter, while the output is extracted from across the collector and the emitter as
demonstrated.
• This sort of arrangement is one of the widely used circuit for transistor based amplifiers and it signifies
the “normal” approach to bipolar transistor network.
• The common emitter amplifier construction delivers the very best current and power gain among the
three bipolar transistor designs.
• This is largely because the input impedance is SMALL since it is attached to a forward biased PN-
junction, while the output impedance is LARGE since it is obtained from a reverse biased PN-junction.
• In this form of configuration, the current
moving from the transistor needs to be
the same to the currents coming in into
the transistor in the form of emitter
current can be presented as IE= IC+ IB.
• Since the load resistance ( RL ) is joined
in series with the collector, for a common
emitter transistor configuration the
current gain can be pretty large simply
because it is the ratio of IC/IB. 24
 Bipolar Transistor (BJT) Configurations
•
cont’
Because the emitter current for a common emitter configuration is characterized by IE = IC + IB, the ratio of
IC/IE is known as Alpha, symbolized by the Greek symbol of ἀ.
• Take note: that the value of Alpha will at all times be lower than unity.
• Considering that the electrical relationship between these three currents, IB, IC and IE depends upon the
physical structure of the transistor alone, a slightest of variation in the base current ( IB ), may lead to a
significantly larger improvement in the collector current ( IC).
• Subsequently, little changes in current moving within the base may as a result regulate the current across
the emitter-collector circuit.
• Usually, Beta(ß) may carry a value between 20 and 200 for the majority of general purpose transistors.
• Therefore when a transistor possesses a Beta value of say 100, signifies that one electron will move through
the base terminal for every 100 electrons moving across the emitter-collector terminal.
• Simply by merging the expressions for both Alpha (ἀ) and Beta(ß) the numerical relationship between these
variables and consequently the current gain of the transistor could be expressed as:
Where:
“IC” is the current moving towards the
collector terminal
“IB” is the current going towards the
base terminal
“IE” is the current flowing out from the
emitter terminal. 25
 Bipolar Transistor (BJT) Configurations
cont’
The Common Collector (CC) Configuration
• In the Common Collector or grounded collector configuration, the collector now becomes common
reference with regards to the supply.
• The input signal is hooked up straight to the base, whereas the output is extracted through the emitter
load as indicated in the diagram.
• This kind of arrangement is usually recognized as a Voltage Follower or Emitter Follower circuit.
• The common collector, or emitter follower construction is incredibly helpful for impedance matching
applications due to its extremely high input impedance, approximately thousands of Ohms while
featuring a comparatively lower output impedance.
• The common emitter arrangement features a current
gain roughly equivalent to the ß value of the transistor
itself.
• In the common collector configuration the load
resistance can be seen in series with the emitter which
means its current will be equivalent to that of the
emitter current.
• Since the emitter current is the combined result of the
collector AND the base current put together,
• we find that the load resistance in this particular type of
transistor setup has both the collector current and the
input current of the base streaming through it. 26
• In that case the current gain of the circuit is furnished by
 Bipolar Transistor (BJT) Configurations
cont’
This kind of bipolar transistor configuration is a non-inverting circuit wherein the voltages Vin and Vout tend to be “in-
phase”. It carries a voltage gain which is at all times lower than “1” (unity).
The load resistance of the common collector transistor accepts equally the base and collector currents offering a
substantial current gain (just like the common emitter construction) as a result, it exhibits excellent current
amplification with only a small amount of voltage gain.
We can at this point review the different relationships between the specific transistor DC currents flowing via each
terminal and its DC current gains discussed above, within the following table.

27
 Field Effect Transistor (FET)
• Definition: FET is an acronym used for “field effect transistor”. It is a three terminal unipolar
device in which conduction is manipulated with the help of applied electric field.
• The name itself gives a brief idea about its working principle, “field effect”, these two words
clearly indicates it is a transistor controlled by electric field.
• Thus, it is also referred as a voltage controlled device in which only majority charge carriers are
involved in the conduction mechanism. It comprises of three terminals, i.e. source, gate, and
drain.
• A Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a three-terminal Active semiconductor device, where the
output current is controlled by an electric field generated by the input voltage.
• FETs are also known as unipolar transistors because, unlike bipolar transistors, FETs only have
either electrons or holes operating as charge carriers.
• FET uses the voltage applied to its input terminal (called the Gate), to control the current flowing
from the source to drain, making the Field Effect Transistor a “Voltage” operated device.
• A Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a three-terminal Active semiconductor device, where the
output current is controlled by an electric field generated by the input voltage.
• FETs are also known as unipolar transistors because, unlike bipolar transistors, FETs only have
either electrons or holes operating as charge carriers.
• FET uses the voltage applied to its input terminal (called the Gate), to control the current flowing
from the source to drain, making the Field Effect Transistor a “Voltage” operated device.28
 Field Effect Transistor (FET) cont’
Significance of FET
• The transistor in its name is often confused with a bipolar transistor. But there exists a vast difference between FET
and BJT, i.e. bipolar transistor.
• Although both are transistors and both, involve conduction of current and also both have three terminals, but the
similarities end here.
• The BJT uses injection and collection of minority charge carriers, and this process of injection and collection is done
during forward biasing of the P-N junction. On the contrary, the FETs uses an electric field to vary the depletion width
during reverse biasing of the junction
• Thus, the conduction in BJTs involve majority carriers as well as minority carriers, but the conduction mechanism in
FETs is only due to majority charge carriers. This is the reason FETs are termed as a unipolar device.

