MECH4411 Heat Transfer

Part 2 – Convective heat transfer

Lecture Note 6
Free convection

1
Objectives
1. Free convection on a vertical plate

2. Grashof number

3. Empirical relations for free convection of isothermal surface

4. Free convection for constant heat flux

5. Modified relations for horizontal cylinders and horizontal plate

2
Free convection on a vertical flat plate
For a vertical plate, the boundary layer equations of free convection is given by
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u dp ∂2u
ρ u +v =− + μ 2 − ρg
∂x ∂y dx ∂y
∂T ∂T ∂T ∂2T ∂2T
ρcp +u +v = k +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y2

where the term − ρg represents the weight force exerted on the element. The pressure
gradient in the x direction results from the change in elevation up the plate:
∂p
= − ρ! g
∂x
The change in pressure over a height dx is equal to the weight per unit area. We can
rewrite the momentum equation as
∂u ∂u ∂2u
ρ u +v = μ 2 + ρ! − ρ g
∂x ∂y ∂y
3
Volume coefficient of expansion β
The body force term can also be written as
− ρ − ρ! g = gρβ T − T!

The volume coefficient of expansion β may be determined from tables of properties. And for ideal gas, the volume
coefficient of expansion is β = 1/T, where T is the absolute temperature of the gas.

Therefore,
∂u ∂u ∂2u
ρ u +v = μ 2 − ρgβ T − T!
∂x ∂y ∂y
We can derive the integral momentum equation and energy equation
# #
d $
∂u
" ρu dy = − $ + " ρgβ T − T! dy
dx " ∂y %&" "
#
d dT
" u T − T! 𝑑𝑦 = −α $
dx " dy %&"

Our objective is to find heat transfer coefficient h

∂T
−k (
q ∂T ∂y '
q' = ( = − k $ →h=
A' ∂y ' T' − T! 4
Temperature and hydrodynamic boundary layer
The convection heat transfer depends on the thermal conductivity and the temperature gradient at the surface.
We will need to determine the temperature profile, which is in turn determined by the hydrodynamic boundary
layer.
We have the following boundary value problems for the temperature and flow velocity:
Temperature:
T y = 0 = T' T y = C0 + C1 y + C2 y2 + C3 y3
T y = d = T! T − T! y $
→ = 1 −
∂T T' − T! δ
= 0 at y = d
∂y

Flow velocity:
u y = C0 + C1 y + C2 y2 + C3 y3
u y=0 =0
βδ$ g T' − T! y y $
u y=d =0 →u= 1 −
4υ δ δ
∂u u y y $
= 0 at y = d → = 1 −
∂y ux δ δ
∂2u βδ$ g T' − T!
μ 2 = − ρgβ T' − T! at y=0 where ux = ~ δ$
∂y 4υ 5
Temperature and hydrodynamic boundary layer
Now we have
# #
d $
∂u u y y $
" ρu dy = − $ + " ρgβ T − T! dy = 1 −
dx " ∂y %&" " ux δ δ
#
d dT T − T! y $
" u T − T! 𝑑𝑦 = −α $ = 1 −
dx " dy %&" T' − T! δ
By substituting the temperature and velocity profile, we get
1 d $ 1 ux
u( δ = ρgβ T − T! δ − υ
105 dx 3 δ
1 d T' − T!
T − T∞ u( δ = 2α
30 dx δ

We thus assume We solve for the two constants C1 and C2:

u( = C) x)/$ δ = C$ x)/+ 20 υ ,)/$
gβ T' − T!
)/$
C) = 5.17υ +
5 $ )/+
1 )/+
C) )/+ 21 α υ$
C C x = gβ T − T! C$ x − υx
420 ) $ 3 C$ )/+ ,)/+
20 υ gβ T' − T! υ ,)/$
1 2α )/+ C2 = 3.93υ +
C C x ,)/+ = x 21 α υ$ α
40 ) $ C$ 6
Grashof number and heat transfer coefficient
The resultant expressions for the boundary layer thickness and fictitious velocity ux are
δ ,)/+
= 3.93Pr,)/$ 0.952 + Pr )/+ Gr( gβ T − T x -
x where Grashof number Gr( =
' !
υ$
x )/$
u( = 5.17 0.952 + Pr ,)/$ Gr(
υ
The Grashof number is a dimensionless group representing the ratio of the buoyancy forces to the viscous forces
in the free-convection flow system. It has a role similar to Re in forced-convection systems and and is the used
as a criterion for transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer flow. For air free convection on a vertical
flat plate, Gr(,/012 = 4 × 10 3 . Now we have
∂T
−k ( T − T! y $
∂y '
h= = 1 −
T' − T! T' − T ! δ
2k
→h=
δ
hx x )/+
Nu( = =2 Nu( = 0.50893Pr)/$ 0.952 + Pr ,)/+ Gr(
k δ
This gives the local heat transfer coefficient along the vertical plane. The average value is
1 4 4
h0 = " h( dx h0 = h(&4 h ~ δ,) ~ x,)/+ 7
L " 3
Empirical relations for free convection
It is more convenient to define Rayleigh number
gβ T! , T" x# gβρ$c% -
Ra = Gr Pr = υ$ Pr = x T' − T!
μk
which characterize the regimes in free convection flow.

