AIR FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (AFIT)

FACULTY OF AIR ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GET 207: APPLIED MECHANICS LECTURE NOTE

COMPLIED
BY
SORETIRE. L.K

FIRST SEMESTER 2021/2022

APRIL, 2022
0
GET 207 Applied Mechanics (3 Units LH 45)

COURSE CONTENT

1. Introduction to engineering mechanism (forces) classification and composition of forces.

2. Methods of resolution of forces.
3. Equilibrium of concurrent forces.
4. Moments numerical problem and it application.
5. Friction – static and dynamic.
6. Composition and equilibrium of forces in plane introduction to plane trusses and
frames.
7. Centre of gravity, centroid of plane figure and numerical problems.
8. Moment of inertia of plane figure with respective to axis and perpendicular plane.
9. Kinematic of rectilinear translation – displacement, velocity acceleration and numerical
problems.
10. Curvilinear translation motion of projectile with numerical problems.
11. Momentum and impulse basic theory and numerical problems.
12. Work and energy basic theory and numerical problems.

1
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Engineering Mechanics is the Branch of Science which deals with forces and their effects
when the bodies are at rest or in Motion

Fig1.0 a Fig1.0 b Fig1.0 c

The force is an important factor in the field of Mechanics, which may be broadly defined as an
agent, which generates or tends to generate and destroy or tends to destroy the motion in a body.
e.g., a horse applies force to pull a cart and to set it in motion. Force is also required to work on a
bicycle pump. In this case, the force is supplied by the muscular power of our arms and
shoulders. Sometimes, the applied force may not be sufficient to move a body, e.g., if we try to
lift a stone weighing 2 or 3 quintals, we fail to do so. In this case we exert a force, no doubt, but
no motion is produced. This shows that a force may not necessarily produce a motion in a body;
but it may, simply, tend to do so. In a tug-of-war the two parties, when balanced, neutralize each
other‟s force. But the moment one party gets weaker, the other party pulls off, in spite of first
party‟s best effort to destroy motion.

2
1.1 EFFECTS OF A FORCE

A force may produce the following effects in a body, on which it acts :

1. It may change the motion of a body. i.e. if a body is at rest, the force may set it in motion.
And if the body is already in motion, the force may accelerate it.
2. It may retard the motion of a body.
3. It may retard the forces, already acting on a body, thus bringing it to rest or in
equilibrium. We shall study this effect in unit 3 of this course.
4. It may give rise to the internal stresses in the body, on which it acts.

1.2Characteristics of Force:

1. Magnitude: Magnitude of force indicates the amount of force (expressed as N or kN) that
will be exerted on another body
2. Direction: The direction in which it acts
3. Nature: The nature of force may be tensile or compressive
4. Point of Application: The point at which the force acts on the body is called point of
application

1.21Types of Forces:

1. Contact Force
2. Body force
3. Point force and distributed force
4. External force and internal force
5. Action and Reaction
6. Friction force
7. Wind force
8. Hydrostatic force
9. Cohesion and Adhesion
10. Thermal force

3
1.30 SYSTEM OF FORCES

When two or more forces act on a body, they are called to form a system of forces, that‟s when
two or more forces are acting on body such body is to exhibit system of forces.

Fig 1.2
Coplanar forces: The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same plane, are known as coplanar

forces. Collinear forces: The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same line, are known as

collinear forces. Concurrent forces: The forces, which meet at one point, are known as

concurrent forces. The concurrent forces may or may not be collinear.

Coplanar concurrent forces: The forces, which meet at one point and their line of action also lay

on the same plane, are known as coplanar concurrent forces.

Coplanar non-concurrent forces: The forces, which do not meet at one point, but their lines of

action lie on the same plane, are known as coplanar non-concurrent forces.

Non-Coplanar concurrent forces: The forces, which meet at one point, but their lines of action

do not lie on the same plane, are known as non-coplanar concurrent forces.

Non-Coplanar non-concurrent forces: The forces, which do not meet at one point and their lines

of action do not lie on the same plane, are called non-coplanar non-concurrent forces.

4
1.40 RESULTANT FORCE

If a number of forces, P, Q, R ... etc. are acting simultaneously on a body, then it is possible to
find out a single force which could replace them i.e., which would produce the same effect as
produced by all the given forces. This single force is called resultant force and the given forces
R, P, Q… are called component forces

1.50 METHODS FOR THE RESULTANT FORCE

There are many methods for finding out the resultant force of a number of given forces, we have
the following methods.