Water Analogy to understand the concept of FET

• To understand how an FET works, let’s use an analogy. Analogies often make
• things simple to understand even a complex concept.
The water source can be understood as the source of FET, the vessel which
collects water is analogous to the drain terminal of FET.
• Let’s have a quick look at the below diagram, after that understanding the
concept of FET will be a cake walk.
•
Now, can you guess what gate terminal is analogous to? If you are thinking of
water tap then yes, you are correct. It is nothing other than the controlling tap
which controls the flow of water. Now, the way in which the controlling tap
modulate the quantity of water coming from the outlet, in the same way, the
voltage at gate terminal controls the flow of current from source to drain 29
Psychical Overview Field Effect Transistor (FET)
A FET has four terminals named Source, Drain, Gate, and
Body.
Source: Source is the terminal through which the majority
charge carriers are entered in the FET.
Drain: Drain is the terminal through which the majority charge
carriers exit from the FET.
Gate: The gate terminal is formed by diffusion of an N-type
semiconductor with a P-type semiconductor. This creates a
heavily doped PN junction region that controls the flow of
the carrier from source to drain.
Body: This is the substrate on which the FET is built. In
discrete applications, it is internally tied to the source pin
allowing its effects to be ignored entirely. However, in
integrated circuits, this pin will be typically connected to the
most negative power supply in an NMOS circuit(most
positive in a PMOS circuit) because many transistors will
share it. Careful connections and design are critical to
maintaining FET performance when the Body connection is
involved.
Channel: This is the region in which the majority carriers 30
 Classification of Field Effect Transistor (FET)
• The classification of FET can be understood with the help of chart described in the
below image.
• The FETs are mainly described in two types that are JFET (Junction field effect
transistor) and Insulated Gate field effect transistor
Junction Field Effect Transistor
• The junction FET is nothing but the FET in which
conduction is established by variation of
depletion width when the junction is reversed
biased.
• It comprises of two types according to the
construction that is N-Channel and P-Channel.
Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor
• The insulated gate FET is one in which gate is
insulated by an insulation material from the
semiconductor specimen.
• These are of two types MESFET (Metal
Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor) and MISFET (Metal-Insulator-
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor). 31
 Classification of Field Effect Transistor (FET) cont’

• Both MESFET and MISFET uses metal-semiconductor junction

rather than conventional P-N junction.
• But the feature that distinguishes both is the use of insulation
material in case of MISFET while there is no insulation material
in MESFET.
• MOSFET is the subtype of MISFET in which oxide layer plays a
crucial role in providing insulation between the gate and other
terminals.
• MOSFETs work in two modes that are Depletion
mode and Enhancement Mode. In depletion mode, there exists
a physical channel while it is not so in Enhancement mode.
• The depletion and enhancement MOSFET can again be
designed in two ways by using N-channel or P-channel.
32
 Transistor Characteristics
• Transistor Characteristics are the plots which represent the
relationships between the current and the voltages of a transistor in
a particular configuration.
• By considering the transistor configuration circuits to be analogous
to two-port networks, they can be analyzed using the characteristic-
curves which can be of the following types

Input Characteristics: These describe the changes in input current with

the variation in the values of input voltage keeping the output voltage
constant.
Output Characteristics: This is a plot of output current versus output
voltage with constant input current.
Current Transfer Characteristics: This characteristic curve shows the
variation of output current in accordance with the input current, 33
 Input Characteristics for CB Configuration of Transistor
• Figure below shows the input characteristics of a CB configuration circuit which
describes the variation of emitter current, IE with Base-Emitter voltage, VBE keeping
Collector-Base voltage, VCB constant.