At very low Ra, the free-convection flow velocities are small and the heat transfer occurs mainly by conduction
across the fluid layer. As Ra increases, different flow regimes are encountered. It can be used as a criterion for
transition from laminar to turbulent regimes.

The average Nusselt number for free-convection can be represented in the following functional form for a
variety of circumstances:
6
Nu5 = C Gr5 Pr5
where the subscript f refers to the properties evaluated at the film temperature
T! + T'
T5 =
2
The values for C and m are available for a number of simple geometries. We consider vertical planes/cylinders,
and horizontal planes/cylinders.
For isothermal surfaces, the values for C and m can be found in Table 1. 8
Free convection for isothermal surfaces
Average Nusselt number: Table 1: Constants for isothermal surfaces
6
Nu5 = C Gr5 Pr5

9
Free convection for cylinders
A vertical cylinder may be treated as a vertical flat surface when
D 35
≥ )/+
L Gr
4

where D is the diameter of the cylinder and L is the height of the surface.

D 35
If < )/+ , a factor of F should be multiplied to account for the curvature.
L Gr4
)/+
L/D
h/%7189:0 = Fh57;2 and F = 1.3 + 1.0
Gr<

For isothermal surfaces, the values of the constants C and m are given in Table 1.

10
Free convection for isothermal vertical plate
More complicated Churchill and Chu formula is applicable over a wide range of Ra

0.670Ra)/+
Nu = 0.68 + for Ra4 < 10 =
1 + 0.492/Pr =/)> +/=

)/>
0.387Ra
Nu)/$ = 0.825 + for 10 ,) < Ra4 < 10)$
1 + 0.492/Pr =/)> 3/$?

Properties are evaluated at the film temperature.

11
Free convection for constant heat flux surfaces
Modified Grashof number
gβq' x+
Gr∗( = Gr( Nu( = where q' is the wall heat flux (W/m2)
kυ$
The local heat transfer coefficients
h( x )/A
Nu(5 = = 0.60 Gr∗( Pr5 for laminar flow, 10 A < Gr∗( Pr5 < 10)) , q' = constant
k5
h( x )/+
Nu(5 = = 0.17 Gr∗( Pr5 for turbulent flow, 2 × 10)- < Gr∗( Pr5 < 10)> , q' = constant
k5
No formula is available for the transition range.

12
Heat transfer coefficient h for constant heat flux
In general, Note that:
- 6
6 gβ T − T x
Nu( = C Gr( Pr , inserting Gr( = Gr∗( /Nu( , we have Nu( ~ Gr( Pr 6 ~
' !
Pr ~ x-6
υ$

Nu6B)
( = C Gr∗( Pr 6
or

1 m 1 1 - k
For laminar case, m= ; = ;h ~ x )/+
=x ,)/+ h( = 0.60 Gr∗( Pr )/A
4 m+1 5 ( x x
1 m 1 1 k
For turbulent case, m= ; = ; h( ~ x- )/-
= constant h( = 0.17 Gr∗( Pr )/+
3 m+1 4 x x

So when turbulent free convection is encountered, the h is essentially constant with x.

For laminar flow region, the average heat transfer coefficient can be calculated by
1 4 5
0h = " h( dx = h(&4 ; q' = constant
L " 4

13
Free convection from horizontal cylinders
For horizontal cylinders, The predictions of of table 1 are the most reliable for Gr Pr of approximately 10−5.
A more complicated expression for use over a wider range of Gr Pr is given by Churchill and Chu’s formula:

)/>
Gr Pr
Nu)/$ = 0.60 + 0.387 for 10 ,A < Gr Pr <10)$
1 + 0.559/Pr =/)> )>/=

or
0.518 Gr9 Pr )/+
Nu9 = 0.36 + for 10 ,> < Gr9 Pr < 10 =
1 + 0.559/Pr =/)> +/=

Properties are evaluated at the film temperature.

