Unit I
Unit I
Unit I
FLUID MECHANICS - the science that deals with behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or
in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries.
o The important properties are specific gravity, viscosity and its significance,
compressibility, surface tension, capillarity, vapor pressure and manometry.
Vapour pressure can cause flow disturbances due to evaporation at locations of low
pressure. It plays an important role in cavitation studies in fluid machinery.
Properties of Fluids
Specific Weight
─ It is defined as the ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume. Thus, weight per unit
volume of a fluid is called weight density.
─ It is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or density) of a fluid to the weight density
(or density) of a standard fluid.
─ For liquids, the standard fluid is water and for gas, the standard fluid is air.
─ Specific gravity is also called relative density. It is unit-less and dimensionless quantity.
o For most fluids the rate of deformation is directly proportional to the shear stress, τ
o Fluids for which the rate of deformation is proportional to the shear stress are called
Newtonian fluids.
o Most common fluids such as water, air, gasoline, and oils are Newtonian fluids. Blood and
liquid plastics are examples of non-Newtonian fluids.
o In one-dimensional shear flow of Newtonian fluids, shear stress can be expressed by the linear
relationship
o The constant of proportionality μ is called the coefficient of viscosity or the dynamic (or
absolute) viscosity of the fluid.
o Unit is kg/m · s, or equivalently, N·s/m2 (or Pa.s).
o A common viscosity unit is poise, which is equivalent to 0.1 Pa.s.
𝒏 𝟏
n Type of fluid
<1 Pseudoplastic
1 Newtonian fluid
>1 Dilatant (less common)
o Viscosity is caused by the cohesive forces between
the molecules in liquids and by the molecular
collisions in gases, and it varies greatly with
temperature.
o Viscosity of liquids decreases with temperature,
whereas the viscosity of gases increases with
temperature.
o In a liquid, the molecules possess more energy at
higher temperatures, and they can oppose the large
cohesive intermolecular forces more strongly.
Therefore, energized liquid molecules can move more
freely.
o In a gas, intermolecular forces are negligible, and the
gas molecules at high temperatures move randomly at
higher velocities.
o Thus, more molecular collisions per unit volume per
unit time and therefore in greater resistance to flow.
Viscosity vs Temperature
Kinematic Viscosity
─ Ratio of dynamic viscosity to density.
─ Unit: m2/s and stoke (1 stoke (St) = 1 cm2/s (cSt) = 0.0001 m2/s)
Kinematic Viscosity: Resistive flow of a fluid under the weight of gravity or inherent viscosity of
Newtonian fluids, that does not change with a change in applied force.
─ Kinematic viscosity can be considered as the amount of area that a fluid spreads when it is
poured on a surface per unit time.
o If you have two fluids , say water and honey, water flows much more easily than honey.
Thus water will cover more area per second if you pour the water.
Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
o How does fluid volume change with P and T? Coefficient of volume expansion
o Fluids expand as T ↑ or P ↓
o Fluids contract as T ↓ or P ↑
Temperature vs Density
Force Force
V
dV
Let the pressure is increased to as the volume of gas
decreases from to .
Then increase in pressure =
Decrease in volume =
Volumetric strain =
- ve sign means the volume decreases with increase of pressure.
Vapor Pressure and Cavitation
Vapor pressure (Pv) of a pure substance the pressure exerted by its vapor molecules when the
system is in phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature.
When both vapor and liquid are present and the system is in phase equilibrium, the partial
pressure of the vapor must equal the vapor pressure, and the system is said to be saturated.
o Liquid pressure in liquid-flow systems dropping below the vapor pressure at some locations,
and the resulting unplanned vaporization.
o Vapor Bubbles (called Cavitation Bubbles since they form “cavities” in the liquid) collapse as
they are swept away from the low-pressure regions, generating highly destructive, extremely
high-pressure waves.
o This phenomenon, which is a common cause for drop in performance and even the erosion of
impeller blades, is called CAVITATION, and it is an important consideration in the design of
hydraulic turbines and pumps.
o For instance, water at 10°C will flash into vapor and form bubbles at locations (tip regions of
impellers or suction sides of pump) where pressure drop below 1.23 kPa.
Surface Tension
─ Liquid droplets behave like small spherical balloons filled with liquid, and the surface of
the liquid acts like a stretched elastic membrane under tension.
─ The pulling force that causes this is due to the attractive forces between molecules called
surface tension (N/m).
─ This effect is also called surface energy and is expressed in the equivalent unit of N-m/m2
or J/m2.
Capillary Effect
Capillary effect is the rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid.
Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels are called Capillaries.
• Rise of kerosene through a cotton wick inserted into the reservoir of a kerosene lamp
• Rise of water to the top of tall trees
Phenomenon of capillary effect can be explained microscopically by considering cohesive forces (the
forces between like molecules, such as water and water) and adhesive forces (the forces between
unlike molecules, such as water and glass
o The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary tube is called the MENISCUS.
