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Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING………………………………………………2

TOPIC 2: COMPUTER MANAGEMENT…………………………………………………..…10

TOPIC 3: COMPUTER LABORATORY CARE & MAINTENANCE…………….… ……13

TOPIC 4: COMPUTER HARDWARES …………………………………………………………26

TOPIC 5: COMPUTER SOFTWARES ……………………………………………..…………63

TOPIC 6: WORD PROCESSING ………………………………………………………….…..76

TOPIC 7: ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEETS …………………………………..…….………78

TOPIC 8: ELECTRONIC PRESENTATION ……………………………………….…………82

TOPIC 9: DATABASE ……………………………………………………………….. ………..83

TOPIC 10: ELECTRONIC PUBLICATION……………………………….………… ………..88

TOPIC 11: DATA COMMUNICATION & NETWORKING…………………………….…..89

TOPIC 12: INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB…………………………………………..…111

TOPIC 13: SYSTEM SECURITY, ICT ETHICAL ISSUESAND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES.127

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

TOPIC 1:
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING
Introduction to Computers
A computer is a multipurpose, automatic and electronic device, which accepts data (Input), processes the input data
into useful information (output) and stores it for future use.
It is an electronic device that converts raw data into meaningful information.
Characteristics of Modern computers
1. Speed
Computers are quite fast in their operation in that their speed is measured in Millions of Instructions per Second
(MIPS) or Megahertz (MHz). Many computers process billions or trillions of operations in a single second.
2. Accuracy
Computers are known to be accurate. They can process large amounts of data and generate error- free results,
provided the data entered is correct. They hardly make any mistake. They are capable of detecting and correcting any
mistakes made.
3. Storage
For a computer to be able to work it must have a work space where data is stored before being processed or where
information is stored before being output to particular devices. This storage space is known as Memory.
4. Automation
Computers work automatically. They do not need any supervision in order to perform programmed tasks. This is
because of the instructions (programs) installed in them.
5. Diligence (Consistency)
Computers have the ability to perform the same task over and over for neither a long time without getting tired or
bored and with no mistakes (errors).
6. Artificial intelligence
Computers are artificially intelligent. They can respond to requests given to them and provide solutions. This is
because of the programs installed in them. Evidence is seen in industrial Robots.
7. Versatility /Flexibility/Multipurpose. Computers are capable of performing different kinds of tasks commanded
by the user.

Basic Parts of a Computer

A computer is made up of a collection of different parts that are interconnected and working together in order to
function a single entry.

Monitor
A monitor is a display device that looks like an ordinary television screen used for displaying information in visual
form such as text, graphics, still and moving pictures. There are two types of the monitors: cathode ray tube (CRT)
monitors and Liquid crystal display (LCD) monitors. Without a monitor, it is very difficult to see what you enter into
the computer
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
Keyboard
A keyboard is a primary input and control device of a computer that allows the computer user to enter data and
commands into the computer. It has a typewriter area that looks like or similar to a typewriter keyboard.
Mouse
This is a handheld input pointing device that used to point and select and moves items on the computer screen. It is an
extension of your hand since you cannot touch inside the computer.
System unit
The system unities a rectangular box-like case that houses internal electronic components of a computer.
Factors to consider when acquiring a computer
1. Cost of the computer 7. Portability
2. Connectivity 8. Multimedia capability
3. System requirements 9. Available software
4. Authenticity of hardware and software 10. Hard disk capacity
5. The monitor size 11. Processor speed
6. User needs

WORLD OF INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES (ICTS)

Meaning of information communication technology (ICTs)
Information communication Technology (ICT)refers to as a set of technological tools and resources used to create,
store, share and manage information.

Examples of ICTs include:

Radio, Computer Internet etc
Television Network hardware
Cellular phones, Software
ICT comes from two words that Information Technology (IT) and Communication Technology (CT).
Information Technology is defined as the technology used for processing information on the computer system.
Communication Technology on the other hand is the technology used for transmission of information using
computer systems.

Reasons for Studying ICTs in Secondary Schools.

1. To acquire general knowledge and skills in the use of computers and related technologies.
2. To use the acquired knowledge in computer studies to enhance learning other subjects.
3. To understand important issues of a technology based society and exhibit them using computers.
4. To exhibit basic computer skills that is required for employment.
5. To acquire knowledge as a foundation for further studies in computer technology.
6. To use a variety of computer technologies to access, analyze and interpret information.
Uses of ICTs in the Society
Below are some of the fields/Sectors where ICTs are applied
Business and Commerce.
 ICT has enables e-commerce business transactions to take place.
 ICT has played a very important role in effective management and running of business activities such as data
management and data processing.
 ICT has enabled easy calculation and decision making capabilities in the commercial worlds especially by
using computer as one of the component of ICT.
 ICTs gadgets are helpful in inventory (Stock) control and management in business especially in good
stocking, storage details and goods distribution.
 ICTs enable business sectors to carry out advertisements and marketing of products.
 ICTs enable customer care and services possible by enabling communications of customers with the service
providers.

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

 They facilitate the use of telecommuting (working away from the actual work place).
 ICTs are very important in preparation of accounts and Pay roll management.
 Business premises use ICT equipment to enhance their security for example the use of CCTV cameras,
sensor, voice recognition equipment, smart cards etc.
 Business companies can use the internet to carry out research on quality and guinenity of products.
Education
 ICTs enable research by teachers and students.
 ICTs have made learning easier and convenient by offering online degrees and distance learning.
 The uses of aided facilities like audio-visual materials have eased and improved the teaching and learning
 ICTs can be used to ease the storage of data and information for example the use storage devices, and online
storage of data and information.
 Computer Assisted Assessment (CAA) enables students to be examined and assessed any time and report
making.
 Use of ICT has enabled simulation of experiments or real life situations that may be hazardous such as atomic
physics experiments (virtual labs).
 School management systems are used to ease admission and management students
 Communication
 Entertainment
 Security payments
 Registrations for exams E-registration
Health Sector
 The use of computer aided devices to carry out many surgical procedures such as laparoscopic surgeries.
 ICT enable the diagnosing of many diseases using ICT high end machines such as CT scan, ultra sound
devices, and magnetic imaging have.
 ICTs have enabled online consultation by medical professionals.
 ICTs have enabled patient’s records to be manageable.
 ICTs have enabled medical professionals to carry out research about medical issues.
 Modern hospitals and health centers are using computer assisted life saver machine to hold the life of patients
in a critical condition.
 ICTs have enabled faster communication between medical professionals, doctors, and patients.
 Modern hospitals and health centers are using computer assisted technology in baby incubators to artificially
grow babies.
 The security of the hospitals, properties, and the patients is ensured by high end ICT devices such as CCTV
cameras, sensors etc.
 They are used in telemedicine through use of computers with videoconferencing capabilities.
 They are used by experienced doctors and surgeons to train others through computer – aided surgery prior to
performing surgery on live humans.
 Payments
 Entertainment etc.
Security
 ICTs are highly used in fighting against crime by using digital forensic (investigation involving crime scene),
CCTV cameras and other computer based operated systems.
 Security officers are using Biometric devices such as finger prints, iris, and signature verification to
identifying criminals.
 ICTs are used in detecting and tracking of dangerous gadgets, using radar systems, warning systems and
military laser.
 ICTs are essential in communication by the military agencies.

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

 Computers are used in battle management helping the military to find target, detonate weapons, communicate
etc.
 ICTs are used in training and educating military forces especially with skills and vital details regarding
military tactics.
 Computers are used to design and to test new weapons.
 Security agencies use the phones and internet tapping techniques to track down crimes.
Homes
 Online shopping purposes. The computers provide them with lists of shopping items as well as prices and
electronic fund transfer (EFTs) facilities.
 They provide a variety of entertainments for those looking for leisure. This includes music, videos and
games.
 People use computers in homes to pay bills through the payment by phone services (PPS).
 For education and research at home. People can take online courses and carryout research using the internet
facility.
 For communication with friends and relatives. This is achieved through use of e – mails, telephones, chat
rooms, etc.
 They are used to store family records such as photos of family members, family documents, etc.
 They are used by students and other learners in doing take home assignments.
 For security using CCTV cameras, alarm systems etc.
Leisure/Entertainment
 Chat rooms and social sites such as twitter, face book, yahoo massager, WhatsApp etc have enabled many
people to connect and socialize globally.
 ICTs have enabled the playing of computer games such as solitaire, pinballs, chess tintans, internet checkers
etc.
 ICTs have enabled movie making, audio and music recording and playing in the entertainment industry
 With the use of internet, people are able to use computers to read books or magazines online.
 Places like amusement parks, Casino‘s and other GUMBLING places run some of their machines using
computers
Offices
 ICTs help in creation of documents eg memos, letters and reports about their institutions.
 Preparation and calculation of payroll, income statements and balance sheets.
 ICTS are to ease inventory/stock management and generation of invoices and receipts.
 Computers have been used to present projects and ideas by means of presentation software.
 In offices, computers are used for communication through use of fax machines, electronic mails and
videoconferencing.
 Through telecommuting, employees can work away from a company’s standard workplace. This can only be
achieved through use of computers.
 They are used to advertise products and services and carryout electronic commerce.
Banking Institutions
 It is used to carry out on banking make deposits of cash and cheques, withdraw cash, transfer money between
accounts, obtain account balances.
 They are used to transfer money electronically among different accounts, apply for loans, and obtain bank
statements, account balances and credit card statements.
 Keeping record of all the banks’ clients in terms of their personal data, account numbers, and their deposits
and withdrawals on their respective accounts.
 They are used to run Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) to process cheques.
 They are used to verify transactions and store transaction records.
 They are used when conducting electronic commerce.
 They help in counting of money using counting devices.
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

 Use of CCTV cameras and sensors in ensuring security in the bank environment.
Farming Institutions
 Keeping records of farm, customer details and sales.
 Use of internet services to carry out research about new technology in farming.
 Use of mobile money services in paying and receiving payment for goods and services.
 In branding of farm produces.
Super Markets
 Use of bar code reader in reading serial numbers on packaged products.
 Creating a data base and keeping customer’s records by the computer
 Use of notes (money) devices for counting money
 Use of CCTV cameras and sensors in ensuring security in the bank environment.
 Creating and printing customer receipts after purchase of items using a mobile printer
 For inventory management such as stock taking.
Communication, Transport and Multimedia
 In telecommunication industry every telephone exchange relies on ICTs to switch incoming and outgoing
calls.
 Railway co-corporations relay heavily on ICTs to co-ordinate the movement of their wagons and goods.
 In the airline industry, ICT is heavily used in the air traffic control and surveillance of the air space using
radar equipment as well as preservation purposes
 All the known modes of transport use computers in one way or another.
 For Air transport, computers are used at the airports to take record of all the flights and passengers for each
and every place that will fly off or land at that Airport.
 Used for security check-Ups at the Airports, e.g. to check whether one is smuggling in or out weapons for
war, drugs, etc.
 While inside the aero plane, computers are used to give the pilot sense of direction by indicating how high he
is flying, the temperatures, the pressure and weather conditions of the space in which he is flying0
 In the cars, we have the speedometer, which determines the speed at which the car is moving. Modern
technology has offered us Satellite-watched cars, i.e., at any one time, the car can be located in any part of the
World because the Satellite keeps tracking it.
 In a ship, computers are used to guide the captain movements while he sails. By showing the landscape of the
sea bed, the captain is able to draw the right direction and bearing in which he should sail the sheep.
 In the multimedia industry such as TV stations, Radio station, program managers keep computer terminals on
their desks to record urgent and important news.
Industrial, Technical and Scientific Uses
 In many of the Industries be it Large Scale, Small Scale or Heavy duty industries, computers of all kinds are
widely used for the daily operations of such industries.
 In Manufacturing Industries/Factories, Computers are used to make the production and sometimes packaging
processes faster using CAM. E.g. in a Car Manufacturing Industry, most production operated by robots.
 They are used for communication with different industries and businessmen.
 They are used to manage large volumes of financial transactions within the industries.
 In Food and beverage Processing Industries, computers are used to determine the right portions of each
ingredient that should make up the final product.
 Computer driven machines such as robots are used to carry out repetitive tasks, lift heavy equipment, and
carry out tasks which require a high degree of precision.
 They are used in Computer Aided Design (CAD) and computer aided manufacturing for creating engineering,
architectural and scientific drawings.
 They are used for research about new stock especially through the use of the internet.
Politics and Governance

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 Computers are highly used to store government records in many government ministries such as finance,
education, etc.