Current Transfer Characteristics for CB Configuration of Transistor

• Figure below shows the current

transfer characteristics for CB
configuration which illustrates the
variation of IC with the IE keeping VCB
as a constant.
• The resulting current gain has a value 34
less than 1 and can be mathematically
 Input Characteristics for CC Configuration of Transistor
• Figure below shows the input characteristics for CC configuration which describes
the variation in IB in accordance with VCB, for a constant value of Collector-Emitter
voltage, VCE.

Output Characteristics for CC Configuration of Transistor

• Figure below shows the

output characteristics for
the CC configuration
which exhibit the
variations in IE against the
changes in VCE for 35
 Current Transfer Characteristics for CC Configuration of
Transistor
• This characteristic of CC configuration below shows the variation of IE with IB keeping
VCE as a constant

36
 Input Characteristics for CE Configuration of Transistor
• Figure below shows the input characteristics for the CE configuration of transistor
which illustrates the variation in IB in accordance with VBE when VCE is kept constant

From the graph shown in Figure above,

the input resistance of the transistor can
be obtained as
Output Characteristics for CE Configuration of Transistor

• The output characteristics of CE configuration

are also referred to as collector characteristics.
• This plot shows the variation in IC with the
changes in VCE when IB is held constant.
• From the graph shown, the output resistance
37
can be obtained as:
 Current Transfer Characteristics for CE Configuration of
Transistor
• This characteristic of CE configuration shows the variation of IC with IB keeping VCE as
a constant. This can be mathematically given by

• Lastly, it is to be noted that although the characteristic curves explained

are for BJTs, similar analysis holds good even in the case of FETs. 38
 Introduction to Control Systems
• Control systems have played an exceedingly significant role in
the development and advancement of modern civilization and
technology.
• Almost every aspect of human life/endeavour is affected by
some type of control systems.
• All sectors of industry have control systems evidently in
operation.
• Quality control of manufactured products, automatic assembly
line, machine tool control, space technology and weapon
systems, computer control, transportation systems, power
systems, robotics are few control system applications in
modern manufacturing and industrial processes.
• Other areas of application include non-engineering systems,
39
 Definitions of control system terminologies
• Control: This means measuring the value of the controlled variable
of the system and comparing it with the reference input (desired
value) so as to generate an error signal which is used to correct or
limit deviation of the measured value from the desired value.
• Controlled variable: This is the quantity or condition that is
measured and controlled. In other words, it refers to the output of
the system.
• Manipulated variable: This is the quantity or condition that is varied
by the controller so as to adjust the value of the controlled variable.
It is often called the control or actuating signal.
• Plant: This may be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set of
machine parts functioning together, the purpose of which is to
perform a particular operation. Any physical object to be
controlled may be termed a plant. 40
 Definitions of control system terminologies cont’
• System: This is a combination of components that act together and perform a
certain objective. A system is not limited to physical ones. The concept of a
system can be applied to abstract, dynamic phenomena such as those
encountered in economics. The word system should, therefore, be interpreted to
imply physical, biological, economic, and the like, systems.
• Disturbances: A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of
the output of a system. If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is
called internal, while an external disturbance is generated outside the system and
is an input.
• Feedback control: This refers to an operation that, in the presence of
disturbances, tend to reduce the difference between the output of a system and
some reference input and that does so on the basis of this difference.
• Single-input-single-output system: This is a control system that has only one
input and one output. Our discussion in this course will be restricted to this type
of control systems
• Multiple-input-multiple-output system: This is a control system that has many
inputs and many outputs 41
 Types of control systems
Control systems can be classified as either open-loop or closed-loop.
• Open-loop control systems: An open-loop control system is a non-
feedback control system whose control action is independent of the
output.
• This means that the output is neither measured nor fed back for
comparison with the input, and, therefore, each reference input
corresponds to a fixed operating point.
• As shown in Figure 1.1, a controller and a controlled process constitute
the major components of an open-loop control system.
• Depending on the system, the controller may be a motor, an amplifier, a
filter, or a simple temperature switch.