14
Free convection from horizontal plates
For isothermal surfaces, Table 1 lists some constants. The characteristic dimension is given by
A
L=
P
where A is the area and P is the perimeter of the surface. This characteristic dimension is also applicable to
unsymmetrical platforms.
For constant heat flux, for the heat surface facing upward
Nu4 = 0.13 Gr4 Pr )/- for Gr4 Pr < 2 × 10 3
Nu4 = 0.16 Gr4 Pr )/- for 2 × 10 3 < Gr4 Pr < 1 × 10))
For the heat surface facing downward
)/A
Nu4 = 0.58 Gr4 Pr for 10 > < Gr4 Pr < 10))
In these equations, all properties except β are evaluated at a temperature T𝑒 , which is defined as
T: = T' − 0.25 T' − T!
and T' is the average wall temperature related to the heat flux by
q'
0h =
T' − T!
0
hL q' L
The Nusselt number is formed as before: Nu4 = = 15
k T' − T! k
Example 1: Constant heat flux from vertical plate
In a plant location near a furnace, a net radiant energy flux of 800 W/m2 is incident on a vertical metal surface
3.5 m high and 2 m wide. The metal is insulated on the back side and painted black so that all the incoming
radiation is lost by free convection to the surrounding air at 30°C. What average temperature will be attained
by the plate?
Solution:
We treat this problem as one with constant heat flux on the surface. Since we do not know the surface
temperature, we must make an estimate for determining Tf and the air properties. An approximate value of h
for free-convection problems is 10 W/m24 °C, and so, approximately,
q' 800
∆T = ≈ = 80°C
h 10
∆T 80
T5 ≈ + T! = + 30 = 70°C = 343 K
2 2
At T5 = 70°C, the properties of air are
1
υ = 2.043 × 10 ,A m2/s β= = 2.92 × 10 −3 K−1 k = 0.0295 W/m∙°C Pr = 0.7
T5
+ ,- +
gβq 𝑤 x 9.8 2.92 × 10 800 3.5
Gr∗( = = = 2.79 × 10)+
kυ$ 0.0295 2.043 × 10 ,A $
16
Example 1: Constant heat flux from vertical plate
For a constant heat flux,
h( x )/+
Nu( = = 0.17 Gr∗( Pr5
k
k ∗ )/+
0.0295
h( = 0.17 Gr( Pr = 0.17 2.79 × 10)+ × 0.7 )/+ = 5.36 W/m2∙°C
x 3.5
In the turbulent heat transfer, we note that
hx
Nu( = ~ Gr∗( )/+ ~ x+ )/+
k
or h( does not vary with x, and we may may take this as the average value. The value of h = 5.36 W/m2∙°C is
less than the approximate value we used to estimate T5 . Recalculating ∆T, we obtain
q' 800
∆T = = = 149°C
h 5.36
Our new film temperature would be
∆T 149
T5 = + T! = + 30 = 104.5°C
2 2
At T5 = 104.5°C, the properties of air are
1
,A 2
υ = 2.354 × 10 m /s β= = 2.65 × 10 −3 K−1 k = 0.0320 W/m∙°C Pr = 0.695
T5 17
Example 1: Constant heat flux from vertical plate
Then
gβqw x+ (9.8) 2.65 × 10 ,- (800)(3.5) +
Gr∗( = = = 1.75 × 10 )+
kυ$ (0.0320)(2.354 × 10 ,A ) $
and hx is calculated from
k (0.0320)(0.17)
h( = 0.17 Gr∗( Pr )/+
= 1.758 × 10)+ (0.695) )/+
= 5.17 W/m2∙°C
x 3.5
Our new temperature difference is calculated as
q' 800
∆T = T' − T! ;G = = = 155°C
h 5.17
The average wall temperature is therefore
T',;G = ∆T + T! = 155 + 30 = 185°C