 They are used for easy communication between governmental institutions.

 They are used for easy budgeting for governments.
 ICTs have enabled the government in creating a national data base bank such as that of national IDs, country
population, number of civil servants, and number of students in both government and private institutions for
proper planning.
 ICTs are used in auditing department of government to easily monitor public expenditure and finance in
various government agencies.
 The national electoral commission relies on ICTs to carry out democratic process such as national voter
registration exercise, designing and printing of voters cards and in coordinating of the tallying exercise
nationally.
 ICTs help politicians in soliciting of votes eg using online and other digital platforms.
Positive and Negative Implications of using ICTs in the society
The use of ICTs has revolutionized how we should work and live.
1. Social/Ethical Implications of ICTs
Positive social implications of ICTs
i. Easy of communication
With the diffusion of the ICTs, communication sectors like mobile phone service providers, internet service providers
and media houses have emerged which has made communication between individuals easier.
ii. Improvement of people standards of living
The use of ICTs in areas like entertainment, communication, banking etc, has improved people’s standard of living.
Enhancement of personal security
With the evolution of ICTs many families, companies and private individuals can now monitor the security of their
properties using automatic remote controlled gates, CCTV cameras and sensors etc.
iii. Eased education with online cyber classes.
The online studies and distance learning has made learning easier and convenient for individuals who have busy
schedules and are unable to attend traditional study format.
Negative social implications of ICTs
i. Social isolation
ii. Face to Face/physical interaction has greatly been degraded with the continued used of IC/98Ts such as the
internet based way of communication.
iii. Pornographic and unwanted material
The internet has large amount of information inform of pornography and other unwanted materials where youth and
children are susceptible to viewing these materials.
iv. There is invasion of individual and corporate privacy.
With increased use OF ICTs individual and company secrets in form can easily be hacked and shared to the public.
v. Stealing of money online is becoming very common.
Commerce on the internet is mainly paid by the use of electronic transfer of fund system of the use of credit cards.
Therefore, thieves are always active in obtaining stolen credit cards details and PIN to steal over the internet.
vi. Hacking or Cracking
Hackers and crackers have no specific fraudulent intent but just to enjoy the challenge of breaking into the system.
Hacking and cracking is often carried out by corrupt employees or employers by having grudge with others.
vii. Computer crime is becoming rampant
There is stealing of software which includes making all aspects or installing of illegal copies of software and
destroying ICT facilities belonging to other people.
viii. Plagiarism is also becoming common that is taking a service without paying for it.
Many people are now copying software’s, films, music without referencing the source and without paying attention to
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the copyright laws.
2. Economic Implications of ICTs
Positive economic implications of ICTs
I. Infrastructural development
ICTs have contributed to the establishment of infrastructures for the use of ICT network by providing productive
equipment and software to many business companies.
II. Increased labour productivity
With the use of ICTs, many workers in firms have improved on their personal skills and productivity.
III. There is reduction in transport and communication cost
With the use of the internet facilities like e-commerce, e-banking has led to the reduction to barriers to international
trade.
IV. Increased world market
The diffusion of ICT technology in the world market has enabled the different nations to export and import goods and
services between nations who have formed a common understanding.
Enhancement of advertisement of goods and services
Many economic sector, industries and individuals are now using internet, and other media such as TV, and Radio
stations to advertise for their goods and services.
V. Changed in cultural values and consumption habits among citizens
Modern communication technology has helped to change the cultural values, consumption habits of citizens and
civilization among the people.
VI. Introduction of sector producing goods and services
ICT has led to the introduction of sector producing ICT goods and services like software developers, recording
studios, internet service providers such as UTL, MTN, and AIRTEL AFRICEL etc.
Negative economic implications of ICTs
I. Unemployment, ICTs tend to replace human labor in the economies, leading to the loss of many jobs
especially the use of e-commerce in business transactions, use CAM etc.
II. The use of ICTs has brought about high cost of living because the users have to pay and subscribe for
monthly services such as internet, TV, and mobile phone services.
III. Over exploitation of resources: high technology in ICT, has led to the problem of over exploitation natural
resources such as oil, coper, gold, diamond, coal etc.
3. Political Implications of ICTs
Positive implications
1) ICTs is a means by which people are inform and educated about democratic matters by using SMS services,
TV and Radio broadcast among others.
2) There is high computerization on the referendum on all matters of public importance.
3) ICTs have enlarged the interest of individuals through debates and discourse with others.
4) ICTs have provided new medium through which people can come together in communities because of
distance, geographical location and other barriers are unable.
Negative implications
1) People are use ICTs to incite violence especially the use of social network such as face book, twitter,
WhatsApp etc which politicians are using to mobilize masses to demonstrate against the government.
2) Cyber bullying in form of name- calling, and gossiping, spreading rumors, making threats, and sending
malicious messages through e-mails, and social media is greatly promoted by the use of ICTs.
3) May politicians are using social media to present wrong identity.
4. Environmental implication of ICTs
The use of ICTs and related devices has brought about great impact on environment.
Positive environmental implication of ICTs
1) ICTs have helped to improve practices in agriculture and forestry especially toward better farming
techniques, and mechanization.
2) ICTs have helped to improve the efficiency of the energy, transportation of good and service sectors.
3) The national meteorological centers and ministry of environment are using ICTs to improve disaster warnings
and relief.
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4) Environmental agencies are using ICTs to monitor air and water pollution.
Negative environmental implications of ICTs
1) The continued disposal of worn out or unwanted ICT gadgets such as computer hardware components are
leading to the pollution of the environment.
2) Some of the ICT gadgets contain many hazardous chemicals which when exposed to human may be harmful
to their health.
3) Many ICT gadgets use a lot of high energy consumption which are leading to global warming hence
affecting the zonal layers.
4) Due to continued use of high technology in extracting natural resources such as oil, coper, gold, diamond,
coal etc has led to the problem of over exploitation hence degrading soil nature.

GREEN COMPUTING
Green computing refers to the responsible use of computing resources, maximizing economic viability while
minimizing negative impact on environment.
Meaning of Green Computing
Green computing refers to the environmentally responsible usage of computers and related resources which involves
the use of energy efficient hardware equipments, reduced energy consumption equipment and proper disposal of
electronic waste (e-waste).
.
Goals of Green computing
1) To enable the reduction of high use of ICTs devices.
2) To minimize the use of toxic substances during the manufacture of hardware devices such as lead, mercury,
cadmium, beryllium etc.
3) To ensure the use of biodegradable materials in ICT’s. I.e materials when decomposed are not harmful to the
environment.
4) To extend the life time span of hardware devices.
Actions towards Green Computing
i. Enforcing green computing practices
ii. Strategic leaders are taking into consideration the social and environmental impacts and of new and emerging
technologies.
iii. One of the green computing group called tactical increamentalists are applying and using green computing
philosophies mainly to save up on costs rather than saving the environment.
iv. Many multinational companies and organization are now enforcing the use of Electronic Products
Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT)in order to increase the efficiency and the life of computing
products.
Green Computing Practices
1) Creating a power plan which allows the system to automatically turn off components such as monitors and
hardware drives after a st period of inactivity.
2) To do computer related tasks during contiguous, intensive blocks of time, leaving hardware of at other times
that is to say avoid using computers for a long period of time because it may lead to 00health and safety
problems.
3) Power up and power down energy intensive peripherals such as laser printers, scanners etc according to the
need.
4) Use Liquid Crystal display (LCD) monitors rather than Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors because CRT
monitor emit a lot of electromagnetic radiations.
5) Use notebook computer rather than desk top computer because notebook computers consume less energy,
emit very little heat and other electromagnetic radiations.
6) Minimize the use of paper and properly recycle waste papers.
7) Recycle computing equipments as this can keep harmful materials such as Lead, mercury, and hexavalent
chromium out of landfills.
8) Dispose of e-waste according to the federal, state and local regulations.
9) Terminal servers should be used instead of standalone computers in order to cut down power consumption.
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10) Increased online security measures through the use of firewall, anti-spyware and anti-virus origrams to reduce
the increasing amount of e-waste on the internet and on other networks.
11) Using more energy efficient and less noisy cooling systems like liquid cooling systems instead of the
conventional heat sink and fans.

Measures for Green Computing

1) By using hardware that uses less electricity, lower power processor, onboard graphic card rather than seprated
graphic cards and passive coling systems rather than energy consuming fans.
2) Virtualization that is the use of computer software to stimulate hardware.
3) Cloud computing which is a technological advancement where software applications, processing power, data
and artificial intelligence are accessed over the internet.
4) Energy efficient coding that is using small and efficient energy conscious software.
5) By repairing hardwares, recycling of old computer hardwares into second use situation, and the re-use of
components from personal compurers that are beyond repair.
6) Reducing in the use of many hazardous chemicals such as lead, mercury, cadmium) in the manufacturer of
hardware equipments to prevent people being exposed to them as well as enabling more e-waste to be safely
recycled.
Elements of Green computing
1) Green Use: Reducing the energy consumption of computers and other information systems as well as using
them in an environmentally sound manner.
2) Green Disposal: Refurbishing and reusing old computers and recycling unwanted computers and other
electronic equipment.
3) Green Design: Designing energy efficient and environmentally sound components, computers, and servers
and cooling equipments.
4) Green Manufacturing: Manufacturing electronic components, computers and other associated sub systems
with minimal impact or no impact on the environment

CLOUD COMPUTING
Cloud computing refers to the outsourcing of services such as computer hardware, software and platforms from
different servers over the internet.

Meaning of Cloud Computing

This is a technological advancement where software applications, processing power, data and artificial intelligence
are accessed over the internet.
Benefits of Cloud Computing
I. Less maintainace hardware, applications and bandwidth are managed by the service provider.
II. Scalability- you pay only for the applications and data storage you need.
III. Expert service- services are continuously monitored and maintained by the service provider.
IV. Public cloud services are available whenever you are located.
V. Companies may potentially reduce their carbon foot print.
VI. It enables anybody to obtain the environmental benefits of virtualization that is the use of computer software
to stimulate hardware.
VII. It removes the need for most users to run high power personal computers and laptops.
VIII. Software as a service has enabled many people to collaborate without the need to physically travel, in turn
reducing environment impact of the activity.

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TOPIC 2:
COMPUTER MANAGEMENT

Computer management is the process of managing, monitoring and optimizing a computer system for performance,
availability, security. It is broad term that includes manual and automated administrative processes in the operations
of a computer.

Computer Management Involves the Following Tasks;

 Updating a computer’s operating system with the latest updates.

 Installing, configuring and executing anti-virus/anti-malware software on a computer to identify, remove and
provide protection against malicious attacks
 Managing all components on the computer in relation to drivers, permissions and basic functioning
 Creating and managing users’ accounts.
 Troubleshooting hardware, software and network and Internet for errors.
 Using disk defragmentation and disk cleanup services to remove unnecessary data and improve disk response
 Enabling, disabling and optimizing startup and background applications to increase processing speed.

Computer Booting
Booting is the process of starting or restarting a computer which involves loading an operating system into memory.
Types of Computer Booting
1. Cold booting
2. Warm booting
Cold Booting
It is the process of starting a computer which has been totally off which involves loading the operating system into
memory.
Warm Booting
It is the process of restarting (resetting) a computer that is already turned on.
Reason For Warm Booting
I. Whenever the computer devices such as keyboards, mouse, etc.stop responding to commands issued to them.
II. After installing a software or hardware onto your computer.
III. After scanning for viruses.
IV. After uninstalling a software
V. In case one wants to recover from errors
VI. When a computer freezes
Computer Booting Processes
i. The power supply sends an electrical signal to the motherboard and other devices located in the system unit.
ii. The CPU resets itself and looks for the ROM that contains the BIOS.
iii. The BIOS executes the Power OnSelf Test (POST) to ensure that all the computer hardware is connected
properly and operating properly.
iv. The results of the POST are compared with the data in the CMOS chip on the motherboard.
v. If the POST is completed successfully, the BIOS look for the boot program that loads the operating system.
vi. Once located, the boot program is loaded into memory and executed, which then loads the kernel of the
operating system into RAM.