42
• Since the accuracy of the system depends upon proper calibration, any alteration of or
deviation from the calibration set point will adversely affect the system.
• Therefore, sensitivity of the controlled variable to changes in disturbance inputs is the
main problem associated with an open-loop control system.
Examples of an open-loop control system are:
1. A pressing iron without a thermostat
2. An automatic washing machine
3. A traffic light control system
Advantages of open-loop control systems
1. They are simple
2. They are economical
3. The require little maintenance which is not difficult to carry out
4. Proper calibration is not a problem
Disadvantages of open-loop control systems
1. They are not accurate
2. They are not reliable
3. They are slow
4. They cannot be optimized
43
 Closed-loop control systems
• A closed-loop control system is a feedback control system whose control
action is dependent on the output.
• In other words, in a feedback control system, the output signal, or a
function of it, is fed back to be compared with the reference input, and the
difference obtained is used to adjust the plant to bring the output to a
desired value.
• Figure 1.2 shows a block diagram of a closed-loop
• As depicted in thecontrol system.
figure (Fig. 1.2), a closed-
loop control system has a forward path and a
feedback path.
• The forward path contains the controller and
the controlled plant while the feedback path
contains a sensor which is used to
‘transduce’ the output into a manipulable
form (electrical signal).
• An example of a closed-loop control system
is a thermostatically controlled pressing
44 iron,
Advantages of closed-loop control systems
1. They are reliable
2. They are fast
3. A number of variables can be handled simultaneously
4. They can be optimized
Disadvantages of closed-loop control systems
1. They are expensive
2. They are very complicated
.3. They require much maintenance which could be difficult to carry out Difference between open and close
loop control system
Elements of feedback control systems
Figure 1.3 shows various elements of a feedback control system:

45
Command input: The command is the externally generated
input.
Reference input element: This converts the command input
into a proportional manipulable signal ( usually electrical
signal)
Error detector: This compares the measured signal with the
reference input and generates an error signal that serves as
the input to the control element.
Control element: This adjusts the state of the controlled
system in accordance with the error signal fed into it so as to
realize the desired output level.
Controlled system: This is the plant, process, or system that is
being controlled by the feedback loop. 46
 Types of feedback control systems
Depending upon the purpose of classification, feedback control systems may
be classified in several ways.
1. According to the type of the feedback element used, control systems are
classified as manual or automatic. It is termed manual when the feedback
element is a human operator or automatic when the feedback element is
non-human. In the case of automatic feedback control systems, the
feedback element is usually a sensing device.
2. According to the method of analysis and design, feedback control systems
are categorized as linear time-varying or linear time-invariant, non-linear time
varying or non-linear time-invariant.
3. According to the types of signal present in the system, continuous-data
(modulated or non-modulated) or discrete-data (modulated or non-modulated)
systems are also available.
4. According to the main purpose of the system, feedback control systems are
also classified as position-control or velocity-control systems 47
 Effects of feedback in control systems
• Although the introduction of feedback in a control system has an evident effect of reducing the error between
the reference input and the system output, its effects are actually deeper than mere system error reduction.
• We shall now investigate the effects of feedback on various aspects of system performance characteristics,
such as stability, overall gain and sensitivity.
• Let’s consider the simple feedback system configuration shown in Figure 1.4, where r is the input signal; y is
the output signal; e is the error signal; and b is the feedback signal.

• Taking parameters G and H as constants gains, the input-output relation of the system is given as

• -----------------------------1.1
48
 Effect of feedback on overall gain
• As seen from eqn (1.1), feedback affects the gain G of a
non-feedback system by a factor 1 + GH.
• The system of Fig. 1.4 is said to have negative feedback
since a minus sign is assigned to the feedback signal.
Since the quantity GH may itself include a minus sign, the
general effect of feedback is that it may increase or
decrease the gain G.
• In a practical control system, G and H are functions of
frequency, so the magnitude of 1 + GH may be greater than
1 in one frequency range but less than 1 in another.
• Thus, feedback could increase the gain of system in one
frequency range but decrease it in another. 49
 Effect of feedback on stability
• One of the advantages of incorporating feedback is that it can stabilize an unstable
system. Let us assume that the feedback system in Fig 1.4 is unstable (if, for instance,
GH = -1).
• If we introduce another feedback loop through a negative feedback gain of T as shown
in Fig. 1.5.

• It is apparent that although the properties of G and H are such that the inner-loop feedback
system is unstable, because GH = -1, the overall system can be made stable by properly
selecting the outer-loop feedback gain T.
• In practice, GH is a function of frequency, and the stability condition of the closed-loop system
depends on the magnitude and phase of GH.
• The conclusion is that feedback can improve stability if properly applied or be harmful to
stability if not properly applied. 50
 Examples of control systems
• Applicability of control cuts across a wide range of fields
of human endeavour.
• For example, a typical industrial environment has
numerous control systems installed to ease both
production and other related activities. Speed controls,
process temperature and pressure controls, position,
thickness, composition, and quality controls are just few
industrial applications of control.
• Because the list of control system applications cannot
be exhausted, mention will only be made of few
important examples here.
51
 Steering control of automobile
• In the steering control of an automobile, the objective is to follow a particular course of travel.
• The direction of the two front wheels can be regarded as the controlled variable, or the output y;
the direction of the steering wheel is the actuating signal.
• The control system, or plant, comprises the steering mechanism and the dynamics of the entire
automobile.
• A simple block diagram of an automobile steering control is displayed in Fig. 1.7. The error is
generated by the difference between the desired course and the actual course.
• The actual course measurement is obtained by visual and tactile (body movement) feedback