1) Parallelogram Law of Forces (For 2 Forces)

2) Triangle Law (For 2 Forces)

3) Lami‟s theorem (For 3 forces)

4) Method of resolution (For more than 2 Forces)

5
1.51 LAW OF PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES

The law of parallelogram of forces is used to determine the resultant of two forces acting at a
point in a plane. It states, “If two forces, acting at a point be represented in magnitude and
direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their resultant is represented in

6
magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point.”

Let two forces P and Q act at a point O as shown in Fig. 1.4. The force P is represented in
magnitude and direction by OA whereas the force Q is presented in magnitude and direction by
OB. Let the angle between the two forces be „α‟. The resultant of these two forces will be
obtained in magnitude and direction by the diagonal (passing through O) of the parallelogram of
which OA and OB are two adjacent sides. Hence draw the parallelogram with OA and OB as
adjacent sides as shown in Fig. 1.4 (a). The resultant R is represented by OC in magnitude and
direction

 The resultant of a system of forces may be defined as a single force which has the same
effect as system of forces acting on the body.

1.5.1. Magnitude of Resultant (R)

From C draw CD perpendicular to OA produced.

Let α = Angle between two forces P and Q = ∠AOB Now ∠DAC = ∠AOB (Corresponding
angles) = α

In parallelogram OACB, AC is parallel and equal to OB.

∴ AC = Q. In triangle ACD,

AD = AC cos α = Q cos α and CD = AC sin α = Q sin α.

In triangle OCD, OC2 = OD2 + DC2.

But OC = R, OD = OA + AD = P + Q cos α and DC = Q sin α.

∴ R 2 = (P + Q cos α)2 + (Q sin α)2

7
P2 + Q2 cos2α + 2PQ cos α + Q2 sin2 α

P2 + Q2 (cos2 α + sin2 α) + 2PQ cos α

P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos α since (Q cos2 α + sin2 α = 1)

…………………………………. (1.1)

Equation (1.1) gives the magnitude of resultant force R.

1.5.2. Direction of Resultant

Let θ = Angle made by resultant with OA.

Then from triangle OCD,

……………………( 1.2)

Equation (1.2) gives the direction of resultant (R). The direction of resultant can also be obtained
by using sine rule [In triangle OAC, OA = P, AC = Q, OC = R, angle OAC = (180 – α), angle
ACO = 180 – [θ + 180 – α] = (α – θ)]

8
Some special cases arise

Case 1. Ifϴ =00,I.e,when the force P and Q act along the same straight line then equation ( 1.2)
reduces to R = P + Q

Case 2.Ifα = 1800 ,i.e,the force P and Q act along the same straight line but in opposite
directions, then the equation become R = P – Q therefore (cos 1800 =-1).

Case 3. If α=900 when the two forces act at right angle R

Example 1.1

Two coplanar forces with magnitude 20KN and 15KN are oriented with angle of inclination
equal to 60 degree .What would be their Resultant in magnitude and direction if

(a)both forces are acting away from their point of intersection o .

(b)First force act away from point o and second act towards the point.

Solution: Case (a) :P= 20KN Q = 15KN

D
C

15KN R

60o
A 20KN B

Fig 1.5

9
R= 𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 + 2𝑃𝑄𝐶𝑂𝑆𝜃

= 202 + 152 + 20 × 15 × 𝐶𝑂𝑆60

= 400 + 225 + 300

= 925

= 30.41KN

Inclination of α of resultant with direction of force P

𝑄𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 15𝑆𝑖𝑛 60 15×.866

Tan α = 𝑃+𝑄𝐶𝑂𝑆𝜃 =20+15𝐶𝑜𝑠60=20+15××.2 = .4723

‫؞‬α=tan-1 (.4723) =25.280 (clockwise)

Case(b)

R= 𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 + 2𝑃𝑄𝐶𝑂𝑆𝜃

= 202 + 152 + 20 × 15 × 𝐶𝑂𝑆120

= 400 + 225 − 300

= 225 = 18.03N

𝑄𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 15𝑆𝑖𝑛 120

Tanα =𝑃+𝑄𝐶𝑂𝑆𝜃 =20+15𝐶𝑜𝑠120

15×.866
=20+15×(−0.5) = 1.0392

‫ ؞‬α = tan-1 (1.0392) = 46.10 (anticlockwise).

Example 1.2

A Vehicle is being pulled by two forces P and Q as shown fig 1.6(a).Presumingthat the resultant
of these forces lies along the axis of the vehicle, makes the calculations for the pull and
magnitude of the resultant pull.