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vii. The operating system loads system configuration information and the remainder of the operating system is
loaded into RAM and the desktop and the icons display on the screen.

Kernel
The kernel is referred to as a memory resident because it remains in memory while the computer is running.
It is the core of an operating system responsible for;
I. Managing memory,
II. Managing files and devices,
III. Maintaining the computer ‘s clock,
IV. Starting applications
V. Assigning the computer ‘s resources such as printers, scanners, etc.

COMPUTER PROGRAM
A computer program is a series of instructions that directs a computer how to perform the tasks necessary to
process data into information.

How to Start a Computer Program?

 Click on the start button
 Point the cursor to all programs
 Open a program folder or file by clicking on it or by double clicking on the program on the desktop.
File Management
This is a system that an operating system uses to organize and keep track of files. Each file has a file name. Each file
name has two parts: file name and file extension. By default, the computer allocates a name to a file which you can
change.

A File
A file is a collection of related data.

Types of Files
 Regular files are files used to store data in the form of text or binary
 Directory files are files that contain information used to access other files.
 Special files are files that defines physical devices for the system
 Video files for video development.
 Web files for web activities such as wed development
 System files are files that enable computer to function with the operating system
 Image files used to develop photos and graphics.
 Audio files for digital audio such as music sound etc.
 Backup files for copies of files in a computer which can later be accessed in emergence cases.

Creating a File
 Click on the file menu or the office button in the program you are using
 Select the first option new and the click on it.
 A dialogue box will appear and then click create

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

 After working with the new file, click the file menu
 Select save as option to give the file appropriate name
 Then save the file either in my computer or my document or on the desktop by clicking saves.

Saving a File
 Click on the file menu or the office button
 Select save as option
 Give the file the appropriate name
 Choose where to save the file either in my computer or my document, or on the desktop
 And then click save

File Name and File Extension

A computer file is made up of two parts that a file name and a file extension which is separated by a dot.
A file name is a name used to uniquely identify a computer file stored in a file system. It is associated with the
content.
On the other hand, a file extension is a part or suffix at the end of a file name which identifies the type of file it
represents.
It is the end part of a file name that is separated by a dot, containing characters based on the program used to create
the file example geoffreycat. doc, meaning that geoffreycat, is the file name and .doc is the file extension.
Functions of A File Extension
1. To identify the file type.

2. It identifies what program to associate the file with and how to properly open it using the correct program.

3. It helps to easily locate files.

Common File Extension

NO FILE EXTENSION FILE TYPE EXAMPLE

1 .doc Microsoft word Tobbyecat.doc
2 .xls Spreadsheet Mybook.xls
3 .ppt Presentation DMO.ppt
4 .db Database ICTdeprt.db
5 .pub Publication Cards.pub
6 .rtf Rich text format Invitation .rtf
7 .txt Unformatted text document Tobby.txt
8 .pdf Portable document format A level ICT.pdf
9 .exe Executable file Ecat.exe
10 .bat Batch file Autofile.bat
11 .gif Graphical interchange format. A digital image file format Photo.gif
12 .jpeg or mpg Joint photographic experts group. A digital image file Nighty.jpg
format
13 .png Portable network graphics Tobby.png
14 .mpeg Moving picture expert group
15 .AVI Microsoft windows movie file
16 .BPM Graphical Bit Mapped File used in windows paint
17 .HTML Hypertext Markup Language is a Web page files containing
HTML or other information found on the Internet
18 .SYS Various types of System files – usually drivers to control
devices
19 .xml Executable markup language

A Folder
A folder is a specific virtual container on a storage medium that contains related files. It is a virtual container within a
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
graphical user interface in which groups of computer files and other directories can be kept and organized.
Creating A Folder
 Right click the empty are on the desktop
 Select new from the drop down menu that appears
 Select folder
 Give the appropriate name to the folder
 Then press the enter key on the keyboard
Renaming A Folder
 Right click the folder
 Select the option rename
 Give the appropriate new name to the folder
 Then press the enter key on the keyboard
Moving a folder
 Point the cursor to the folder you want to move
 Hold down the primary mouse button
 Move the folder the desired location or another folder on the screen
 Then release the mouse button.
Deleting a folder
 Right click on the folder
 Choose the delete option
 Then click yes
FILE HIERARCHY
A file hierarchy defines a set and arrangement of directories (folders), which can contain files and other folders.
 The top-most directory in any file system is called the root directory.
 A directory that is below another directory is called a subdirectory.
 A directory above a subdirectory is called the parent directory.

ROOT DIRECTORY

DIRECTORY DIRECTORY

SUB DIRECTORY SUB DIRECTORY

File Path
A file path or a file directory specifies a unique location/address of a particular file in a file system.
Example; C:\My Documents\assignments\English\nouns.doc
 Root directory: C:\
 Directory(folder): \My Documents\
 Subdirectory(subfolder): \English\
 file: \nouns.doc
A file path can be observed in the address bar of a particular window in which the file is being used. A file path or
directory consist of location of a file, user profile, folder, sub folder file, file name and file type.
Example; D:\visitor\my document\sub ICT\S5 results.doc
 D:\ file location
 Visitor\ user profile
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

 My document\ folder
 Sub ICT\ sub folder
 S5 results\ file name
 .doc file type
Viewing File Extension
 Click start button
 Click control panel
 Click the tools drop down menu
 Click folder options
 Click view
 Uncheck Hide extension for known file types
 Click apply, then ok
Managing Computer Files
When using files on your computer system, there are some aspects one needs to put under consideration such as
storage of files, security for the files, backups, disk space usage.
Such considerations include;
1. Create backups of your files that keeping copies of your files away from computer to avoid some
events such as data loss, disasters like fire outbreak etc.
2. Install antivirus software to protect your computer against malware.
3. Use file compression utility to save disk space for files which takes up large storage space.
4. Use disk fragmentation tool to allow faster computer processing.
5. Protect your files using encryption or password
How to create a file with password?
 Click on the file menu or the office button in the program you are using
 Click on save as option
 Click on the tool menu at the bottom of the dialogue box
 Click on general options
 Type the password of your choice and click ok
 Retype the same password
 Then click ok
File Backup
File backup refers to creating copies of files away from the computer, which can later be accessed or retrieved.
There are two forms of file backups
1. Local backup (offline backup)
It involves backing up important files to external storage devices such as flash disks, memory cards, external hard
disks, compact disks, Digital versatile disks, magnetic disks, zip drives etc.
2. Internet backup (online backup)
This involves sending your files to another site on the internet computer for safe keeping. Eg creating a backup on
your email account.
Importance of Backup
 To recover from data loss in case of accidental deletion, data theft, data corruption
 To safely stored data away from the computer
 To ensure disaster data recovery plan
Desktop Environment
A desktop is the entire screen that displays when booting is done. It consists of features mainly shortcuts and icons of
programs such as my computer, recycle bin we browser etc.
Shortcuts are icons on the desktop that provides a user with immediate access to a program or file.
Icons are the smallest graphical or pictorial representation of several commands, an application, a shortcut etc.
Major icons on the desktop
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
1) My computer
2) Recycle bin
3) Network places (network)
4) My documents
My computer/This PC
This is a system folder in the file manager which allows the user to explore the content of their computer drives as
well as managing their computer files.
Recycle bin
Recycle bin (Trash). It is a temporary storage for files that have been deleted in the file manager by the user, but not
yet permanently deleted for the file system.
My network places
My network place is an icon on the desktop that displays shortcuts to shared computers, printers, and other resources
on the network.
My documents
My document is name of a special folder on the computer’s drive that the system commonly uses to store a users
documents, music, pictures, downloads, and other files.
Common Utilities
A utility program is a type of system software that allows a user to analyses, optimize, and maintain a computer in a
normal working state.
Utility programs are programs designed to enhance the performance of the computer.
Some are included with the operating system eg disk repairing programs, disk scan etc.
Examples of utility program
1. Backup: This utility allows you to make a duplicate copy of every file on your hard disk, which can be stored
way from the computer.
2. Disk defragmenter: This utility finds fragmented files on a disk and organises them back in a contiguous manner
to improve data access.
3. Disk repair utility: This utility scans a hard disk or floppy disk for bad sectors (defective areas) and either makes
repairs to these sectors, or marks the defective area so that the operating system does not store any data in that
location.
4. Virus protection utility: Antivirus software programs scan for computer viruses and remove them.
5. Computer language translators: Computer language translators (assemblers, compilers and interpreters)
translate a program written by a programmer into machine language (the language the computer can understand).
6. Check Disk utilities: Check Disk is a utility that checks your hard drive (or floppy drive) for problems. It will
check for directory structure errors, file errors, etc.
7. Scandisk: This is a utility provided with Windows that is used to scan computer disks to see if there are any
potential problems on the disk, such as bad disk areas, and possibly repairs them. Since disks are magnetic media,
all disks, including the hard drive, can be corrupted.
8. Disk cleaners: These are utilities used to find files that are unnecessary to the computer’s operation and yet
taking up disk space. Disk cleaners help the user to decide what to delete such files when your hard disk is full.
9. Disk partitioning software: Such utilities are used to divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each
with its own file system and treated as individual/separate drives.
10. Disk compression utilities: Disk compression utilities are used to compress/reduce size of the contents of a disk
to take up a small disk space.
11. File managers: A file manager or file browser is a computer utility program that provides a user interface to
work with file systems. The most common file management operations used include create, open, edit, view,
print, play, rename, move, copy, delete, attributes, properties, search/find, and permissions.
12. System profilers: System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and hardware
attached to the computer.
13. Cryptographic utilities: Cryptographic utilities are used to encrypt and decrypt streams and files. Cryptography
is the art of hiding information by transforming it (encrypting it) into an unreadable format, called cipher text.
Only those who possess a secret key can interpret (decrypt) the message into plain text.
14. Registry cleaners: Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows registry by removing old registry keys that
are no longer in use.

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
15. Network utilities: Network utilities are tools that analyses the computer’s network connectivity, configure
network settings, check data transfer or log events.
16. Screensavers: A screensaver (or screen saver) is a computer program that blanks the screen or fills it with
moving images or patterns when the computer is not in use.

Antivirus Program
Antivirus program (antivirus software) is software used to scan, detect and remove malware such as computer virus,
worms and spyware. It is a utility that searches a drive for viruses and removes any that are found.
Common Antivirus Programs
 ACD system  Kaspersky
 Anti vir  360 total security
 Avast  Smadav
 Avira (B)  Notron
 Trendo Micro  RAV
 Panda software  Sophos

TOPIC 3
COMPUTER LABORATORY CARE AND MANAGEMENT

Introduction:
Caring and maintaining of computers involves three important factors; keeping computers clean, protecting
computers from malware and backing up important files.

Computer Laboratory
A computer laboratory is a room that prepared to facilitate installation of computers and to provide a safe conducive
environment for teaching and learning computer studies.
It is a place where computers are set for a particular task.

Factors to consider when starting up a computer laboratory

 Security of computer programs and other resources.
 Reliability of the source of power
 The number of computer to be installed and the available floor space.
 The maximum number of users that the laboratory can accommodate.
 Availability of firefighting equipment
 Availability of first aids kit
 The room should be well ventilated

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

 The room should be dust free environment

Secure Laboratory Environment
After establishment of the computer laboratory the number of safety precaution and practices need to be observed in
order to avoid accidental injuries to users, damage or lack of Conducive environment for teaching and learning. The
computer laboratory environment must be well protected to ensure safety and security of students, staff, equipment
and computer network.
AREAS OF LABORATORY SECURITY
1) Physical Security
 All the computer equipments and other assets must be locked down through cabling.
 Consider installing a security alarm at a strategic point in case of a breakage
 The computer lab may be monitored either by the lab technician or by setting CCTV cameras or both.
 All the pc labs should be physically checked by using hardware key loggers on a periodic basis.
 Fix strong metallic grills and locks on doors, windows and roof in case the roofing is weak.
 Do not welcome strangers into the computer room.