52
Other examples of control systems are:
• 1. Idle-speed control of automobile
• 2. Control in virtual prototyping and hardware in the
loop
• 3. Computer numerical control (CNC) of machine
tools
• 4. Room temperature control system, etc

53
 Course content
Communication fundamentals
Introduction to Radio
Introduction to TV

54
 Meaning of communication
• Communication is the process of exchanging messages or information between two or more parties
• Communication begins when somebody wants to convey information to somebody else. That
information must be presented as some kind of pattern. For example, speech is a pattern, smoke
signals are a pattern, talking drums are a pattern, telephone calls are pattern, Morse code is a pattern.
• These patterns then travel over a communication channel, typically involving a medium. For instance,
smoke passing through air, electrical signals passing through wire, or speech passing through the
atmosphere as a series of pressure waves.
• Once the pattern reaches the recipient, it needs to be decoded and it needs to be understood.
Somebody needs to understand what the dots and dashes of Morse code mean or what the patterns of
smoke signals mean, or simply to process the sounds that make up human speech.

55
 Communication engineering
Communications
Engineering is the
Input
study of how
Transduce
Transmitte
Channel
Receive Output transmitters and
r r Transducer
r receivers are designed
to perform their
respective tasks taking
into account
Noise electromagnetic
effects of the
atmosphere through
What is Telecommunications? which it is being sent.
• Telecommunications refers to the exchange of information by electronic and electrical means over a significant
distance.
• A complete telecommunication arrangement is made up of two or more stations equipped with transmitter and
receiver devices. A single co-arrangement of transmitters and receivers, called a transceiver, may also be used in
many telecommunication stations.
• Telecommunications devices include telephones, telegraph, radio, microwave communication arrangements, fibre
optics, satellites and the Internet. 56
Audio
(Voice)signals

The message in voice

(audio) transmissions
is characterized
by frequency of
300Hz to 3400Hz
and power content

57
Modes of Communication
• Simplex. One direction all the time e.g. Radio and Television
• Full Duplex. Both direction all the time . e.g. phone call
• Half Duplex. One direction at a time but both directions possible. e.g.
walkie-talkie

58
Inverse Square Law

59
 Take Home Cake
•

60
 Components of a communication system

Input Output
Transmitte
Transduce Channel Receiver transduce
Input r output
r r

Noise

61
 Elements of a Communication System
Information source
• The information source acts as an interface between the
communication system and the outside world and provides the message
signal that is processed by the transmitter.
There are three main classes ,namely voice (speech/audio source),
picture (image/video source), text or data

Input Output
Transmitte
Transduce Channel Receiver transduce
r
r r
Noise 62
 Elements of a Communication System
Input Transducer
• It converts the output of the information source into an electrical signal
that is suitable for transmission.
For instance, a microphone serves as the transducer that converts an
acoustic speech(sound) signal into an electrical signal, a video camera
converts an image into an electrical signal.
Input Output
Transmitte
Transduce Channel Receiver transduce
r
r r
Transmitter Noise
• It converts the electrical signal into a form that is suitable for
transmission through the physical channel or transmission medium
63
 Communication Channels and their
Characteristics
• Transmission Channel :This is the physical medium that bridges the distance from
transmitter to the receiver. It carries the information from the source to the destination
• Noise: Noise is an unwanted signal that enters the communication system via the
communication channel and interferes with the transmitted signal. The noise signal
(unwanted signal) degrades the transmitted signal (signal containing information).
• Receiver: The receiver is a device that receives the signal (electrical signal) from the
channel and converts the signal (electrical signal) back to its original form (light and
sound) which is understandable by humans at the destination. TV set is a good example
of a receiver. TV set receives the signals sent by the TV transmitting stations and
converts the signal into a form which is easily understandable by the humans who are
watching TV.
• Output Transducer: The transducer that is present at the output side of the
communication system is called output transducer. Generally, the output transducer
converts the electrical signal into a non-electrical signal (sound signal, light signal, or both
sound and light signal). The best example of an output transducer is the loudspeaker
which is placed between the receiver section and the destination. The loudspeaker
converts the electrical signals into sound signals which are easily understandable by the
humans at the destination. 64
 CATEGORIES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Guided or wired transmission media

• Unguided or wireless transmission media
• Guided media provide a physical path along which the signals are
propagated; these include twisted pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber.
These are physical mediums that can be used to transmit data from
one point to another.
• Unguided media employ an antenna for transmitting through air,
vacuum, or water.