10
 350
axis
250

Vehicle fig 1.6

Solution

1) The inclined angle between pulls P and Q is 𝜃=35 + 25 = 600

2) The inclination of resultant with the pull P is α = 250
𝑄𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
Then tan α = 𝑃+3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
3𝑆𝑖𝑛 60
tan 250 = 𝑃+3𝑐𝑜𝑠 60

Ptan 250 = 3 sin 60 -3 tan 25 cost60

0.466P = 2.598 – 0.699
1.899
Pull P= = 4.075KN
0.466

Resultant R = 𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 + 2𝑃𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2
= 4.075 + 32 + 2 × 4.075 × 3 × cos 600
=6.15KN

11
2.0 RESOLUTION OF FORCE

RESOLUTION OF A FORCE

The process of splitting up the given force into a number of components, without
changing its effect on the body is called resolution of a force. A force is, generally,
resolved along two mutually perpendicular directions. In fact, the resolution of a force is
the reverse action of the addition of the component vectors.
PRINCIPLE OF RESOLUTION It states, “The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of a
no. of forces, in a given direction, is equal to the resolved part of their resultant in the
same direction.
” Note: In general, the forces are resolved in the vertical and horizontal directions

2.11. METHOD OF RESOLUTION FOR THE RESULTANT FORCE

1. Resolve all the forces horizontally and find the algebraic sum of all the horizontal
components (i.e., ∑H).
2. Resolve all the forces vertically and find the algebraic sum of all the vertical
components (i.e., ∑V).
3. The resultant R of the given forces will be given by the equation: (𝛴𝑣 2 ) + (𝛴𝐻 2 )
4. The resultant force will be inclined at an angle θ, with the horizontal, such that
Notes: The value of the angle θ will vary depending upon the values of ∑V and ∑H
as stated below:
 When ∑V is +ve, the resultant makes an angle between 0° and 180°. But when ∑V is
–ve, the resultant makes an angle between 180° and 360°.
 When ∑H is +ve, the resultant makes an angle between 0° to 90° or 270° to 360°.
 But when ∑H is –ve, the resultant makes an angle between 90° to 270°.
Example 2.1
The forces 20 N, 30 N, 40 N, 50 N and 60 N are acting at one of the angular points of a
regular hexagon, towards the other five angular points, taken in order. Find the magnitude
and direction of the resultant force.

12
 Fig 2.1
Solution
The system of given forces is shown in Fig. 2.1
Magnitude of the resultant force
Resolving all the forces horizontally (i.e., along AB),
∑H = 20 cos 0° + 30 cos 30° + 40 cos 60° + 50 cos 90° + 60 cos 120° N
= (20 × 1) + (30 × 0.866) + (40 × 0.5) + (50 × 0) + 60 (– 0.5) N = 36.0 N ....................(i)
and now resolving the all forces vertically (i.e., at right angles to AB),
∑V = 20 sin 0° + 30 sin 30° + 40 sin 60° + 50 sin 90° + 60 sin 120° N = (20 × 0) + (30 ×
0.5) +(40 × 0.866) + (50 × 1) + (60 × 0.866) N = 151.6 N ...........................(ii)
We know that magnitude of the resultant force

Direction of the resultant force

Let θ = Angle, which the resultant force makes with the horizontal (i.e., AB). Knowing
that

Example 2.2 The following forces act at a point:

(i) 20 N inclined at 30° towards North of East, (ii) 25 N towards North, (iii) 30 N
towards North West, and (iv) 35 N inclined at 40° towards South of West. Find
the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

13
 Fig 2.2
Solution
Resolving all the forces horizontally i.e., along East-West line,
∑H = 20 cos 30° + 25 cos 90° + 30 cos 135° + 35 cos 220° N
= (20 × 0.866) + (25 × 0) + 30 (– 0.707) + 35 (– 0.766) N
= – 30.7 N
and now resolving all the forces vertically i.e., along North-South line,
∑V = 20 sin 30° + 25 sin 90° + 30 sin 135° + 35 sin 220° N
= (20 × 0.5) + (25 × 1.0) + (30 × 0.707) + 35 (– 0.6428) N
= 33.7 N

Direction of the resultant force Let

θ = Angle, which the resultant force makes with the East. Knowing that

Since ∑H is negative and ∑V is positive, therefore resultant lies between 90° and 180°.
Thus, actual angle of the resultant = 180° – 47.7° = 132.3° Ans.

14
3.0 Equilibrium of Forces

When some external forces (which may be concurrent or parallel) are acting on a
stationary body, the body may start moving or may start rotating about any point. But if
the body does not start moving and also does not start rotating about any point, then the
body* is said to be in equilibrium.
If the resultant force is equal to zero it implies that the net effect of the system of forces
is zero this represents the state of equilibrium. For a system of coplanar concurrent forces
for the resultant to be zero hence
∑fx= 0
∑ fy = 0
Equilibrant: Equilibrant is a single force which when added to a system of forces brings
the status of equilibrium. Hence this force is of the same magnitude as the resultant but
opposite in sense. This is depicted in figure 3.0 below.