2) Electric Power Security

 All power cables in the computer laboratory must be properly insulated to avoid the danger of exposing
the user to electric shock and power interruption caused by stumping on cables.
 Connect all devices which use electricity to power regulators. These regulators include; Uninterruptible
Power Supply (UPS) Stabilizers etc.
N.B .The Major Functions Of UPS Are;
 It regulates the amount of power entering into the device.
 It provides a power backup which can keep power for some time. This saves a computer user from losing
his/her data in case of power disturbances such as spikes, brown outs, black outs, and others.
 Make sure that the sockets, extension cables, power cables and other related electrical gadgets are
properly connected and they are in good working conditions.
 Also avoid over loading of sockets ie having very many devices plugged into a single power outlet.
3) Security Cameras (CCTV)
 Installed Video surveillance systems inside and outside the computer lab to monitor and record criminals who
vandalize or steal from the computer lab such as CCTV cameras (closed-circuit television).
 Consider installing a security alarm at a strategic point in case of a breakage.

4) First Aid Kit

A first aid kit or first aid box is a collection of supplies and equipment for use in giving first aid to computer users in
case of any accident.
 It is recommended that all kits are in a clean, water proof container to keep the contents safe and aseptic.
 Ensure that the first aid kit has all the contents such as adhesive bandages, regular strength pain
medication and disinfectant.
 First aid kits must be checked regularly and restocked if any items are damaged or expired.
5) Fire Extinguishers
Fire extinguisher is a portable device that discharges a jet of liquid, foam or gas to put off fire. It is normally filled
with carbon dioxide gas which is used to extinguish fire.
 Ensure that fire extinguisher is fixed in the computer lab in case of any emergency fire outbreak.
 It is essential to always refill the fire extinguishers after a stipulated period of time.
 It is also essential that all computer users are taught how to use fire extinguishers.
6) Air Conditioning
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
Air conditioning is the process of changing air temperature and humidity within an area to a more comfortable
condition. The machine used to modify the air condition of a place is known as Air Conditioner (AC). It is used for
cooling as well as heating depending on the air properties at a given time.
 Ensure the installation of air conditioner to regulate temperature.
 There must be a good air circulation in the computer room to avoid suffocation and overheating
 Ensuring that the room has enough ventilation points like windows.
 Avoiding overcrowding of either machine or users
 Ensure proper ventilation to avoid damage by overheating
 The room must be well lit to reduce eye strain that eventually leads to headache, stress and fatigue. Over
bright wall paints reflect too much light causing eye strain.
LABORATORY RULES AND REGULATIONS
1. Do not open inside part of computer when cleaning, this should be done by a trained personnel.
2. All CDS used for installation of programs and backups should be kept safely in Disk banks and away from sun
shine and magnetic media.
3. In areas where power fluctuates it is important to use a stabilizer or UPS to ensure steady input power to the
computer system.
4. Peripheral devices like printers should be serviced regularly.
5. Installation and updating of an antivirus should be done regularly.
6. All foreign storage devices like floppy disks, flash disks, and external hard disks should be scanned from
computer viruses.
7. Backup copies should be done regularly to ensure that there is no data loss made.
8. If you have unwanted copies of print outs these should be destroyed because data is not supposed to fall in un
authorized hand.
9. Always lock up all the premises where computers are kept to prevent theft and intruders.
10. Minimize the number of user/visitors to your installation and do not allow any outsider to your server apart from
network administrator.
11. Always keep important information with passwords.
12. Never leave computers on after use and you should follow the systematic way of shutting down.
COMPUTER HEALTH HAZARDS

1. Musculoskeletal problems:

Back pain, chest pain, pain or numbness in arms, shoulder and feet are the common complaints. These types of
problems mainly occur because your posture while using the computer is not correct. Either you are sitting on an
uncomfortable chair or your workstation is not supportive of correct posture.

Practical tips

 Adjust your chair and desk such that your screen is either at your eye level or lower. Sit with your back straight
and legs perpendicular to the floor with feet resting flat on the floor. Your elbows should rest at the sides.
 Take regular breaks from work and stretch a bit or go for a short walk.

2. Repetitive stress injury

Pain in the neck, shoulder, fingers may indicate repetitive stress injury.Eg twisting the wrist to use the mouse or
specific typing technique that causes stretching of fingers.

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
Practical Tips:

 Adjust the mouse besides the keyboard. Move your entire arm, while moving the mouse. Don’t just move your
wrist by fixing it at one position. Typing should be gentle. Do not fix your wrists in a certain position while
typing.
 Relax your arms or stretch when you are not typing or using the mouse.

3. Vision problems

Bright light and bad glare or flickering image can strain your eyes. Constantly focusing on the screen without
blinking can cause dry eyes.

Practical tips

 Adjust the contrast and brightness such that your eyes are not strained.
 You can tilt your screen to avoid glare.
 Maintain a proper distance from the screen.
 Look away from the screen intermittently. Don’t forget to blink.

3. Headache,
4. Headache is common problem with computer use. Many a times, prolonged use can affect eye power which
needs vision correction. This can also result in headache.

Practical tips

 Get your eye power tested if headache is a common problem with computer use.
 Keep your neck straight when in front of the computer.
 Constantly looking down or stretching the neck sideways.
 Take regular breaks in between and circle your neck a bit to release the strain.

5. Obesity:

Prolonged use of computers, especially in children, is the major cause of childhood.

Practical tips:

 Set limits for your children if they insist to playing computer games non-stop.
 Encourage your children to play outdoor games and involve them in extra-curricular activities.
 Adults who work for 7-8 hours on computers should avoid spending time on computer after reaching home.

6. Stress disorders

Prolonged computer use along with other factors like poor health, work pressure and job environment can make you
susceptible to stress. It can also lead to loss of concentration and dizziness.

Practical tips:

 Be proactive and take necessary measures to beat stress before it affects your health.

SERVICING AND MAINTAINING OF COMPUTERS

Computer servicing refers to the act of supporting and maintaining computer to be in a good working condition.
Computer maintenance is the practice of keeping computers in a good state.
Servicing and maintaining and computers involve the following practices;
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

 Install Antivirus Software. ...

 Perform Regular Software Updates. ...
 Keep Your Keyboard Crumb Free. ...
 Use a Surge Protector
 Back up data.
 Cleaning dust from computers vents and Fans, cables etc
 Organize your installation disks. ...
 Clean up software.
 Clean up your operating system (OS).
 Upgrade and update all the software.
 Covers all the computers and the related devices in the computer lab.
 All the worn-out devices should not be use again
Importance of Servicing and Maintaining of Computer
 To prolong the life time of the computers
 To pre-empt the problems that may render the proper performance of the computer system.
 To reduced Likelihood of Lost Files.
 To update outdated software programs such as application programs, antivirus, and operating system.
 It increases the speed performance of the computer by defragmenting hard drive, running spyware and virus
removal programs as well as installing the latest drivers and software updates.
 It protection computers against threats by keeping spyware and anti-virus programs updated and running on a
regular basis.

These Tools/Devices Are Categorized In The Followings;

 Hand tools  Cleaning Tools

 Diagnostic Tools  Disk Management Tools
 Protection Software Tools
 Software Tools

. Hand tools

These are tools held in the hand and operated without electricity or other power. Most tools used in the computer
assembly process are small hand tools. They are available individually or as part of a computer repair toolkit.
Examples of hand tool include; questions screwdriver, Crimper, Wire cutters, tweezers, Flashlight, Wire stripper,
Needle-nose pliers etc

 Diagnostic tools

Diagnostic tools are tools or devices used to test, diagnose, and solve hardware-related problems. Examples of
diagnostic tools include;

Adigital multimeteris a device that can take many types of measurements of circuits and the quality of electricity in
computer components.

Aloopback adapter, also called a loopback plug, tests the basic functionality of computer ports.

Software Tools

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
A technician must be able to use a range of software tools to diagnose problems, maintain hardware, and protect the
data stored on a computer; to be able to identify which software to use in different situations.

Examples of software tools are; Disk management tools and Protection Software Tools

 Disk management tools are tools that help to detect and correct disk errors, prepare a disk for data storage,
and remove unwanted files.

Examples of Disk Management Tools:

 FDISK a short form for fixed disk: A command-line tool that creates and deletes partitions on a hard drive.
 Disk Management Tool: used to initialize disks, creates partitions, and formats partitions.
 Format: used to prepare a hard drive to store information.
 ScanDisk or CHKDSK: used to checks the integrity of files and folders on a hard drive by scanning the file
system, and disk surface for physical errors.
 Defrag: used to optimize space on a hard drive to allow faster access to programs and data.
 Disk Cleanup: used to clears space on a hard drive by searching for files that can be safely deleted.
 System File Checker (SFC): A command-line tool that scans the operating system critical files and replaces
files that are corrupted.

 Protection Software Tools: These are software tools used to protect data, operating system and hardware,
guarding against virus attacks and to remove malicious programs.

Examples of Protection Software Tools;

 Windows security Center:it checks the status of essential security settings. The Action Center continuously
checks to make sure that the software firewall and antivirus programs are running. It also ensures that
automatic updates download and install automatically.
 Antivirus program: Protects computers against virus attacks.
 Antispyware program: Protects against software that sends information about web surfing habits to an
attacker. Spyware can be installed without the knowledge or consent of the user.

 Organizational Tools

These are tools used to keep accurate records and journals (documentation of work) during a busy workday. Example
is work-order systems which are used by technicians to document their work.

 Cleaning Tools
These are tools used to keep the computer components and the work area clean.
Examples Of Computer Cleaning Tools Are;
 Clean Cloth.  Cotton Swabs
 Compressed Air  Portable Vacuum
 Isopropyl Alcohol  Lens Cleaning Kit
N.B. Different Parts and Areas Must Be Clean with The Appropriate Materials and Detergents.
Preventive Measure During Cleaning Process Must Be Put into Considerations Such as;
 Proper Handling of the Computer Parts Not to Fall Down
 Ensuring That the Appropriate Tools Are Use and They Must Be in Good Conditions.
 Before Cleaning, Ensure That Those Parts Such as Monitor, Key Board Are Plug Out of Power.
 After Cleaning Them, Plug Back the Power Cord Safely.
 Do Not Use a Vacuum Cleaner Inside A Computer Or On A Laptop Keyboard Because The Plastic
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
Parts Of The Vacuum Cleaner Bulds Static Electricity.
 Use Little Amount of Water So That It Does Not Drop Inside the Monitor

SAMPLE TOOLS USED FOR SERVICING AND MAINTAINING A COMPUTER AND RELATED
DEVICES
EXAMPLES OF HAND TOOLS
Tool Image Tool Name Tool Function
Cripping tool For fixing a connector to the end of a cable.
For instance, network cables and phone cables
are created using a crimping tool to join the
RJ-45 and RJ-11 connectors to the both ends
of either phone or cable.

Wire Cutter For cutting wire or to strip the wire from its
insulator
Adjustable wrench To loosen or tighten Hex nuts

Needle Nose Pliers For cutting thin wires or to grip small object

Reverse Action Tweezers For holding small items to be glued into small
places

Tweezers For picking up or holding small objects that

are too small for human hands

Three Claw Parts To grab small or retrieve small objects

Retriever/Extractor

IC Extractor For extracting chip from the motherboard

IC Inserter To insert chip into a circuit board

Soldering Iron To melt solder reel

Solder Reel To be molten so that current can flow through

Spare Parts Tube To place spare parts

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

Screwdriver To loosen or tighten a screw

Electric computer blower It is electrical device used for blowing dust

from a computer and many other electronic
devices
Digital multi-meter It tests the circuits and the quality of electricity
in computer components

A loopback adapter For testing the basic functionality of computer

ports

Installing System and Application Software

Program installation is the process of setting up of a program on a computer to be able to use it.
A program installer is a specialized program which automates most of the work required for a program installation.