65
 Communication Channels and their Characteristics cont’
TWISTED PAIR CABLE
• Twisted pair cable: Twisted pair cable consists of two strands of insulated copper
wire, twisted around each other to reduce interference from electrical fields.
Example the telephone line is a twisted-pair cable.
• The least expensive and most widely used guided transmission medium is twisted
pair and it is in the form of Unshielded and Shielded Twisted Pair

Input Output
Transduce Transmitte
Channel Receiver transduce
r r
r

Noise 66
 Communication Channels and their Characteristics cont’
• COAXIAL CABLE
• Physical Description Coaxial cable, like twisted pair, consists of two conductors, but
is constructed differently to permit it to operate over a wider range of frequencies.
• It consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner wire
conductor. The inner conductor is held in place by either regularly spaced insulating
rings or a solid dielectric material.
• The outer conductor is covered with a jacket or shield

67
 Communication Channels and their Characteristics cont’
Optical Fibre
• An optical fibre is a thin (2 to 125 mm),flexible medium capable of guiding
an optical ray. Various glasses and plastics can be used to make optical
fibres.
• An optical fibre cable has a cylindrical shape and consists of three
concentric sections: the core, the cladding, and the jacket .

68
 Communication Channels and their Characteristics cont’
Unguided/Wireless/Non Cable methods communication channels:
• These are channels that can be used to transmit data through free space.
• Example satellite, microwave, infrared, and Bluetooth.
• Free Space: When free space is the medium, the resulting system is known
as “radio”. Radio is the broad general term applied to any form of wireless
communication from one point to another.

• Communications satellites: Communication satellites are microwave relay

stations in the orbit around the earth. Transmitting a signal from a ground
station to a satellite is called up-linking; the reverse is called downlinking.

69
 Communication Channels and their Characteristics cont’
Unguided/Wireless/Non Cable methods communication channels:
• Microwave: is a line-of-sight wireless communication technology that uses
high frequency beams of radio waves to provide high speed
wireless connections that can send and receive voice, video, and data
information.
• Microwave links are widely used for point-to-point communications
because their small wavelength allows conveniently-sized antennas to
direct them in narrow beams, which can be pointed directly at the receiving
antenna.
• Microwave Frequency Bands
Microwave signals are often divided into three categories:
ultra high frequency (UHF) (0.3-3 GHz);
super high frequency (SHF) (3-30 GHz); and
extremely high frequency (EHF) (30-300 GHz). 70
Mathematical Models of Communication
Channels
• In the design of communication systems for transmitting
information through physical channels, we find it convenient to
construct mathematical models that reflect the most important
characteristics of the transmission medium.

• The additive noise channel The transmitted signal s(t) is

corrupted by an additive random noise process n(t).

71
Mathematical Models of Communication
Channels

72
73
74
 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO COMMUNICATION

• Radio communication: is the transmission and reception of

electromagnetic waves of radio frequency, especially those carrying sound
messages and other message types such as images, videos and data
• Electromagnetic waves or EM waves are waves that are created as a result
of vibrations between an electric field and a magnetic field. In other words,
EM waves are composed of oscillating magnetic and electric fields.
• Transmission and detection(reception) of communication signals
consisting of electromagnetic waves that travel through the air in a straight
line or by reflection from the ionosphere or from a communication
satellite
• Radio communication is used in radio and television broadcasting, cell
phones, two-way radios, wireless networking, and satellite communication,
among numerous other uses

