First-order ODE's: Separation of

variables
Educational matters
Outcome
Use separation of variables to solve a mathematical model governed by a separable first-order
ODE.

The theory
dy Product/quotient of two
STANDARD FORM: = f ( x; y ) = p( x)q( y ) functions in one variable
dx
METHOD: Separate the variables and integrate both sides
dy
 q( y) =  p( x)dx

Calculations
Example 1
dy
Determine the general solution of = 2 cos 2 y .
dx
SOLUTION
dy Always simplify before integration
= 2dx
cos 2 y
1
= sec 2 𝑦
cos2 𝑦
 sec y dy =  2 dx
2

Implicit
 tan y = 2 x + c
Explicit

 y = tan −1 ( 2 x + c ) ✔

Example 2
dy y 2 + xy 2
Solve = using separation of variables.
dx xy − x

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SOLUTION

dy y 2 (1 + x) Common factors
=
dx x( y − 1)
Separate variables
y −1 1+ x
2
dy = dx
y x

Simplify
1 1  1 
  y − y 2  dy =   x + 1 dx
Integrate
1
 ln y + = ln x + x + c ✔
y

Mathematical models
There are many applications where the DE is separable. See the addendum at the end for the
derivation of some formulas.
Here are a few governing DE's; k is a constant of proportionality and must be solved using an IC/BC.

• Exponential growth/decay
dA
o = kA
dt
o A = A(t ) represents the amount of the substance present at time t.
o k  0  growth; k  0  decay
• Newton's law of cooling
dT
o = k (T − Tm )
dt
o T = T (t ) is the temperature of the object at time t
o Tm  surrounding/ambient temperature
• Torricelli's law
dh A
o = −k 0 2 gh
dt A
o h = h(t ) represents the height of a liquid in a tank, with a hole at the bottom,
at time t
o A0  surface area of the hole
o A = A(t )  the surface area of the liquid at time t
o g  9.81 m/s2

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Example 3
A bacterium culture initially has N0 number of bacteria. At t = 1 hour the number of bacteria is
measured to be 32 N 0 . If the rate of growth is proportional to the number of bacteria N(t) present at
time t, determine the time necessary for the number of bacteria to triple.

 "Triple" means "3 times the initial value".

SOLUTION

The question: Calculate t when N = 3 N 0 .

The governing differential equation is

dN
= kN
dt
where k is a constant of proportionality. The conditions are initially

N (0) = N 0 (1)

and at t = 1 hour

N (1) = 32 N 0 . (2)

Separation of variables yields

1
 N dN =  kdt
so that

ln N = kt + c .
From condition (1):

ln N 0 = c .

Thus,

ln N = kt + ln N 0

or

 N 
 = kt .
𝐴
ln  Log law: ln 𝐴 − ln 𝐵 = ln ( )
 N0  𝐵

Substitute condition (2):

3N 
ln  2 0  = k (1)
 N0 
so that

k = ln1.5 .

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 Hence,

 N 
ln   = ( ln1.5 ) t . (3)
 0
N

To calculate the required value of t, substitute N = 3 N 0 :

 3N 
ln  0  = ( ln1.5) t
 N0 
so that

ln 3
t= = 2.7095  2.71 hours.
ln1.5
 The population will triple after approximately 2.71 hours. ✔

 Note that the rounding was done in the final step. Be careful when rounding off.

 Equation (3) may also be written in exponential form as

N = N 0 e(ln1.5)t .

This expression expresses the number of bacteria, N, as a function of t.

 Note the presence of the exponential function in the equation above. This type of growth is
often called exponential or natural growth.

Example 4
A breeder reactor converts relatively stable uranium-238 (U238) into the isotope uranium-239 (U239).
After 15 years it is determined that 0.043% of the initial amount A0 has disintegrated. Determine the
half-life of this isotope if the rate of disintegration is proportional to the amount remaining at time t.

 The "half-life" of a substance refers to the time taken for half the substance to disintegrate.

SOLUTION

The question: Calculate t when A = 1

2 A0 .

Assume the amount of U238 present at time t is A(t). Thus, "0.043% of the initial amount A0 has
disintegrated" means

100 − 0.043 = 99.957%

of A0 remains. The initial condition is thus

A(0) = A0 (4)

and, after 15 years the amount remaining, expressed as a decimal number, is

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 A(15) = 0.99957 A0 . (5)

"The rate of disintegration is proportional to the amount remaining at time t" in mathematical
terms is

dA
= kA
dt
where k is a constant of proportionality. Separation of variables and integration yields

ln A = kt + c .
Implementation of condition (4) gives

c = ln A0

so that

ln A = kt + ln A0

which simplifies to

 A
ln   = kt .
 A0 
Using condition (5) results in the value of k:

 0.99957 A0 
ln   = ln 0.99957 = 15k ,
 A0 
that is,

k = 0.000028672
where the dots, , indicate that it is not a rounded number. Thus,