Fig 3.0
The equilibrium of forces may be studied, analytically, by the use of a theorem
calledLami‟s theorem .
LAMI’S THEOREM
It states, “If three coplanar forces acting at a point be in equilibrium, then each force is
proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two.” Mathematically,

15
where, P, Q, and R are three forces and α, β, γ are the angles as shown infig 3.1
Proof Consider three coplanar forces P, Q, and R acting at a point O.
Let the opposite angles to three forces be α , β and γ as shown in Fig. 3.1.
Now let us complete the parallelogram OACB with OA and OB as adjacent sides as
shown in the figure.
We know that the resultant of two forces P and Q will be given by the diagonal OC both
in magnitude and direction of the parallelogram OACB.
Since these forces are in equilibrium, therefore the resultant of the forces P and Q must
be in line with OD and equal to R, but in opposite direction.
From the geometry of the figure, we find BC = P and AC = Q
∴∠ AOC = (180°–β) and ∠ ACO = ∠ BOC = (180°–α)
Example 3.1.
An electric light fixture weighting 15 N hangs from a point C, by two strings AC and
BC. The string AC is inclined at 60° to the horizontal and BC at 45° to the horizontal as
in fig 3.2

Using Lami‟s theorem, or otherwise, determine the forces in the strings AC and BC.
Solution.

16
Given : Weight at C = 15 N Let TAC = Force in the string AC, and TBC = Force in the
string BC.
The system of forces is shown in Fig. 5.4. From the geometry of the figure, we find that
angle between TAC and 15 N is 150° and angle between TBC and 15 N is 135°.

Fig 3.3

Example 3.2. A string ABCD, attached to fixed points A and D has two equal weights of
1000 N attached to ita at B and C. The weights rest with the portions AB and CD inclined
at angles as shown in Fig. 3.4.below

Fig 3.4

17
Find the tensions in the portions AB, BC and CD of the string, if the inclination of the
portion BC with the vertical is 120°. Solution.

Given : Load at B = Load at C = 1000 N For the sake of convenience, let us split up the
string ABCD into two parts. The system of forces at joints B and is shown in Fig. 3.5 (a)
and (b).

Fig 3.5
Let TAB = Tension in the portion AB of the string, TBC = Tension in the portion BC of
the string, and TCD = Tension in the portion CD of the string.

Applying Lami‟s equation at joint B,

18
FREE BODY DIAGRAMS

The equilibrium of the bodies which are placed on the supports can be considered if we
remove the supports and replace them by the reactions which they exert on the body. In
Fig. 4.10 (a), if we remove the supporting surface and replace it by the reaction R A that
the surface exerts on the balls as shown in Fig. 3.6 (c), we shall get free-body diagram
which is written as FBD. The point of application of the reaction RA will be the point of
contact A, and from the law of equilibrium of two forces, we conclude that the reaction
RA must be vertical and equal to the weight W.

Fig 3.6
Hence Fig. 3.6 (c), in which the ball is completely isolated from its support and in which
all forces acting on the ball are shown by vectors, is known a free-body diagram. Hence
to draw the free-body diagram of a body we remove all the supports (like wall, floor,
hinge or any other body) and replace them by the reactions which these supports exert on
the body. Also, the body should be completely isolated

Example3.3. Draw the free body diagram of ball of weight W supported by a string AB
and resting against a smooth vertical wall at C as shown in Fig. 3.7 (a).

Solution
Given: Weight of ball = W

19
 Fig 3.7

Example 3.4 A ball of weight 120N rests in a right-angled groove, as shown in Fig.
3.8(a). The sides of the groove are inclined to an angle of 30° and 60° to the horizontal. If
all the surfaces are smooth, then determine the reactions R A and RC at the points of
contact.

Solution

Given: Weight of ball, W = 120 N

Angle of groove = 90°

Angle made by side FD with horizontal = 30°

Angle made by side ED with horizontal = 60°

∴ Angle FDH = 30° and angle EDG = 60° Consider the equilibrium of the ball. For this
draw the free body diagram of the ball as shown in Fig. 3.8(b).

The forces acting on the isolated ball will be:

i. Weight of the ball = 120 N and acting vertically downwards

20
ii. Reaction RC acting at C and normal to FD.
iii. Reaction RA acting at A and normal to DE.

The reactions RA and RC will pass through B, i.e., centre of the ball.

The angles made by RA and RC at point B will be obtained as shown in Fig.3.8 (c).