75
 RADIO WAVES
• A radio wave is an electromagnetic (EM) wave with frequency characteristics that
make it useful. The wave travels long distances through space (in or out of the
atmosphere) without losing too much strength. An antenna is used to convert electric
current into a radio wave so it can travel through space to the receiving antenna, which
converts it back into an electric current for use by a receiver.
• Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation best-known for their use in
communication technologies, such as television, mobile phones and radios. These
devices receive radio waves and convert them to mechanical vibrations in the speaker
to create sound waves.
• The radio-frequency spectrum is a relatively small part of the electromagnetic (EM)
spectrum. The EM spectrum is generally divided into seven regions in order of
decreasing wavelength and increasing energy and frequency,
• The common designations are radio waves, microwaves, infrared (IR), visible light,
ultraviolet (UV), X-rays and gamma-rays.
• Radio waves have the longest wavelengths in the EM spectrum, according to NASA,
ranging from about 0.04 inches (1 millimeter) to more than 62 miles (100 kilometers).
They also have the lowest frequencies, from about 3,000 cycles per second, or 376
kilohertz, up to about 300 billion hertz, or 300 gigahertz.
 RADIO WAVES APPLICATIONS
• Radio waves are used to carry information across space from a transmitter
to a receiver, by modulating the radio signal (impressing an information
signal on the radio wave by varying some aspect of the wave) in the
transmitter.
• In radar, used to locate and track objects like aircraft, ships, spacecraft and
missiles, a beam of radio waves emitted by a radar transmitter reflects off
the target object, and the reflected waves reveal the object's location.
• In radio navigation systems such as GPS and VOR, a mobile receiver
accepts radio signals from navigational radio beacons whose position is
known, and by precisely measuring the arrival time of the radio waves the
receiver can calculate its position on Earth.
• In wireless radio remote control devices like drones, garage door openers,
and keyless entry systems, radio signals transmitted from a controller
device control the actions of a remote device.
77
 RADIO WAVES
•

78
 RADIO WAVES
•

DEFINITIONS OF RADIOCOMMUNICATION TERMS

• Amplitude: The amplitude of a radio wave is a measure of the
displacement of the wave from its rest position.
• A measure of the value of a radio wave, measured in volts (see
figure A-1)..
• Amplitude is generally calculated by looking on a graph of a
wave and measuring the height of the wave from the resting
position. The amplitude is a measure of the strength or
intensity of the wave.
• The energy of the wave also varies in direct proportion to the
amplitude of the wave

79
 DEFINITIONS OF RADIOCOMMUNICATION TERMS
Wavelength
• The wavelength of a wave is the distance between two corresponding points on back-to-back cycles of a wave. This
can be measured between two crests of a wave or two troughs of a wave. As shown below

The wavelength is usually represented in physics by the Greek letter lambda (λ).
Frequency and Period
• The frequency of a wave is the number of times per second that the wave cycles. Frequency is measured in Hertz or
cycles per second. The frequency is often represented by the lower case "f."
• The period of the wave is the time between wave crests. The period is measured in time units such as seconds. The
period is usually represented by the upper case "T."
• The period and frequency are closely related to each other. The period equals 1 over the frequency and the frequency
is equal to one over the period.
• They are reciprocals of each other as shown in the following formulas.
• period = 1/frequency or T = 1/f
• frequency = 1/period or f = 1/T 80
 DEFINITIONS OF RADIOCOMMUNICATION TERMS
•

81
 How Radio Waves Propagate

• All matter has a varying degree of conductivity or resistance to radio

waves. The Earth itself acts as the greatest resistor to radio waves.
• Radiated energy that travels near the ground induces a voltage in the
ground that subtracts energy from the wave, decreasing the strength of the
wave as the distance from the antenna becomes greater. Trees, buildings,
and mineral deposits affect the strength to varying degrees.
• Radiated energy in the upper atmosphere is likewise affected as the
energy of radiation is absorbed by molecules of air, water, and dust.
• The characteristics of radio wave propagation vary according to the signal
frequency and the design, use, and limitations of the equipment
• Radio waves can propagate from transmitter to receiver in four ways:
through ground waves, sky waves, free space waves

82
How Radio Waves Propagate

Ground Wave
• A ground wave travels across the surface of the
Earth. You can best imagine a ground wave’s path
as being in a tunnel or alley bounded by the
surface of the Earth and by the ionosphere, which
keeps the ground wave from going out into space.
Generally, the lower the frequency, the farther the
signal travels.
• Ground waves are usable for navigation purposes
because they travel reliably and predictably along
the same route day after day and are not
influenced by too many outside factors.
• The ground wave frequency range is generally
from the lowest frequencies in the radio range
(perhaps as low as 100 Hz) up to approximately 1,
000 kHz (1 MHz).
• Although there is a ground wave component to
frequencies above this, up to 30 MHz, the ground
wave at these higher frequencies loses strength
83
over very short distances.
How Radio Waves Propagate

Sky Wave
• The sky wave, at frequencies of 1 to 30 MHz,
is good for long distances because these
frequencies are refracted or “bent” by the
ionosphere, causing the signal to be sent
back to Earth from high in the sky and
received great distances away.
• [Figure 9-1] Used by high frequency (HF)
radios in aircraft, messages can be sent
across oceans using only 50 to 100 watts of
power. Frequencies that produce a sky wave
are not used for navigation because the
pathway of the signal from transmitter to
receiver is highly variable.
• The wave is “bounced” off of the ionosphere,
which is always changing due to the varying
amount of the sun’s radiation reaching it
(night/day and seasonal variations, sunspot
activity, etc.). The sky wave is, therefore, 84
How Radio Waves Propagate