INSTALLATION PROCESS
 Open My Computer.
 Open the drive that contains the installation files. It may be on a CD or DVD, in that case, open the D: drive or
the letter of the disk drive.
 Within the drive that contains the files, locate either a setup or install file. The setup executable file must have the
.exe extension
 Alternatively, click Start then Run. In case of windows 7, find run in accessories
 In the Run Window, type x:\setup or x:\install where x is the letter of the drive you wish to start the installation
from.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE AND WHEN INSTALLING A PROGRAM

 Read the manuals for the program or the read me file located in the same directory as the install commonly
contain exact instructions on how to install a program.

 Make sure that your computer meets the requirements of the program, game, or utility you are attempting to
install.

 After installing or during the installation, a program may need to install other programs, files, or utilities before it
is able to run. If

 When installing a program, utility, or game, it is always a good idea first to close or disable any other programs
that are running.

 Restart the computer system after installing a new program for it to work well, the computer may prompt you to
reboot the system for the installed program to work.

REASONS FOR INSTALLING SOFTWARE

 In case of the new application package that must be installed in order to run on a computer
 When the previous installed program is corrupted which require its reinstallation
 In case one wants to update the old version of the program by installing an update on it
 In case a new device is attach to the computer, there is need to install the device drive software
 In case pf plug-in which is a set of software components that adds specific capabilities to a large software
application.
REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF SOFTWARE TO BE INSTALLED
 The software source CD may not be readable. Verify the disk is readable by reading the files on the drive.

 The computer system may not have the system requirements for the software to run, verify that your computer
meets the minimum requirements of the software program.

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

 The software may not be compatible with the computer system. Make sure the program or utility you are
installing is compatible with the version of operating system you have on your computer.

 Most proprietary software requires that a registration code or serial number is entered before the software is
entered. If you lost your number or key or it does not work, you will need to contact the developer of the
program.

INSTALLING DEVICE DRIVES

The device driver is a program that controls a particular type of device that is attached to a computer system. Modern
operating systems are designed with many device drivers. The operating system will automatically detect any new
hardware attached to it and install an appropriate driver and it will be able to work. However, if you buy a new type
of device that the operating system whose driver was not included in the operating system, you'll have to manually
install the new device driver.
Procedures followed when installing a new device
 Open Windows Device Manager (Start>control panel> systems> hardware tab> device manager
 You may need to choose "View" and "Show hidden devices" to find it, or it may be represented by a yellow
question mark if there is no driver for it yet and the computer doesn't recognize it. The categories may help you
find it if Windows knows in general what type of device it is. For example, if you have plugged in a new
keyboard and there's a yellow question mark under the "Keyboards" category, then you may need to reinstall the
keyboard drivers for it to work.
 Once you have verified the Device Manager, reboot the computer.
 As the computer is rebooting an “install new hardware” wizard should appear if Windows detects the new
hardware.
 Select install for a list or specific location this time and click next. Uncheck "search removable media" and check
includes this location in search.
 Click next and it will attempt to install the driver. Once done click next and your new driver is install. A reboot
might be required for the device to work properly.
 If Windows does not detect any new hardware, open Control Panel and double-click the Add hardware (or Add a
device) icon to run the hardware detection wizard
 Once drivers have been installed reboot.

Upgrading Drivers for Already Installed Devices

Open Windows Device Manager. In the Device Manager locate the device you wish to update the drivers for.
 Right-click the device and click Properties.

 In the Properties window click the Driver tab.

 Click the Update Driver button.

 In the Hardware Update Wizard point Windows to the location of the updated drivers on your hard disk drive

 Once drivers have been installed reboot.

Uninstalling Software
Software uninstallation is the deliberate process of removing part or all of a given software from the computer. A
utility used for uninstalling software is an uninstaller.
An uninstaller, also called a de-installer, is utility software which is designed to remove all or parts of a specific
other application software. It is always recommended to use an uninstaller to uninstall a program.
Reasons for Uninstalling Software from The Computer System;
 The software may not be working properly due to corrupt files, or improper installation, hence the need for a
clean reinstallation of the program which requires that the program must be uninstalled first.

 It could be that the software is no longer being used and is unnecessarily taking up valuable disk space.

 The software may be conflicting with other programs installed on the computer.

 The software may not be meeting your expectations, that is, it's not functioning as expected.

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

 You may be running out of disk space, therefore you just want to free up some space on your computer's hard
drive.

 It is always necessary to carry out a proper uninstallation through proper program uninstall procedure instead of
merely deleting the program folder and shortcuts

 If you are using windows, get to Programs and Features control panel, then choose uninstall program to properly
uninstall the program;

Procedures of Uninstalling Software from The Computer System

 Click on the start button

 Go to the Control Panel and click

 Click on uninstall a program

 A list of programs will be displayed

 Select the program you want to uninstall and click

 Wait until the process of uninstallation is done then you click close

TROUBLESHOOTING

Troubleshooting is the process of identifying, planning and resolving a problem, error or fault within a software or
computer system. It enables the repair and restoration of a computer or software when it becomes faulty,
unresponsive or acts in an abnormal way.

Troubleshooting is primarily done to keep a system or software in desired condition, specifically when it encounters
or exhibits a problem. Typically, the first step involves identifying what the problem is followed by coming up with a
solution to counteract the problem and then implementing that solution.

Hardware troubleshooting is the process of reviewing, diagnosing and identifying operational or technical problems
within a hardware device or equipment. Hardware troubleshooting is done by hardware or technical support
technician.

The process starts by first identifying the problem and finding different issues that can cause such a problem and
eventually implementing a solution or alternative. Hardware troubleshooting is generally done on hardware
Equipment Installed Within A Computer, Server, Laptop Or Related Device.

Processes Within Hardware Troubleshooting:

 Removing, Repairing and Replacing Faulty Ram, Hard Disk or Video/Graphic Card.
 Cleaning Dusts from Ram and Video Carts Slot/Ports and from Cooling Fan.
 Tightening Cable and Jumpers On Motherboard and/or Components.
 Software Related Hardware Problems Such as Device Driver Update or Installation.

How to Troubleshoot a Computer?

 Click On the Start Button
 Click The Control Panel
 Under System and Security Click Find and Fix Problems
Troubleshooting Processes
 Identification of The Malfunctions Within the System
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

 Generate Possible Causes of the Malfunctions and Eliminate Them

 Confirm That the Solutions Restore the Process to Its Working State
Troubleshooting Techniques
1) Isolating The Problem by Finding Out If It Is Software or Hardware Related, If It Is Hardware Start with The
Obvious Such as Power and Loose Connections Then Run Diagnostic Test.
2) Researching for The Ideas Related to The Problems.
Saving Power Battery and Parts of Shutdown Menu
1. Switch User: Refers to The Process of Switching the users without closing the run program(s).
2. Log off: Means the process of closing programs and logging off the computer.
3. Lock: the process of turning off the computer.
4. Restart: To restart a computer means the process of closing all the open programs, shutting down the
windows and then re-opening windows again.
5. Sleep: Is the process of keeping session in memory and putting the computer in a low power state so that
one can quickly resume working.
6. Hibernate: Hibernate means the process of saving session and turning off the computer, but after turning on
the computer, windows restart the session.

TOPIC 4:
COMPUTER HARDWARE
Introduction to Computer Hardware
Computer hardware refers to the physical and tangible components of a computer. These are devices you can see,
touch and feel.
Categories of Computer hardwires
1) Input hardware
2) Storage hardware
3) Processing hardware
4) Output hardware
5) Communication (Networking) hardware
INPUT HARDWARE
Input is any data or program instructions people enter into the memory of a computer.
Terms related to input
Data
This is collection of raw unorganized facts, and figures to be processed by a computer.
Information
Information is processed data that is organized, meaningful and useful.
A program
Is a series of instructions that directs a computer how to perform the tasks necessary to process data into information;
A program is written by a programmer and then store the program in a file that a user can execute (run).
A command
Is an instruction given to a computer program to perform a specific action; Commands can be issued by typing
keywords, pressing special keys on the keyboard, clicking the mouse, speaking into a microphone, or touching on a
screen.
A user response
This is an instruction users issue to the computer by replying to a question posed by a computer program.
INPUT DEVICES
These are hardware components or devices that allow the user to enter data and instructions/ commands into the
computer. The data may be in form of a sound, characters, graphics etc.
Examples of input devices
 Keyboard  Pointing devices

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

 Controllers for Gaming and Media Players  Terminals devices

 Audio Input devices  Biometric Input devices
 Video Input devices  Remote control
 Scanning devices  Sensor and Remote sensor
 Reading devices

KEYBOARD
A keyboard is a primary input device made up of keys with numbers; letters, symbols and special keys used to enter
data into the computer.
Keyboard Navigation and the Mouse
1.2.1 The keyboard
A keyboard is a primary input device made up of keys with numbers, letters, symbols and special keys used to enter
data and commands into the computer.
Keyboard layouts
The arrangement of the English language keyboard keys was modeled after the QWERTY type writer keyboard
developed by Christopher Sholes in 1868.
Its name was derived from the first six letters at the top of the keyboard.

NB; The alternative to the QWERTY keyboard is the Dvorak keyboard developed by Dr. Dvorak in 1936. With the
Dvorak, the most used letters are positioned in the middle row of the keyboard, intending to reduce typing time and
finger movements.
Types of keyboards
 A standard computer keyboard
 Wireless keyboard
 Handheld keyboard
 Laptop keyboard
 Ergonomic keyboard
 Enhanced keyboard

Parts of a Computer Keyboard

a) Functional keys

These are keys found across the top row of the keyboard. Each key is composed of letter F and a number ranging
from 1 to 12.
Each functional key performs a specific operation based upon the software being used.
Numeric keypad
This is an extra section to the right of the keyboard.

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
b) Navigation/Cursor/Arrow keys
These keys are used to navigate through documents and websites. They include the up, down, left, and the right
arrows.

c) Typewriter Keypad (Alphanumeric Keypad)

This has buttons with alphabetical letters and numbers hence the name―alphanumeric keypad. Most of the typing is
done with these keys.
d) Special Keys
These are the keys that are used to perform specific functions in the computer. They include; Shift key, Tab key,
Control key, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Backspace key, Enter key, Delete key, Alt key, etc.
Functions of some selected keys on the keyboard
i. Backspace key
It deletes the characters to the left of the cursor and moves the cursor to that position. Ctrl+ Backspace key removes
the whole word to the left of the cursor.
ii. Caps Lock Key
A toggle key that, when activated, causes all alphabetic characters to be uppercase. To facilitate continuous typing in
upper case when activated.
iii. Delete Key
This removes the characters and spaces towards the right hand side of the cursor.
Ctrl+Del remove the whole word towards the right hand side of the cursor.
iv. Space bar
 To create space
 For alignment
 Moving the cursor to the next line
 Pausing music in some music programs e.g. Power DVD,
 Playing games e.g. in pinball
 Resizing or closing the current window with a modifier key e.g. Ctrl Key +Spacebar
 Helps in scrolling in some web browsers when used with Shift Key
v. Shift Key
 Activates second function of different keys
 Activates sticky keys
 Selects files and folders in specific order
 Modifies function Keys e.g. Shift + F1 = F13 and Shift +F2=F14.
 Anchors the insertion pointer in word processors
 Used in modifying the mouse behavior while using a web browser
vi. Ctrl key
Short for Control, this key is used in conjunction with other keys to produce different control shortcuts.
The meaning of each control character depends on which program is running.
vii. Enter Key
Used to enter commands or to move the cursor to the beginning of the next line
viii. Esc Key
Short for Escape, this key is used to send special codes to devices and to exit (or escape) from programs and tasks.
ix. Alt key
Short for Alternate, this key is like a second control key.
x. Arrow Keys
Most keyboards have four arrow keys that enable you to move the cursor (or insertion point) up, down, right, or left.
Used in conjunction with the Shift or Alt keys, the arrow keys can move the cursor more than one position at a time,
but this depends on which program is running.