 A
ln   = 0.000028672 t.
 A0 

To answer the question, substitute A = 1

2 A0 :

1A 
ln  2 0  = ln 12 = 0.000028672 t
 A0 
so that

ln 12
t=  24175 years.
0.000028672
 The half-life of U238 is approximately 24 175 years. ✔

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 One well-known application of radioactive decay is carbon dating, a method to determine the
age of old objects. This method of dating is based on the fact that the ratio of ordinary carbon,
C12, and radioactive carbon, C14, is constant in the atmosphere and in living organisms. When
an organism dies, it no longer absorbs C14, and, since C14 is radioactive, the amount of C14
decreases. Hence one can estimate the age of a fossil by comparing the carbon ratio in the fossil
with that in the atmosphere. The half-life of C14 is approximately 5730 years.

Example 5
An archaeologist excavated a bone and measured its contents of C14. If the amount is 25% of the
content in the bones of a living organism, how old is the bone?
SOLUTION
Assume the amount of C14 present in the old bone at time t is A(t) and the amount present in
living organisms is A0.

Question: Calculate t when A = 0.25 A0 .

The governing equation is, as in the previous example,

dA
= kA .
dt
Since A(0) = A0 , the solution is, as before,

 A
ln   = kt .
 A0 
Assuming the half-life of C14 is 5730 years, the second condition is

A(5730) = 12 A0

which yields

k = −0.00012 .

Thus,

 A
ln   = −0.00012 t.
 A0 

"25% is still present" means when A = 0.25 A0 , that is,

ln 0.25
t=  11460 years.
−0.00012
 The bone is therefore approximately 11 460 years old. ✔

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Example 6
A hard-boiled egg at 98  C is placed in a sink with water at 18  C. After five minutes the egg's
temperature is 38  C. Assuming the water temperature has not warmed appreciatively, how much
longer will it take the egg to reach 20  C? Show all steps.
SOLUTION

Question: How much LONGER will it take to cool down to 20℃?

The given conditions are

T (0) = 98 ➀

and

T (5) = 38 ➁

The temperature of the water in the sink is

Tm = 18 .

Apply Newton's law of cooling:

dT
= k (T − 18 ) .
dt
Separate variables and solve:

dT
 T − 18 =  kdt
 ln T − 18 = kt + c

Use ➀ to determine c:

ln 98 − 18 = k (0) + c
 c = ln 80 Don't write c as a decimal number

The expression for the solution becomes

ln T − 18 = kt + ln 80

which may be written as

T − 18
ln = kt ➂
80

Apply ➁:

38 − 18
ln = 5k
80
ln 0.25
k = Don't write k as a decimal number
5

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 From ➂:

T − 18
ln
80
t=
k
Hence,

2 − 18
ln
80 "How much longer …"
t T = 20 =  13.304
k
Thus, the egg will be at 20℃ after approximately 13 minutes. It will therefore take the egg
(13 − 5) = 8 minutes longer to reach 20℃. ✔

 Round numbers in the final step only.

Example 7
A tank is shaped like a right circular cone with its vertex down. The tank is 3 metres high and has a
base diameter of 3 metres. Initially it is full of water. Determine the time required, in minutes, to drain
the tank through a circular hole of diameter 4 cm at its vertex. Set k = 0.6 and g = 9.81 m/s2.
 Note the different units

SOLUTION

Question: Time for the tank to drain

Thinking

dh A
Torricelli's law: = −k 0 2 gh
dt A
A0 : Area of hole with

d = 4 cm  r = 0.02 m


 A0 =  (0.02) 2 =
2500
H: Height of tank (3)

R: Base radius ( 3 2 = 1.5 )

 1.5  2  h
2 2
 Rh 
2
A : Surface area of water at time t =    =    h =
H   3  4

A0  2500 1 −2
= 2 = h
A  h 625
4

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 dh  1  −2 
= −0.6   h  2(9.81)h
dt  625  
0.6 19.62 −3/2
=− h
625
= −0.00425...h −3/2
  h3/2 dh = −  0.00425...dt

2
5 h5/2 = −0.00425...t + c

t =0h=3

 c = 52 (3)5/2 = 6.23538...

Tank empty ⇒ ℎ = 0

6.23538...
t=
0.00425...
= 1467.148... s
 24.5 min
Thus, the tank will drain in approximately 24.5 minutes. ✔

Next …
dy M ( x; y )
Solve a homogeneous first-order ODE of the form = using substitution to obtain
dx N ( x; y )
a separable ODE.

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Addendum
Theory: Applications governed by separable first-order ODE’s

☞ The derivation of the DE’s is for enrichment only.

😊 It may be useful in setting up the mathematical model for the applications.

1. NEWTON'S LAW OF COOLING

The rate at which a body cools is direct proportional to the difference between the temperature
of the body and the temperature of the surrounding medium.

 The "temperature of the surrounding medium" is often called the ambient temperature.

☀ Some textbooks use  to represent temperature. It is, however, common practice to use T(t)
to represent the temperature of a body at time t.