In ΔHDC, ∠CDH = 30° and ∠DCH = 90°.

Hence ∠DHC will be 60°.

Now in ΔHBL, ∠BLH = 90° and angle LHB = 60°.
Hence ∠HBL will be 30°.
Similarly, ∠GBL may be calculated. This will be equal to 60°.
For the equilibrium of the ball,
ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0 For ΣFx = 0, we have RC sin 30° - RAsin60 = 0

or RC sin 30° = RA sin 60°

𝑠𝑖𝑛 60
Rc=RA𝑠𝑖𝑛 30

Rc = 1.732RA

For

Σfy= 0, we have 120 - RAcos60 -Rccos30 = 0

120 = RAcos60 + Rccos30

= RA x .5 + Rc.866

= RA x .5 + (1.732RA) x .866

= .5RA + 1.5RA

120 = 2RA

RA = 60N Ans

21
4.0 Moments

Moments is tendency of force to move or rotate a body through a fixed point

(position).The force multiple by the perpendicular distance from the point to the line of
action of the force this refer to as moment about that point. Unit of moment is Nm.

Moment of force is vector quantity it has a magnitude as well as a direction.

4.1 TYPES OF MOMENTS

Broadly speaking, the moments are of the following two types:

1. Clockwise moments.

2. Anticlockwise moments.

4.2 CLOCKWISE MOMENT

Fig 4.0 a Fig 4.0 b

a) Clockwise b) Anticlockwise

It is the moment of a force, whose effect is to turn or rotate the body, about the point in
the same direction in which hands of a clock move as shown in fig 4.0 a.

ANTICLOCKWISE MOMENT

It is the moment of a force, whose effect is to turn or rotate the body, about the point in
the opposite direction in which the hands of a clock move as shown in Fig.4.0 b

It‟s should be noted that the general convention is to take clockwise moment as positive
and anticlockwise moment as negative.

Working Examples

22
Example1, A uniform plank ABC of weight 30 N and 2 m long is supported at one end A
and at a point B 1.4 m from A as shown in fig 4.1

Find the maximum weight W, that can be placed at C, so that the plank does not topple

Solution

Weight of the plank ABC = 30 N; Length of the plank ABC = 2 m and distance between
end A and a point B on the plank (AB) = 1.4 m. We know that weight of the plank (30 N)
will act at its midpoint, as it is of uniform section. This point is at a distance of 1 m from
A or 0.4 m from B as shown in the figure. We also know that if the plank is not to topple,
then the reaction at A should be zero for the maximum weight at C. Now taking moments
about B and equating the same, 30 × 0.4 = W × 0.6

Example 2, A beam of span 10 m is carrying a point load of 200 N at a distance 4 m from

A. Determine the beam reactions.

Fig 4.2
Sol. Given :

Span AB = 10 m

Load at C, W = 200 N

Distance, AC = 4 m

23
Distance, BC = 10 – 4 = 6 m

Let RA = Reaction at A and RB = Reaction at B

As the beam is in equilibrium,

the clockwise moments of all forces about any point must be equal to anti-clockwise
moments about that point.

Also the resultant force in any direction must be zero.

Taking moments about A,

Clockwise moment = Anti-clockwise moments

200 × 4 = RB × 10

∴ RB = 200 x4/10

= 80 N Ans.

AlsoRA + RB = 200 N

∴ RA = 200 – RB

= 200 – 80

= 120 N Ans

Example 3, Four forces of magnitudes 10 N, 20 N, 30 N and 40 N are acting respectively

along the four sides of a square ABCD as shown in Fig. 4.3. Determine the magnitude,
direction and position of the resultant force.

24
Sol. Given :
Force along AB = 10 N
Force along BC = 20 N
Force along CD = 30 N
Force along DA = 40 N
Magnitude and direction of the resultant force
The net force in the horizontal direction is given as,
H = 10 – 30 = – 20 N
The net force in the vertical direction given as,
V = 20 – 40 = – 20 N
The resultant force is given by

The direction of the resultant force is given by equation

Since H and V are –ve, hence θ lies between 180° and 270°.

Hence from Fig.4.4,

It is clear that actual

θ = 180 + 45 = 225°. Ans.

Fig 4.4

25
5.0 BEAM, SUPPORT AND TYPES OF LOADING

Beam: Is refers to as horizontal structural element that is subjected to transverse loading

The Fig 5.0 above is an example of a beam with loads. The length of the beam is
sometimes refers to as span. When the beam is subject to load which could be vertical or
an inclined load. Under such reaction the beam tend to shear or break but with help of
support it resist the load which make the beam to be in equilibrium position

Figure 5.1 Free body diagram of a beam

TYPES OF SUPPORTS

The following are the different types of support for beams.