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
Advantages of using a computer keyboard
1. Keyboards are very common (commonly supplied with computers)
2. Entering data and commands with keyboard is faster as compared to the mouse
3. Keyboards are more reliable
4. They are used for computer gaming
5. A keyboard is used to control computer
Disadvantages of using computer keyboard
1. It takes a lot of time to practice in order to type quickly
2. Keys can easily become faulty due to dust.
3. Some keyboards keys are very hard to press, causing fingers to hurt.
Computer Key board combination and their uses
4. Alt+Tab: Switch between open programs or windows
5. Ctrl+A: Select all items in a document or window
6. Alt+F4: Close the active item, or exit the active program
7. Ctrl+S: Save the current file or document.
8. Ctrl+C: Copy the selected item
9. Ctrl+X: Cut the selected item
10. Ctrl+V: Paste the selected item
11. Ctrl+Z: Undo an action
12. F1: Get help
13. F2: Rename a selected item.

POINTING DEVICES
Pointing devices are input devices that allow you to control a pointer on the screen and interact with computer.
Examples of pointing devices include;
 A Mouse  A touch screen
 A light pen
 A trackball
 A stylus and graphics tablet
 A touch pad
 Digitizers
 Pointing Stick
The Mouse
A mouse is a handheld input device used to position the cursor, point, select and move objects on the computer
screen.
Basic activities performed by a mouse piece
1. Point
Means positioning the pointer on the screen to an object such as a button, a menu, an icon, a link, or text
2. Click
Means pressing and releasing the primary mouse button, which selects or deselects items on the screen or starts a
program or program feature.
3. Right-click
Involves pressing and releasing the secondary mouse button, which displays a shortcut menu
4. Double-click
Means pressing and releasing quickly the primary mouse button twice without moving the mouse; this action starts a
program or program feature.
5. Drag
Means pointing to an item, holding down the primary mouse button, moving the item to the desired location on the
screen and then releasing the mouse button
6. Right-drag
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
Displays a shortcut menu after moving an object from one location to another
7. Rotate wheel (Scrolling)
Involves rolling the wheel forward or backward that scrolls up or down a few lines
Advantages of using a computer mouse
 It is user friendly
 It is faster to select items
 It is easy and convenient to use with graphical user interface
 It is good for limited desk space

Disadvantages of using a computer mouse

 Difficult to input ex using a mouse
 A mouse in not accurate enough for drawings
 It is very slow to issue command using a mouse

A trackball
A trackball is like an upside-down mouse. It is a stationary pointing device with a ball mechanism on its top. It is
operated by rolling the ball directly with your hand.

A touch pad
A touchpad is a small, flat, rectangular pointing device that is sensitive to pressure and motion used to move the
pointer by sliding your finger tip across the surface of the pad.

Pointing Stick
A pointing stick is a pressure-sensitive pointing device shaped like a pencil eraser used to move the pointer
by pushing the pointing stick in any direction with your finger.

A touch screen
A touch screen is a touch-sensitive input display device used by touching any items, icons, words, pictures, numbers,
letter, or locations identified on the screen.

A light pen
A light pen is a handheld input device that detects the presence of light by pressing the light pen against the
surface of the monitor screen, a special type of paper, or a graphic tablet. It can be used for writing,
drawing by taping on the flat surface .

A stylus and graphics tablet

A stylus is a small metal or plastic device that looks like a tiny ink pen but uses pressure instead of ink to
write text and draw lines on a pressure sensitive screen.
Stylus pen is a pen that allows the user to draw on a digitizing tablet that mirrors the surface area of the
computer screen.
A graphics tablet is a flat, rectangular, electronic plastic board on which a stylus writes or draws

Digitizers
This is used with a digitizing tablet in making maps (cartography) and architectural drawings to accurately trace out
lines on a map. They are commonly used by architects, mapmakers, artists, and home users create drawings and
sketches by using a pressure-sensitive pen or a cursor (digitizer) on a graphics tablet.

Controllers for Gaming and Media Players

These are input devices used in video games and computer games to direct movements and actions on-
screen objects. Examples of game controllers and media players include;

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 Game pads,  Dance pads
 Joysticks and wheels,  Motion-sensing controllers
 Light guns,  Touch sensitive pads
A game pad
A game pad is an input device that is used to control the movement and actions of players and objects in
video/computer games by pressing its buttons with thumbs and moving sticks in various directions to trigger
events.

Joystick and wheels

A joystick is a handheld vertical lever mounted input device with buttons called triggers used by moving the lever in
different directions to control the actions of the simulated vehicle or player by pressing the triggers to initiate certain
events.

A wheel is a steering wheel- type input device used by turning the wheel to simulate driving a vehicle. Most wheels
also include foot pedals for acceleration and braking actions.

A light gun
A light gun is one the input devices used to shoot targets and moving objects by pulling the trigger on the weapon or
an item on the computer screen.

A dance pad
A dance pad is a flat electronic input device divided into panels that users press with their feet in response to
instructions from a music video game. It is operated by stepping on the correct panel at the correct time, following a
pattern that is synchronized with the rhythm or beat of a song.

AUDIO INPUT
Audio input is the process of entering any sound into the computer such as speech, music, and sound effects. To
enter high-quality sound into a personal computer, the computer must have a sound card.
A sound card is a device that can be slotted into a computer to allow the use of audio components for multimedia
applications. Without a sound card, audio input and output is not possible.

Examples of audio input devices include;

 Microphones  MIDI devices
 Voice recognition equipment  Dictaphone etc
A microphone
A microphone is an audio input instrument used for converting sound waves into electrical energy variations, into the
computer for processing, recording or audio playback.

Voice Recognition Equipment (VRE)

These are audio input devices used to capture sound such as multimedia computers, tape recorders etc. they are
capable of distinguishing spoken words and then converts them into text.
to produce sound.

Dictaphones
Dictaphone is an electronic audio input device that allows the user to record or create spoken words or voices that are
later repeated then aloud so that they can be written down as important notes.

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
VIDEO INPUT
Video input devices are input devices used to capture and enter images such as still photos, motion pictures,
graphics, video etc. into the computer for processing.
NOTICE; To enter video from an analog device into a personal computer, the analog signal must be converted to a
digital signal by plugging a video camera or other analog video device in a video capture port on the system unit.
Common video input devices include:
 Digital camera  Film camera
 Digital video camera  Camcorder
 A webcam
Digital camera
A digital camera video input device that allows users to take pictures and store the photographed images digitally
instead of storing on a traditional film. When you take pictures, the images are electronically stored in the camera.
Digital video camera
A digital video (DV) camera is an input device that records video as digital signals instead of analog signals. For a
video or the image to be displayed, it requires a video capture card to convert analogue video signals into digital
signals so that the computer can understand the images

A webcam
A Web cam is a type of digital video camera that allows users to capture video and still images, and make video
telephone calls on the Internet. During a video telephone call, both parties can see each other as they talk. Some
laptop computers have built-in Web cams.
Webcams enable users to:
 capture video and still images,
 send e-mail messages with video attachments,
 add live images to instant messages,
 broadcast live images over the Internet,
 and make video telephone calls

Camcorder
This is a light weight video camera that records data in digital form onto a storage device
such as a video tape.

Film cameras
Film cameras are cameras that expose photographic film to light in order to take a picture. A film is a chemical
emulsion on a thin plastic material that is sensitive to light. When exposed, an analogous image of the scene is
created within the chemical layer of the material; thus, film cameras are analog cameras.
Advantages of a digital Camera over the ordinary film camera
 They are environmental-friendly
 They record massive amount of videos unlike film camera
 They have user-friendly features
 They store large amount of Photos
 They have high Operating Speed compare to film camera
 They save money for buying films.
 They allow images taken to be previewed and even edited on the camera.
 Unwanted images can be deleted after preview.
 Digital cameras are best for three – dimensional objects unlike film cameras
Disadvantages of digital camera
 Digital cameras are very complex because the user must know how to upload and edit photos using a
computer
 Digital cameras are sensitive and susceptible to extreme conditions such as heat, extreme cold and moisture
in comparison to the old film cameras that causes their malfunctions
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 Digital cameras consumption power faster than film cameras. This makes it necessary to keep a few spare
batteries in hand, especially during lengthy photo sessions.
 They are normally expensive than the ordinary film cameras with the same functions.
 Photo printing costs are higher than that of the ordinary film cameras.
SCANNING DEVICES
These are devices that capture data directly from source documents and converts it into a digital form that can be
stored into a computer.
A scanner is a light-sensing input device that converts hardcopy documents, drawings, or pictures to an electronic
version (softcopy) to be stored on a drive.
Optical Scanners use light mechanism to convert text, drawings, or
pictures into computer-recognizable digital data
Examples of optical scanner include
 Flatbed scanner  Drum scanner
 Sheet-feed scanner  Handheld scanner

NB: The quality of a scanner is determined by its resolution and color depth.
Advantages of scanners
 Scanners provide high quality in terms of resolution for both color and black and white documents. They also
provide enough detail and resolution to handle images, photographs, graphics and designs.
 Scanners make it unnecessary to retype text or redraw images. Thus, you can reproduce a document or
picture in a short time.

 Using a scanner can also be environmentally friendly that is to say, scanners create digital copies of
documents, photos and files on your computer
 Scanners are very easy to use and Most of the settings are automatically adjusted and fine-tuned, leaving a
user to only select basic options such as photograph or document, or color versus black and white.
 Disadvantages of scanners

 Scanned output varies depending on the quality of the lens inside the scanner, the cleanliness of the scanner’s
glass, and the condition of the original documents.
 Scanners are very expensive in terms of buying and maintenance such as replacement of lambs, and lens etc
 Scanners can be used to fake documents.
 Most scanners restrict you to the size of an 8.5 inch by 14 inch page of paper, or in some cases of photo
scanners, even smaller.

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

 Larger flatbed scanners are expensive, and in most instances, you’d scan a big document, poster or other item
in sections, perhaps even having to cut or fold it, to completely scan it.

READING DEVICES

Reading devices are input devices that capture data from a source document, which is the original form of the data.
Examples of reading devices include optical reading devices.

OPTICAL READING DEVICES are devices that use a light source to read characters, marks, and codes and
convert them into digital data that a computer can process.

Examples of optical reading devices include;

 Optical character recognition (OCR) Readers

 Optical mark recognition (OMR) readers
 Bar code readers (BCR’s)
 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Readers
 Magnetic Strip Card Reader
 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) Readers

Optical Character Recognition (OCR) Readers

Optical character recognition (OCR) is a technology that reads typewritten, computer printed, or
handwritten characters from ordinary documents and translates the images into a form that the computer
can understand.
Advantages of OCR readers

 They save lot of time when using a digital file rather than paper documents
 OCR allows user to copy and paste from the document itself whether that's in PDF format or MS Word
format.
 They are less expensive in terms processing documents.
 They allow written and printed data to be read at the same time.
 Hard copies of documents can be read directly into a computer without retyping.
 The characters converted can later be edited by word processing software.
Disadvantages of OCR readers

 They are expensive in terms a scanner, OCR software and maintenance.

 They are not completely accurate when sending text because it requires proofreading afterwards
 Often don‘t work well with hand written characters or those in unusual fonts.

Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) readers

These are input devices that read hand-drawn marks such as small circles or rectangles. A person places
these marks on a form, such as a test, survey, or questionnaire answer sheet. The OMR device first reads
a master document, such as an answer key sheet for a test, to record correct answers based on patterns
of light; the remaining documents then are passed through the OMR device and their patterns of light
are matched against the master document.