18
Example 2: Heat transfer from isothermal vertical plate
A large vertical plate 4.0 m high is maintained at 60°C and exposed to atmospheric air at 10°C. Calculate the
heat transfer if the plate is 10 m wide.
Solution:
60 + 10
The film temperature is given by T5 = = 35°C = 308 K
2
At T5 = 308 K, the properties of air are
1
υ = 1.65 × 10 ,> m2/s β= = 3.25× 10 −3 K−1 k = 0.02685 W/m∙°C Pr = 0.7
T5
gβ T' − T! x- (9.8) 3.25× 10 ,- 60 − 10 (4) -
Ra = GrPr = $ Pr = ,> $ 0.7 = 2.62 × 10))
υ 1.65 × 10
Since 10 ,) < Ra < 10)$ , We then may use
)/$
0.387Ra)/> (0.387) 2.62 × 10)) )/>
Nu = 0.825 + = 0.825 + = 26.75 → Nu = 716
1 + 0.492/Pr =/)> 3/$? 1 + 0.492/0.7 =/)> 3/$?
The heat transfer coefficient is then
k (716)(0.02685)
h0 = Nu = = 4.80 W/m2∙°C
x 4.0
The heat transfer is
19
0 T' − T! = 4.80 4 10 60 − 10 = 9606 W
q = hA
Example 3: Heat transfer from horizontal tube in water
A 2.0-cm-diameter horizontal heater is maintained at a surface temperature of 38°C and submerged in water
at 27°C. Calculate the free-convection heat loss per unit length of the heater.
Solution:
38 + 27
The film temperature is T5 = = 32.5°C
2
At T5 = 32.5°C, from table A-9, the properties of water are
gβρ $ cH
k = 0.630 W/m∙°C = 2.48 × 10)" m3∙°C ,)
μk
gβρ $ cH -
Gr Pr = x T' − T! = 2.48 × 10)" 38 − 27 0.02 - = 2.18 × 10 >
μk
1
Using table 1, we get C = 0.53 and m = , so that
4
6 )/+
Nu = C Gr Pr = 0.53 2.18×10 6 =20.36
5 5

k (20.36)(0.63)
h = Nu = = 642 W/m2∙°C
x 0.02
The heat transfer is
q
0 T' − T! = 642 π 0.02 38 − 27 = 443 W/m
= hπd 20
L
Example 4: Heat transfer from fine wire in air
A fine wire having a diameter of 0.02 mm is maintained at a constant temperature of 54°C by an electric
current. The wire is exposed to air at 1 atm and 0°C. Calculate the electric power necessary to maintain the
wire temperature if the length is 50 cm.

Solution:
54 + 0
The film temperature is T5 = = 27°C = 300K
2
At 𝑇5 = 300K, the properties of air are
1
υ = 15.69 × 10 ,> m2/s β= = 0.00333 K−1 k = 0.02624 W/m∙°C Pr = 0.708
T5
gβ T' − T! x- 9.8 0.00333 54 − 0 0.02 × 10 ,- -
Gr Pr = Pr = 0.708 = 4.05× 10 ,A
υ$ 15.69 × 10 ,> $

From table 1, we find C = 0.675 and m = 0.058 so that

6
Nu = C Gr5 Pr5 = 0.675 4.05 × 10 ,A "."A3
= 0.375
k (0.375)(0.02624)
h0 = Nu = ,-
= 492.6 W/m2∙°C
d 0.02 × 10
The heat transfer is then
0 T' − T! = 492.6 π 0.02 × 10 −3 0.5 54 − 0 = 0.836 W
q = hA 21
Example 5: Heated horizontal pipe in air
A horizontal pipe 1 ft (0.3048 m) in diameter is maintained at a temperature of 250°C in a room where the
ambient air is at 15°C. Calculate the free-convection heat loss per meter of length.

Solution:
The properties of air are evaluated at the film temperature (table A-5):
T' + T! 250 + 15
T5 = = = 132.5°C = 405.5 K
2 2
1
,> 2
υ = 26.54 × 10 m /s β= = 2.47 ×10 −3 K−1 k = 0.03406 W/m∙°C Pr = 0.687
T5

gβ T' − T! d- (9.8)(2.47 × 10 ,- )(250 − 15) 0.3048 - (0.687) 3

Gr9 Pr = Pr = = 1.571 × 10
υ$ (26.54 × 10 ,> ) $
1
From table 1, C = 0.53 and m = , so that
4
Nu9 = 0.53 Gr9 Pr )/+ = 0.53 1.571 × 10 3 )/+
= 59.4

kNu9 (0.03406)(59.4)
h= = = 6.63 W/m2∙°C
d 0.3048
22
Example 5: Heated horizontal pipe in air
The heat transfer per unit length is then calculated from
q
0 T' − T! = 6.63 π 0.3048 250 − 15 = 1.49 kW/m
= hπd
L
As an alternative, we could employ the more complicated expression of Churchill and Chu’s formula for solution
of the problem. The Nusselt number thus would be calculated as
)/> )/>
Gr Pr 1.571 × 10 3
Nu)/$ = 0.60 + 0.387 = 0.60 + 0.387
1 + 0.559/Pr =/)> )>/= 1 + (0.559/0.687) =/)> )>/=

Nu = 64.7
or a value about 8 percent higher.

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