1. Simply support
2. Roller support
3. Hinged support
4. Fixed support

1. Simply support: A beam is said to be supported simple it rested on a simple

support that the reaction at the end are vertical i.e there will be no movement.

Fig 5.2

26
2. Roller support: A beam is said to be roller supported If it rested on a roller. In this
case roller can move along the support therefore it neutralizes the horizontal reaction
it can also rotate about the support, vertical reaction at support is possible there will
be no moment.

Figure 5.3 Roller supported beam

3. Hinged Beam: A beam is said to be hinged beam it‟s hinged at the ends. The reaction
at the end support may be vertical or inclined depending upon the load. For hinge
beam there is no movement in any direction, and also moment at the support

Fig 5.4
Fixed beam: A beam is said to be a fixed one, if it is fixed at the ends. This type of beam
is not free to rotate at the support. the reaction at the support may be vertical or inclined.
Depending upon the type of l loading there will be moment at the support along the
reaction.

Fig 5.5
TYPES OF LOADING

Usually there are different types of loading on the beams the following are the different
types loading

i. Concentrated or point load

27
 ii. Uniformly distributed load
iii. Uniformly varying load

Concentrated or point load: This is when a load is acting at a point on the beam such a
load is refer to as point or concentrated load, it is usually denoted by arrow. Fig 5.6
showing concentrated or point load

Fig 5.6 showing concentrated or point load

Uniformly distributed load: it is usually abbreviated as u.d.l this type of load is

uniformly distributed over the length of the beam as shown in fig 5.7 below

Fig 5.7Uniformly distributed load.

Uniformly varying load: In this type of load, the load varies uniformly in rate from one
point to another, it could be in triangular or trapezium in shape.

Fig 5.8 Uniformly varying load on beam.i.e. beam that is subjected to uniformly varied
load

Working Examples on beams subjected to different loading systems.

Q1, A beam was simply supported at both ends and carries loads that‟s uniformly
distributed together with concentrated loads, as shown in figure 5.9

28
Find the reactions at the two ends.

Solution
Making reference to fig 5.9 above all the loads on the beam are acting downward.
The uniform distributed loading is 2k/m.
Area of u.d.l = 2 x 4

Area of u.d.l = 8KN

The load would act half way from total length of the u.d.l i.e. ½x 4

Concentrated loads are 6KN and 2KN.

Figure5.9a free body diagram of figure5.9

Taking moment about RA.
Clockwise moment = Anticlockwise moment
8 x 2+ 6 x 4+2 x 6 = RB x 8
16 +24 +12 = 8 RB
RB `= 52 / 8
RB = 6.5KN
To find reaction at RA
Since downward force=upward force
RA + RB = 8 + 6 +2
RA+ RB = 16KN
RB = 6.5KN
RA = 16 –6.5
RA = 9.5KN

29
Q2,A beam is supported at point A on fixed support and at B with on a roller support,
itssubjected to loading as shown in figure 5.10a, find the reaction at the supports

Loading system
Area of u.d.l = 10x3

Area of u.d.l =30KN

Fig 5.10 b is free body diagram of fig 5.10a

Taking Moment about RvA

Anticlockwise moment =clockwise moment

RBx6 = 10 x 2+20 x 4 +7.5 x 30

6 RB = 20 +80 + 225

RB = 325 / 6

RB = 54.17KN

RH is horizontal reaction it is zero because no other force acting in horizontal direction.

RH = 0

Taking moment about RB

Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment

10 x 4+20 x 2 = RvAx 6 + 30 x1.5

30
40+40 = RvAx 6 + 45

80 - 45 = 6RVA

35 = 6RvA

35/6 = RvA

5.83KN = RvA

RvA= 5.83KN

To check for the balance of reaction at the supports

Downward forces = upward forces

10KN + 20KN + 30KN = RvA+ RB

60KN = 5.83 + 54.17

60KN = 60KN

i.e. the beam is said to be in equilibrium position.

31
6.0 Friction
It has been established since long that all surfaces of the bodies are never perfectly
smooth. It has been observed that whenever, even a very smooth surface is viewed under
a microscope, it is found to have some roughness and irregularities, which may not be
detected by an ordinary touch. It will be interestingthat if a block of one substance is
placed over the level surface of the same or different material, a certain degree of
interlocking of the minutely projecting particles takes place. This does not involve any
force, so long as the block does not move or tends to move tangentially with respect to
the surface, on which it rests, the interlocking property of the projecting particles opposes
the motion This opposing force, which acts in the opposite direction of the movement of
the block, is called force of friction or simply friction.