Advantages of OMR readers

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

 They are much faster than someone manually entering large amounts of text
 They consistently provide unmatched accuracy when reading data
 They have better recognition rate than OCR hence can read marks.
 OMR have large volumes of data that can be quickly collected without the need of specially trained staff.
 Their cost of data input is small.
 The chance of data errors can also be reduced because it is not necessary to type the details for data entry.
Disadvantages of OMR readers

 All documents need to be checked over carefully and then manually corrected
 If the original document is of poor quality or the handwriting difficult to read, more mistakes will occur
 They are not worthy working for small amounts of text
 Documents for OMR are complicated to design.
 The OMR reader needs to be reprogrammed for each new document design.
 It needs the person putting marks on the documents to follow the instructions precisely.
 Any folding or dirt on a form may prevent the form from being read correctly.
A bar code reader
It is an optical reader that uses laser beams to read bar codes by using light patterns that pass through the
bar code lines.
A bar code is an identification code that consists of a set of vertical lines and spaces of different width. The bar
code represents some data that identifies the item and the manufacturer.

Advantages of using Bar Code Reader and Bar Codes

 They are less expensive.
 Bar code readers smaller and lighter compared to RFID tags and easy to use.
 The process of data entry is fast and accurate.
 Bar codes can be printed by normal printing methods.
 No need to write down any key in the name of the item or its accurate price.
Disadvantages of Bar Codes and Bar Code Readers
 Barcodes do not have read/write capabilities.
 It requires optical line of sight (LOS) scanning.
 It is labour intensive as it requires to be scanned individually.
 It is less secure compare to RFID which can be easily forged.
 It is susceptible to environmental damage.
 Scratched or crumpled barcodes may cause problems while scanning.
 Only numbers can be coded
 Bar codes cannot be read directly by people.
 A bar code reader may misread a bar code if there is any dirt or mark on the code.
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Readers
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is a technology that uses radio waves to transfer data from an electronic tag,
attached to an object, through a reader for the purpose of identifying and tracking the object.
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Readers are also used for;
 tracking times of runners in a marathon;
 tracking location of soldiers,
 tracking employee wardrobes,
 tracking airline baggage,
 tracking misplaced or stolen goods;
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

 gauging pressure and temperature of tires on a vehicle;

 tracking payment as vehicles pass through booths on rollway systems;
 Checking out library books, etc.
Advantages of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Readers
 The tag does not need to be in line of sight with the receiver to be read compare to a barcode reader
 RFID tags can store a lot of information, and follow instructions
 They have the ability to pinpoint location
 RFID technology is versatile: can be smaller than a thumb tack or can be the size of a tablet, depending on its
use
Disadvantages of RFID Technology
 RFID are expensive because of batteries
 There still needs to be regulations about RFID guidelines
 RFID can be easily intercepted, even if it Encrypted
 It takes a lengthy time to program RFID devices
 The external electromagnetic interference can limit the RFID remote reading.
 The coverage range of RFID is limited which is about 3 meters
Magnetic Strip Card Reader
A magnetic stripe card reader is a reading device that reads the magnetic stripe on the back of credit cards,
bank cards, gift cards, and other similar cards. The stripe, which is divided in three horizontal tracks,
contains information identifying you and the card issuer.

The magnetic strip can hold personal details such as account number, and name stored magnetically.

To read the data on the card, it is 'swiped' through a Magnetic Stripe Reader machine and the data is read and fed
back to the computer.

Advantages of Magnetic Strips Reader

 Simple for people to use hence require little or no training
 Card readers are inexpensive to produce
 Data on the cards can be altered if necessary
 Security is improved by the use of pin number to confirm that the person is the rightful card owner
 Reading is accurate and fast
Disadvantages of Magnetic Strips Reader
 Not always secure as thieves can obtain the readers and read the data on the card
 The amount of data that can be stored on a strip is limited.
 The magnetic strips can be damaged easily by exposure to strong magnetic fields.
 The card may be rejected in case of scratches and dirt on the surface.
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) Readers
MICR is a technology used to check the originality of documents and the authentication purpose.
In MICR technology, Magnetic ink is used which is passed through magnetic tape reader which reads the code and
convert it into useful information. This helps in fast processing of cheque clearance and increases the efficiency of the
bank in a secured manner.

Advantages of MICR
 The processing speed for cheques are very fast
 They are more secure than OCR (Optical character recognition) technology.
 Documents prepared for MICR are difficult to forge.

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

 Documents can still be read after being folded or split etc.

Disadvantages of MICR
 The system can only accept a few characters
 MICR readers and encodes are very expensive.
TERMINALS
Computer terminals are electronic hardware devices that are used for entering data into, and displaying or printing
data from a computer or a computing system .Eg The tele printer.
Terminal devices consists of a monitor (output), a keyboard (input), memory, and a video card often
housed in a single unit. A variety of terminals enable both input to and output from a remote computer
system. They are devices that send and receive computer data.
Categories of terminals
 Dumb terminals,
 Smart terminals,
 Electronic Point of sales (EPOS) terminal
 Electronic Fund Transfer Point of Sale (EFTPOS) terminal
 Intellectual terminal
A dumb terminal
It is a terminal that has no processing power, thus, cannot function as an independent device. A dumb
terminal can enter and transmit data to, or receive and display information from a remote computer
system. It is host computer that performs the processing and then sends the output back to the dumb
terminal.
A Smart terminal
In addition to a monitor and keyboard, a smart terminal also has a processor that has the capability of performing
some functions independent of the host computer.
Electronic Point of sales (EPOS) terminal
This is a type of device used to record sales at the point where the consumer purchases the product.
Electronic Fund transfer of sale (EFTPOS)
These are terminals capable of transferring funds from customer’s bank account directly to a retail outlet’s account
after reading the customer’s network
Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) is a self-service banking machine that connects to a host
computer through a network. You insert a plastic bankcard with a magnetic strip into the ATM
and enter your personal identification number (PIN), to access your bank account. Some
ATMs have a touch screen; others have special buttons or keypads for entering input
(commands).
Intellectual terminal
It has a memory and a processor so that it can perform some function independent of the host computer.

BIOMETRICS INPUT DEVICES

Biometrics is the technology that can be used to authenticate a person's identity by verifying personal
characteristics.
Biometric devices are input devices that translate a personal characteristic into a digital code that is
compared with a digital code stored in the computer to deny or allow access to the individual.
Examples of biometric devices;
 A fingerprint scanner  A signature verification system
 A face recognition system  An iris recognition system
 A voice verification system
A fingerprint scanner;
A fingerprint scanner is a device that captures curves and indentations of a finger print, where the customer's finger
print is linked to a payment method such as a checking account or credit card.
A face recognition system;

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
It is a device that captures one’s face image and compares it with a stored image to determine if the person is a
legitimate user, then allow or deny access.

A voice verification system;

A voice verification system is an input device that compares a person's live speech with the one stored for access or
denial.
A signature verification system;
A signature verification system recognizes the shape of your handwritten signature, and measures the pressure
exerted and the motion used to write the signature. Signature verification system uses a specialized pen and tablet.

An iris recognition system;

This is a device highly used in security areas. The camera in an iris recognition system uses iris recognition
technology to read patterns in the iris of the eye.

Advantages of biometric systems:

 Improved security
 Improved customer experience
 Cannot be forgotten or lost
 Reduced operational costs

Disadvantages of biometric systems:

 Environment and usage can affect measurements

 Systems are not 100% accurate.
 Require integration and/or additional hardware
 Cannot be reset once compromised

REMOTE CONTROL; A remote control (RC) is a small hand-held electronic device used for controlling devices,
such as a television, radio or audio/video recording etc. Remote controls commonly operate via infrared
signals. Remote control is an input device that emits a beam of infrared light, which carries data signals to allow
control of a device from a short distance.

Sensor and Remote sensor

A sensor is electronic device which is used to record the present or changes in something for instance the heat sensor,
light sensor, motion sensor etc.
There are two types of remote sensing instruments (sensors);
Active sensors provide their own source of energy to illuminate the objects they observe.
Passive sensors, on the other hand, detect natural energy (radiation) that is emitted or reflected by the object or scene
being observed.

STORAGE HARDWARE (DEVICES)

Storage devices (storage media) are hardware components that hold/store data, instruction, and information. The
purpose of storage devices is to store data entered before and the results after processing.

Terminologies used in storage

1. A Storage medium is the physical material on which a computer keeps data.
2. A Storage Device reads and writes data to and from a storage medium.
3. Reading is the process in which a storage device transfers data from a storage medium into memory.
4. Writing is the process in which a storage device transfers data from memory to a storage medium (saving).
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
5. Access time, is the amount of time it takes a storage device to locate an item on a storage medium.
6. Transfer rate is the speed with which data, instructions, and information move to and from a storage device.
Transfer rates for storage are stated in KBps (kilobytes per second).
7. Storage Capacity is the total amount of data or information a storage medium can hold.

8. Data and information access. This the method in which Data and information is accessed, either sequential
or random-access.

Sequential Access: In this, data can be accessed sequentially that is one by one from its location.

Random Access: In this type of access, the data can be accessed directly from its location.This type of access
provides fast access of data.

Types of storage devices

There are two types of storage devices commonly used for storing data, instruction and information;
1. Primary storage devices
2. Secondary storage devices
Primary storage devices are also known as internal memory or main memory. They are devices which store data and
instructions temporarily for immediate access and use by the computer‘s microprocessor.
Memory refers to the area or space in the computer where programs and data reside during computer operations.
Memory stores three basic categories of items:
1. The operating system and other system software that control or maintain the computer and its devices; 2.
Application programs that carry out a specific task such as word processing;
3 The data being processed by the application programs and resulting information.
TYPES OF COMPUTER MEMORY
 Volatile memory
 Non – volatile memory
Volatile Memory
This is the type of memory where the contents or information within the memory are lost when the computer power is
turned off.Eg Random Access Memory (RAM).
It is also called Primary memory or Main memory.
Random Access Memory (RAM) is in form of chips that are mounted on the motherboard via slots.
Characteristics of RAM
 It is a temporary memory.
 The user can read from it and write to it.
 It loses its contents when power goes off (i.e. it is volatile)
 It can be increased.
Functions of RAM
 To store data and instructions awaiting processing
 It stores the intermediate results of computers work before they are communicated to the output device.
 It stores instructions which are being obeyed by the computer from an input device.
Basic Types of RAM
 SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory)
 DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) must be refreshed (or recharged) constantly by the CPU.
 SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) is faster and more reliable than any form of DRAM. The term static
refers to the fact that it does not have to be re-energized as often as DRAM.
 Magneto resistive RAM (MRAM), stores data using magnetic charges instead of electrical charges.
 MRAM has greater storage capacity, consumes less power, and has faster access times.
 Virtual RAM (VRAM): Modern operating systems can use spare storage space on the hard disk as if it is
working memory and this is referred to as Virtual memory or Virtual RAM
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
Other terms related to RAM
Cache memory
Cache memory refers to the memory where frequently used data and instructions are temporarily held for immediate
access and use by the computer’s microprocessor.
Virtual memory;
Virtual memory is a type of memory allocated by the operating system as part of hard disk to function as additional
RAM.
A buffer;
A buffer is an area of memory which holds data and information while waiting to be transferred to output device or
from an input device.
There are two forms of buffer
Input buffer; is used between the input device (the sending device) and the CPU (the receiving device). The role of
the input buffer is to accept data/instructions at the speed of input device, which is comparatively slow, and remits
them at the high speed of the CPU as computer inputs.
Input device Low speed Input buffer High speed CPU

Output buffer; the output buffer is used between the CPU and the output unit. The role of the output buffer is to
accept data and instructions at the high speed of the CPU and remits them at the low speed of the output device, to go
as computer outputs.
High speed Low speed
Input Output buffer Output put
device

N.B: Buffering refers to the process of using the buffer to control the speed of communication between the CPU and
peripheral devices.
Importance of the buffers
 They help the operating system to carefully monitor the contents in memory.
 It helps the operating system to clear these items from memory when they are no longer required by the CPU.
Spooling
Spooling is the process of placing print jobs in a buffer instead of being sent immediately to the printer.
Non – Volatile memory
Non volatile memory is a type of memory where contents within the memory are not lost when power is put off the
computer. Eg. Read Only Memory (ROM).