─ Water in a glass container curves up slightly at the edges where it touches the glass
surface; Meniscus
─ Mercury curves down at the edges
Meniscus
o If θ < 90o, the liquid is said to "wet" the solid. However, if θ > 90o, the liquid is repelled by
the solid, and tries not to "wet" it.
─ For example, water wets glass, but not wax. Mercury on the other hand does not wet
glass.
Pressure
The wedge is a right triangle, x = l cos θ and z = l sin θ.
Substituting these geometric relations,
1 3
2 3
1 3
2 3
As z 0 and the wedge becomes infinitesimal, and thus the fluid element shrinks to a point.
1 2 3
The pressure at a point in a fluid has the same magnitude in all directions.
Pascal’s law states that the force applied by a fluid is proportional to the surface area.
where is the pressure above atmospheric pressure and is the height of the point from
free surfaces.
From equation (A2),
𝟐 𝟏 𝒔
Variation of Pressure with Depth
Pressure in a continuously distributed uniform static fluid varies only with vertical distance
and is independent of the shape of the container. The pressure is the same at all points on a
given horizontal plane in the fluid. The pressure increases with depth in the fluid.
Test Yourself
o Can you tell at which point the pressure is higher?
o The pressure force exerted by the fluid is always normal to the surface at the specified
points.
Relationship between Absolute, Gauge, and Vacuum Pressures
o The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure (Patm), and it is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
o Gauge Pressure (Pgage): Difference between the absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure.
• Consider the manometer that is used to measure the pressure in the tank. Since the
gravitational effects of gases are negligible, the pressure anywhere in the tank and at
position 1 has the same value.
• Furthermore, since pressure in a fluid does not vary in the horizontal direction within a
fluid, the pressure at point 2 is the same as the pressure at point 1,
P2 = P 1
Pressure Measurement…Manometer
• The differential fluid column of height h is in static equilibrium, and it is open to the
atmosphere.
• Then the pressure at point 2 is determined directly from
𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝒎
• Note that the cross-sectional area of the tube has no effect on the differential height h, and
thus the pressure exerted by the fluid.
Thus,
( PB PA ) ( g ) H 2O (0.1)
h
( g )Oil
h 0.449 m
Problem: In the Fig. is shown a compound manometer. Calculate pressure difference between the
points A and B. Take ww = 10 kN/m3 for water, wHg = 136 kN/m3 for mercury and wo = 8.5 kN/m3
for oil.
Problem: In the Fig. is shown a compound manometer. Calculate pressure difference between the
points A and B. Take ww = 10 kN/m3 for water, wHg = 136 kN/m3 for mercury and wo = 8.5 kN/m3
for oil.
PA PB ((w) water (1.08) ( w) Hg (0.72) (w)oil (0.48) (w) Hg (0.6) (w)water (0.36))
a) 5 cm
b) 10 cm
c) 20 cm
d) Don’t know
Pressure Measurement…Manometer
─ Manometers are well-suited to measure pressure drops across a horizontal flow section
between two specified points due to the presence of a device such as a valve or heat exchanger
or any resistance to flow.
─ This is done by connecting the two legs of the manometer to these two points.
─ The working fluid can be either a gas or a liquid whose density is ρ1. The density of the
manometer fluid is ρ2, and the differential fluid height is h.
𝟐
• By moving from point A horizontally to point B and ignored the part underneath since the
pressure at both points is the same. Simplifying
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏
• Note that the distance a has no effect on the result, but must be included in the analysis.
• Also, when the fluid flowing in the pipe is a gas, then ρ1 << ρ2 and the relation simplifies
to
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
Fluid Statics
Fluid Statics
o Fluid statics deals with problems associated with fluids at rest. The fluid can be either gaseous
or liquid.
o Fluid statics is generally referred to as hydrostatics when the fluid is a liquid and as aerostatics
when the fluid is a gas.
o In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid layers, and thus there
are no shear (tangential) stresses in the fluid trying to deform it.
in
The yP is given as
o For P0 = 0, which is usually the case when the atmospheric pressure is ignored, it
simplifies to
Centroid and Centroidal moments
Problems Based on Submerged Flat Surfaces
Problems Based on Submerged Curved Surfaces
BUOYANCY
When a body is immersed in a fluid, an upward force is exerted by the fluid on the
body. This upward force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and
is called the force of buoyancy.
STABILITY OF FLOATING BODY
Metacenter: The point of intersection of the vertical through the center of buoyancy of a
floating body with the vertical through the new center of buoyancy when the body is displaced
Metacenter Height: MG
META CENTER HEIGHT
META CENTER HEIGHT
CONDITION FOR STABILITY OF SUBMERGED BODY
(BALLON IN AIR)
CONDITION FOR STABILITY OF FLOATING BODY