Friction is a force that resists the movement of two contacting surfaces that slide relative
to one another. This force always acts tangent to the surface at the points of contact and is
directed so as to oppose the possible or existing motion between the surfaces

TYPES OF FRICTION
1. Static friction.
2. Dynamic friction.

Static Friction: It is the friction experienced by a body when it is at rest. Or in other

words, it could also said to be a the friction that occur when the body is not in motion or
tend to move Denoted by Fs.

Dynamic friction: It is the friction experienced by a body when it is in motion. It is also

called kinetic friction denoted by Fk. The dynamic friction is of the following two type

1. Sliding friction. It is the friction, experienced by a body when it slides over

another body.
2. Rolling friction. It is the friction, experienced by a body when it rolls over another
body.

32
An Experiment Explaining various concept of friction

The experiment was carried out by using a force Machine acting on a body(block)lying
on a rough surface. Assuming the machine has capacity of 100N and minimum of
1newton when the machine the begins to work it exert force of 1 Newton on the block,at
the same period an opposite force of friction was also experienced i.e the block remained
stationary ,an increase in force P, the frictional force f will also increase, a stage will
reach that an further increase in value of for force P will move the block this stage is refer
to as state of IMPENDING MOTION it‟s also refer to as LIMITING FRICTION
FORCE.

ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF FRICTION

1. Friction is very useful in life ,it enable human being to move ,walk freely without
slippery.
2. It aid hammering of thing easily e.g nailing of walls and materials.
3. It assist the tyre of vehicle to grip the road when brake is applied while on motion.
4. It enables the driving belt to grip the pulley.
5. Friction helps in grinding e.g Grind stone
DISADVANTAGE
1. Friction causes wear and heating effect
2. It consumes a lot of energy and reduces efficiency of machine
3. It creates noise

REDUCING FRICTION

1. Use of lubricant

One way of reducing friction is to lubricate the surface of contacts that slides or roll
over each other with oil or grease, Placing oil or grease in between metal surfaces
its aid the sliding therefore reduces friction .

2. Ball bearing

When a wheel is turning in an axle, a better solute on of reducing friction is to use

ball bearing, this is like using wheel with wheel, axle also perform the same function

33
 of wheel therefore static friction will be overcome instead of dynamic friction which
produce more wearing effect and noise.

LAWS OF FRICTION

LAWS OF STATIC FRICTION following are the laws of static friction:

1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body
tends to move, if the force of friction would have been absent.
2. The magnitude of the force of friction is exactly equal to the force, which tends to
move the body.
3. The magnitude of the limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction
between the two surfaces.
Mathematically 𝐹/𝑅 = Constant
Where F = is limiting friction force and R = is normal reaction
4. The force of friction is independent of the area of contact between the two
surfaces.
5. The force of friction depends upon the roughness of the surfaces.

LAWS OF KINETIC OR DYNAMIC FRICTION

Following are the laws of kinetic or dynamic friction:

1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body
is moving.
2. The magnitude of kinetic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction
between the two surfaces. But this ratio is slightly less than that in case of limiting
friction.
3. For moderate speeds, the force of friction remains constant. But it decreases
slightly with the increase of speed.

DEFINITION OF FRICTION TERMS

1. NORMAL REACTION

It has been experienced that whenever a body, lying on a horizontal or an inclined

surface, is in equilibrium, its weight acts vertically downwards through its Centre of

34
 gravity. The surface, in turn, exerts an upward reaction on the body. This reaction,
which is taken to act perpendicular to the plane, is called normal reaction

2. ANGLE OF FRICTION
Let‟s consider a body of weight W resting on an inclined plane as shown in Fig. 6.1.
We know that the body is in equilibrium under the action of the following forces:
1. Weight (W) of the body, acting vertically downwards,
2. Friction force (F) acting upwards along the plane, and
3. Normal reaction (R) acting at right angles to the plane. Let the angle of inclination
(α) be gradually increased, till the body just starts sliding down the plane. This angle
of inclined plane, at which a body just begins to slide down the plane, is called the
angle of friction. This is also equal to the angle, which the normal reaction makes
with the vertical.

Fig 6.1 Angle of friction

3. COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION

It is the ratio of limiting friction to the normal reaction, between the two bodies, and
is generally denoted by μ.

Mathematically, coefficient of friction

Whereφ = Angle of friction,

F = Limiting friction, and R = Normal reaction between the two bodies.