Space Wave
• When able to pass through the ionosphere, radio waves of 15 MHz
and above (all the way up to many GHz), are considered space
waves.
• Most navigation systems operate with signals propagating as space
waves. Frequencies above 100 MHz have nearly no ground or sky
wave components.
• They are space waves, but (except for global positioning system
(GPS)) the navigation signal is used before it reaches the ionosphere
so the effect of the ionosphere, which can cause some propagation
errors, is minimal. GPS errors caused by passage through the
ionosphere are significant and are corrected for by the GPS receiver
system.

• Space waves have another characteristic of concern to users. Space

waves reflect off hard objects and may be blocked if the object is
between the transmitter and the receiver.

• Site and terrain error, as well as propeller/rotor modulation error in

very high omnidirectional range (VOR) systems, is caused by this
bounce.
85
• Instrument landing system (ILS) course distortion is also the result
86
Electromagnetic/Radio frequency spectrum

87
What does this picture show about the relationship between
frequency and wavelength?

88
Types of EM Radiation

• Radiowaves
• lowest energy EM radiation

89
90
 Radio waves
• Longest wavelength EM waves
• Uses:
• TV broadcasting
• AM and FM broadcast radio
• Heart rate monitors
• Cell phone communication
• MRI (MAGNETIC RESONACE IMAGING)
• Uses Short wave radio waves with a magnet to create an image

91
 Television

• Television is one of our world’s most important means of communication.

It shows us information programs, like the news, documentaries, and
sports events. We can watch films, listen to interviews and hear the
sounds of events that happen far away.
• Television teaches us about countries and cultures and we can
enjoy entertainment, like series, comedies, game shows or sitcoms.
• A television set can be used for other things as well. You
can record shows and films for later viewing, play video games, watch
DVDs, or even browse the Internet
• Television has been influencing our lives since it was developed over 80
years ago. It is an important way of spending our free time
and shapes people’s opinions about various issues
92
 Definition of Television
• Television an electronic system of transmitting transient images
of fixed or moving objects together with sound over a wire or
through space by apparatus that converts light and sound into
electrical waves and reconverts them into visible light rays and
audible sound
• It can also be define as a system for converting visual images
along with sound into electrical signals, transmitting them by
radio or other means, and displaying them electronically on a
screen.
• Television (TV) is the electronic delivery of moving images and
sound from a source to a receiver. By extending the senses
of vision and hearing beyond the limits of physical distance
93
 Television
• Television has had a considerable influence on society.
• Conceived in the early 20th century as a possible medium for education and interpersonal
communication, it became by mid-century a vibrant broadcast medium, using the model of
broadcast radio to bring news and entertainment to people all over the world.
• Television is now delivered in a variety of ways: “over the air” by terrestrial radio waves
(traditional broadcast TV); along coaxial cables (cable TV); reflected off of satellites held in
geostationary Earth orbit (direct broadcast satellite, or DBS, TV); streamed through the Internet;
and recorded optically on digital video discs (DVDs) and Blu-ray discs.
• The technical standards for modern television, both monochrome (black-and-white) and colour,
were first established in the middle of the 20th century. Improvements have been made
continuously since that time, and television technology changed considerably in the early 21st
century.
• Much attention was focused on increasing the picture resolution (high-definition television
[HDTV]) and on changing the dimensions of the television receiver to show wide-screen
pictures.
• In addition, the transmission of digitally encoded television signals was instituted to provide
interactive service and to broadcast multiple programs in the channel space previously
occupied by one program.
94
Television

95
Television Con’t

96
Television Con’t

97
Television Con’t

98
 Resolution and Aspect Ratio
Resolution
• Resolution and aspect ratio are terms used to describe the format and image
you see on your television screen. In a television, these two values are
related and one affects the other.
• Resolution defines the number of pixels (dots) that make up the picture on
your television. For any given screen size, the more dots in the picture, the
higher the resolution and the higher the overall quality of the picture.
• TV resolution is often stated as the number of pixels or dots contained
vertically in the picture. Each of these resolutions also has a name
associated with it.

• [A] Resolution(# of vertical dots) 99

Aspect Ratio
Resolution and Aspect Ratio
• Closely tied to resolution is Aspect Ratio. This is the ratio of width to
height of the TV screen. Certain aspect ratios are designed to handle
certain resolutions without any stretching or distortion of the picture and
without any blank space around the picture

• [A] Height
[B]Width

100