Assume the temperature of the body at time t is T(t) and the ambient temperature is 𝑇𝑚 . The rate at
which the body is cooling, dT , is then, according to Newton's law of cooling,
dt
dT
 T − Tm
dt
or, introducing k as a constant of proportionality,

dT
= k (T − Tm ) .
dt

☝ If Tm is a constant and the body is cooling, that is, T  Tm , then 𝑘 > 0.

2. TORICELLI'S LAW
Consider a tank filled with water to a level height of ℎ = ℎ(𝑡) metres. Assume the water is drained
from the tank through a hole in the bottom with cross-sectional area 𝐴0 . If the surface area of the
water is 𝐴 = 𝐴(𝑡), then the level of the water is dropping according to the differential equation

dh A
= −k 0 2 gh
dt A
where g is the gravitation acceleration and k is a friction/contraction factor at the hole.

The hole in the bottom of the tank is usually either circular or square. Thus, either A0 =  a for a
2

circular hole with radius a, or A0 = a for a square hole with side length a.
2

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The expression for A, the surface area of the liquid, depends on the shape of the tank. The derivation
of the expressions for A for four basic shapes (cubical, cylindrical, conical, spherical) is briefly
summarized below.

2.1 Cylindrical tanks

Consider the cylindrical in Figure 1. The height, h(t), of the
r
water level changes with time, but the radius, r, of the tank at
the top and at the bottom of the tank is the same. Thus, for a
cylindrical tank the surface area of the water, A, is Area A

A(t ) = A =  r 2 .

h(t)
Figure 1 The surface area in a cylindrical
tank

2.2 Cubical tanks

Seen from above, the area, A, of the surface is a square with b
side length b as shown in Figure 2. Since the side length b
remains the same from top to bottom,
Area A
A(t ) = A = b 2 .
h(t)

Figure 2 The surface area in a cubical

tank

2.3 Conical tanks

Seen from above, the area, A, of the water surface is a circle, but it is R
not constant since the radius of the cone decreases from top to bottom D F
as shown in Figure 3. Thus, the radius is a function of time, that is,
Area A
r = r (t ) so that
S
A(t ) =   r (t )  .
2 P
H

r
h(t)

The height, H, and the base radius, R, of the cone are constants. To
E in a conical
Figure 3 The surface
derive an expression for r (t ) , consider the similar triangles DEF and
tank
SEP. Based on the well-known geometry theorem for similar triangles,

SP DF
= .
SE DE
But DF = R , DE = H , SP = r (t ) and SE = h(t ) . Thus,

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 r (t ) R
=
h(t ) H
or, solving for r(t),

Rh
r (t ) =
H
and therefor
2
 Rh 
A(t ) =    .
H 

2.4 Spherical tanks R

D
Assume the radius of the hemisphere in Figure 4 is a constant, say
R. However, the radius of the surface area is not constant, that is, Area A
r = r (t ) . Thus, E G

A(t ) =   r (t )  .
2

h(t)
r
F
Figure 4 The surface area in a spherical
In the sketch, DF = R = DG and EF = h(t ) so that tank

DE = R − h(t ) . Thus, r (t ) , the radius of the water surface, follows from the application of
Pythagoras' theorem to DEG :

EG 2 = DG 2 − DE 2 ,
that is,

 r (t ) = R 2 −  R − h(t ) 
2 2

which simplifies to

r 2 = 2 Rh − h 2
so that

A(t ) =  ( 2 Rh − h 2 ) .

3. POPULATION GROWTH
The first model used to describe population growth, an attempt by Thomas Malthus in 1798 (Zill,
1998:59), assumed that the rate at which a population grows is proportional to the total population,
N(t), at time t, that is,

dN
= kN
dt
where k is a constant of proportionality.

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This simple model fails to consider factors such as war and natural catastrophes which can cause
human populations to decline instead of grow. However, it is fairly accurate in predicting the
population growth of small animals and bacteria over short periods of time.

4. RADIOACTIVE DECAY
The nucleus of an atom consists of a combination of neutrons and protons. In some atoms these
combinations are unstable, that is, the atoms decay into atoms of another substance. Such nuclei are
said to be radioactive. To model the phenomenon of radioactive decay it is assumed that the rate at
which the nuclei of a substance decays is proportional to the amount of the substance, that is, the
number of nuclei A(t) remaining at time t:

dA
= kA
dt
where k is a constant of proportionality.
One well-known application of radioactive decay is carbon dating, a method to determine the age of
old objects. This method of dating is based on the fact that the ratio of ordinary carbon, C 12, and
radioactive carbon, C14, is constant in the atmosphere and in living organisms. When an organism
dies, it no longer absorbs C14, and, since C14 is radioactive, the amount of C14 decreases. Hence one
can estimate the age of a fossil by comparing the carbon ratio in the fossil with that in the atmosphere.
The half-life of C14 is approximately 5730 years.

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