35
 EQUILIBRUM OF A BODY ON ROUGH HORIZONTAL PLANE

If a body in lying or resting on rough horizontal plane it will remain in state of rest i.e in
equilibrium position but when a force in applied on the body it tends to move in direction of the
force. R R P2
P1

F P P
F
Fig 6.2 Fig 6.3
W W
Considering body in fig 6.2 and fig 6.3 lying on a rough horizontal surface.

Let W = Weight of the body.

R = Normal reaction.

F = Force of friction.

P1 = Applied force to pull.

P2 = Applied force to push.

Figure 4.0 Resolving the forces acting on the body both vertical (Y axis) and Horizontal (X axis).

𝑓𝑥 along the horizontal axis

F = P1Cosϕ …………………… (1)

𝑓𝑦

R = W – PSmϕ …………………… (2)

F = µR …………………… (3)

Substituting for F and R in equation 3

P1Cosϕµ (W - Psmϕ)

P1Cosϕµw – µPsmϕ

P1 (Cosϕ + µsmϕ) = µw

µ𝑊
P1 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠ϕ+µsmϕ

36
In figure 6.2

Along vertical axis and horizontal axis.

𝑓𝑥

F = P2Cosϕ ……………………(1)

R = P2SMϕ + W

R = W + P2Smϕ …………………(2)

F = µR ……………………(3)

P2Cosϕ = µ (W + P2Smϕ)

P2Cosϕ = µW + µ P2Smϕ

P2 (Cosϕ – µsmϕ) = µW

µ𝑊
P2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠ϕ−µSmϕ

EXAMPLE 1.0

A body of weight 300N is lying on rough horizontal plane a coefficient of friction as 0.3.

Find the magnitude of the force, which can move the body, while acting at an angle 25 o with the
horizontal.

Solution

R P
250
F

300N

Fig. 6.4

P = The force to move the body.

F = Force of friction

µ = 0.3

37
 W = 300N

From the diagram the forces are resolve into components.

Vertically ( 𝑓𝑦).

R = 300 – PSm 25 …. (1)

Horizontally ( 𝑓𝑥)

F = P Cos 25 ……….. (2)

F = µR ……………… (3)

Substitute for value of F and R in equation 3

0.906P = µ (300 – 0.4226P)

0.3 (300 – 0.4226P)

0.906 = 90 – 0.1268P

0.926P + 0.1268P = 90

90
P = 1.033

P = 87.1N

EXAMPLE 2

A wooden block of weight 50N rest on a horizontal place, determine the force required to just
(w) pill it and (b) push take coefficient of friction to be (y) 0.4 between the mating surface.

R P1 R P1
150 150
F = µR F = µR

W = 50N W
Fig 6.5 Fig 6.6
From figure 5.0 let P1 be force to pull the block.

𝑓𝑦

R = W – P1 Smϕ

38
 𝑓𝑥

F = P1 Cosϕ

µW
P1 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠ϕ + µSmϕ

0.4 𝑋 50
𝐶𝑜𝑠 15+0.4 𝑆𝑚 15

20
0.966+0.103

P1 = 18.70N

To push

Considering figure 5.1

µ𝑊
P2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠ϕ −µ Smϕ

0.4 𝑋 50
𝐶𝑜𝑠 15 − 0.4 𝑆𝑚 15

20
P2 = 0.966 − 0.103

P2 = 23.17N

It‟s easier to pull them than to push the block base on the outcome of the values of P 1 and P2
obtained.

39
 EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH INCLINED PLANE SUBJECTED TO A
FORCE ACTING ALONG THE INCLINED PLANE

Consider a body lying on a rough inclined plane subjected force acting along the inclined plane,
which keeps it in equilibrium as shown in Fig. 6.9. (a) and (b).

Let

W = Weight of the body,

α = Angle, which the inclined plane makes with the horizontal,

R = Normal reaction,

μ = Coefficient of friction between the body and the inclined plane, and φ = Angle of friction,

such that μ = tan φ.

A little consideration will show that if the force is not there, the body will slide down the plane.

Now we shall discuss the following twocases.

1. Minimum force (P1) which will keep the body in equilibrium, when it is at the point of
sliding downwards.

Fig 6.7 a

40
2. Maximum force (P2) which will keep the body in equilibrium, when it is at the point
of sliding upwards. In this case, the force of friction (F2 = μ.R2) will act downwards
as the body is at the point of sliding upwards as shown in Fig. 8.8 (b). Now resolving
the forces along the plane,

41
 Fig 6.7b

EXAMPLE 3

A body of weight 500N is lying on a rough plane inclined at an angle of 250 with horizontal its
supported by an effort (P) parallel to the plane as shown in fig 7.0 below. Determine the
minimum and maximum value of P for which equilibrium can exist, if the angle of friction is
200.

Fig 6.8 .

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