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

Read-Only Memory (ROM) refers to memory chips storing permanent data and instructions. The items stored in
ROM chips cannot be modified
ROM is a non – volatile, permanent type of memory found in the computer that is to say the contents of this memory
are irremovable and unchangeable.
ROM chips contain permanently written data, instructions, and information recorded by manufactures which are
called firm ware.
Firmware allows the computer user to read and use information, but cannot change anything.
Characteristics of ROM
 The user can read the contents of ROM but can‘t make modifications or write to it.
 It is a permanent memory
 It is a non – volatile memory.
 It cannot be increased.
Types of ROM
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)
It is a kind of ROM can only be programmed once after it has been manufactured. Once the data and instructions are
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
programmed into PROM chip, it cannot be erased or changed.
Electronically Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)
Is a kind of ROM on which instructions can only be erased once and then reprogrammed? Afterwards, the
reprogrammed instructions can never be altered.
Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)
It is a type of memory that enables a user to store information on it as many times as one may desire.
The instructions remain in memory until when one may wish to alter them. It is common in applications such as most
color TVs to store TV settings such as color, contract, brightness, and Mobile phones to store phone numbers etc.
Other terms related to ROM
BIOS (Basic Input / Output System)
It resides in the ROM. It is a sequence of instructions the computer follows to load the operating system and other
files when the computer is turned on.
CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
It is used to store configuration information about the computer. Eg the amount of RAM installed, disk drives,
keyboard, monitor, current date and time e.t.c.
CMOS technology uses a CMOS battery power to retain its information even when the computer is turned off.
Flash Memory
Flash memory is a chip that keeps its memory when the power is shut off. It can be erased electronically and
reprogrammed. Most computers use flash memory to hold their start-up instructions because it allows the computer
easily to update its contents eg; Smartphones, Digital cameras, pagers, PDAs, Automotive devices, portable media
players, etc.
Video memory
Video memory or video RAM (VREAM) chips are used to store display images for the monitor. The amount of video
memory determines how fast images appear and how many colors are available.
Differences between RAM and ROM
RAM ROM
1. Volatile, temporally 1.Non Volatile, permanent
2. Contents lost when power goes off 2. Contents remain when power goes off
3. Read and Write 3. Read Only
4. Can be increased 4. Can’t be Increased
5. Not installed at Factory 5.Installed at Factory
SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES: refer to the storage media designed to retain data, instructions, and
information in a permanent form. These devices are Non -volatile that is to say they save data and remain intact even
if the computer is turned off.
These usually have large storage capacity, and they store data permanently. They can be both internal and external to
the computer. Eg hard disk, compact disk drive and USB storage device etc.
Categories of secondary storage devices
Secondary storage devices are categorized into three groups;
 Magnetic storage devices
 Optical storage devices
 Solid state storage devices
MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES
Magnetic storage devices are storage devices that use a magnetic head to write data to and from a
magnetized medium. Magnetic storage medium can be a plastic tape that is coated with magnetic
particles.
Examples of magnetic storage devices include:
i. Magnetic tape
ii. Floppy disk,
iii. Zip and Jaz disks
iv. Hard disks
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
1. Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape is a magnetically coated ribbon of plastic capable of storing amounts of data and information. Tape
storage requires sequential access, i.e. data must be accessed in the order in which it is stored.

Advantages of magnetic tapes

 Magnetic tape cartridge can store large amounts of data and information up to 1 Terabyte.
 Data collection can go on without interruption overnight or for an entire weekend.
 Magnetic tape can be recorded over and reused repeatedly.
 Magnetic tape is inexpensive and budget friendly.
 Its storage is large than that of floppy disks.
 It is light and portable
Disadvantages of magnetic tapes

 If the data is stored near a strong magnetic field or a large speaker, the tape can be damaged.
 Magnetic tape has a lifespan of 15 years. Data quality gradually erodes over time.
 It is necessary to keep older tape equipment just to be able to read the stored data.
 Data access is only sequential which is time wasting. That is Random data access is not possible
2. Floppy disks (diskettes)
A floppy disk is a portable in expensive storage medium that consist of a thin, circular, flexible plastic disk with a
magnetic coating enclosed in a square – shaped plastic shell.

NB: Formatting. Formatting is the process of preparing a disk for reading and writing by organizing the disk into
storage locations called tracks and sectors.
Care for floppy diskettes
- Avoid touching the disk surface
- Avoid bending them or putting weights on them
- Avoid exposing them to sun or heat and cold
- Keep them in dust free environments
- They should not be exposed to chemicals such as cleaning solvents.
- Keep the diskettes in their jackets.
Advantages of floppy disks
 They are portable
 They are cheap
 Data on a floppy disk can be accessed randomly
 Data on a floppy disk can be writing – protected from being changed accidently.
 They can be used to transfer data from one computer to another.
Disadvantages of floppy disks
 They provide less storage capacity of 1.44MB (about 500 double-space pages of text, several
digital photographs, or a small audio file) compared to the hard disks.
 They are not durable
 They can easily be damaged by magnetic fields
 They operate at a low speed
 Can easily be lost or misplace because of their size.
 They can easily infect machines with viruses.
3. Zip drive
The Zip drive is a medium-capacity removable disk storage system with capacities of 100 MB to 750 MB. Their

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
capacity is bigger than that of floppy disks.Data access is random /direct.

Hard disk (Fixed disk/Hard drive)

This is a metallic magnetic secondary storage device that consists of one or more platters to which data is written
using a magnetic head, all inside of an air-sealed casing.
Types of Hard Disk
Internal hard disk is a type of hard disk fixed in the system unit and usually stores the operating system required for
the computer to work.
External hard disk is a separate free-standing hard disk that connects with a cable to a USB port or FireWire port.

Parts of a Hard Disk

Platter: It is the area where information is written to the disk. It spins constantly as it continues to add important data
to the computer hard disk
Spindle: It helps to hold the platter in order to enable it to rotate/spin at the necessary speed
Head: It is a form of magnet that helps in recording information to the hard disk drive.
Actuator: Its use is to read and record information continuously.
Actuator arm: it allows the head to move back and forth across the disk drive as it records information.
Actuator Axis: It allows the actuator arm to move back and forth easily.
Jumper block: Allows a cable to be connected to the power supply of the computer and to the mother board of a
computer system.
Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) connector: Allows a cable to run from the hard disk drive to the motherboard of
the computer system.
Power connector: It provides power from the power supply
Advantages of hard disks
 They provide a greater storage capacity
 They are speedy i.e. the time of data access is very fast and convenient
 They are cheaper than floppy disks per megabyte.
 They are more reliable than floppy disks.
 There are fewer chances of being misplaced because they reside inside the
system unit
 The life of hard disks is quite long once in use.
Disadvantages of hard disks
 They are bulky (not portable)
 They are susceptible to virus attacks especially in unprotected systems.
 Since they are metallic, they expand and contract depending on the temperature changes which may
lead to data loss.
 May easily fail due to violent shaking(vibration)
Optical storage devices
Optical storage is any storage method in which data is written and read using a beam of laser light. The
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reflected light is converted into a series of bits that the computer can process.
Optical discs (devices) are flat, round, portable storage medium made of plastic that is written and read by a laser.
In optical technology,a laser hits a layer of metallic material spread over the surface of a disk. When
data is being entered, heat from the laser produces tiny spots on the disk surface. To read the data, the
laser scans the disk, and a lens picks up different light reflections from the various spots.
CATEGORIES OF OPTICAL DISCS
Optical discs are categorized into three general categories;
 Compact disks (CDs)
 Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs)
 Blue-ray disks
Notice: DVDs have much greater storage capacity than CDs.
Compact disks (CDs)
Compact disks are flat, round, portable, storage medium usually with a diameter of 12cm.
Characteristics of compact disks
 They store items by using microscopic pits and land that are in the middle layer of the disk.
 Data access is random /direct.
 They have very fast access time.
 Data transfer rate is very high.
 The contents of standard CDs are written by the manufacturer and only can be read and used.
 A typical CD holds from 650 MB to 1GB of data,
Advantages of compact disks
 More portable than a hard disk
 Has relatively large storage (650-700MB) than diskettes
 They are easy to store
 They have a very fast access speed.
 They are not easily attacked by viruses
Disadvantages of compact disks
 Any single scratch or breakage on a CD can render the whole CD useless.
 Most CDs are read only.
Care for compact disks
 Always store the CD in its jacket (jewel box) when not in use.
 Always hold a compact disk by its edges.
 Never touch the underside of the CD
 Never stack disks on top of each other
 Never expose CDs to excessive heat or sunlight.

TYPES OF COMPACT DISKS

 CD –ROM
 CD –R
 CD –RW
 Photo CD
CD – ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory)
Compact Disk - Read Only Memory is a type of optical disc that users can read but not write or erase-hence, the name
read-only. The contents of standard CD-ROMs are written or recorded by the manufacturer and can only be read and
used. Contents of a CD – ROM can‘t be modified.
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
CD – R (Compact Disk -Recordable)
CD-R (compact disc-recordable) is a multisession optical disc which allows you to write on part of the disc at one
time and another part at a later time. However, you cannot erase the disc's contents.
CD – RW (Compact Disk -Rewritable)
Compact Disk -Rewritable is an erasable compact disk that can be written on multiple times
Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs)
Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs are flat, round, portable, storage medium usually with a diameter of 12cm and with
high capacity storage of about 4.7GB.
Types of Digital Video/ Versatile Discs (DVDs);
 DVD –ROM
 DVD –R
 DVD +RW
 DVD-RAM

Digital versatile Disc-Read only memory (DVD-ROM) is an extremely high capacity compact disc capable of storing
about 4.7 GB. In order to read a DVD-ROM, you must have a DVD-ROM drive, which can also read CD ROMs.
DVD – R (Digital Versatile Disk -Recordable)
Digital Versatile Disk -Recordable is a DVD which can be written once and read for many times.
DVD – RW (Digital Versatile Disk -Rewritable)
Digital Video Disk -Rewritable DVD which can be erased, written and read multiple times.
Blue-raydisks Blue-Ray disks are a recent replacement for DVDs. A Blue-Ray disc can hold 25 - 50GB of data (a
dual-layer. Blue-Ray discs are random-access devices.
They are used in the same way as DVD-ROMs but, since they can hold more data, they are also used to store very
high-quality, high-definition (HD) video.

The 'Blue' part of Blue-Ray refers to the fact that the laser used to read the disc uses blue light instead of red light.
Blue light has a shorter wave-length than red light (used with CDs and DVDs).
Using a blue laser allows more data to be placed closer together on a Blue-Ray disc, than on a DVD
Solid State Storage Devices (SSD)
Solid state storage devices are non-volatile computer storage devices made from silicon microchips used to
store digital information electronically without any moving or mechanical parts.
Characteristics of solid state storage devices
 They have no mechanical or moving parts
 They are non- volatile devices
 They operate much faster than traditional electromechanical storage devices
 They consume less power and are more resilient under physical shock.
 They are very expensive
 They are built on flash memory architecture
 They provide a temporary storage solution for portable information.
 Solid State devices provide a quick, easy, and accessible way to gather, add, and temporarily store
genealogical information until it may be organized and stored in more permanent formats.
There are three forms of solid state storage
 Solid state drives
 Solid state cards
 Solid state modules
Solid state drives
A solid state drive is a type of mass storage device similar to a hard disk drive (HDD).. Internal SSDs are connected
to a computer like a hard drive, using standard IDE or SATA connections.

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
Instead of storing data on magnetic platters, SSDs store data using flash memory and they do not have any moving
parts.

The most commonly used solid state drive is USB flash memory/Flash disk.

Solid state cards

Solid state cards are non-volatile cards without moving or mechanical parts that supports reading and writing data and
maintains stored data in a permanent state even without power.
Examples of solid state cards are;
 A punch card
 Flash memory card
 Smart card
A punched
A punched card also known as IBM card or Hollerith card is a piece of stiff paper that contains digital information
represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions.

Flash memory cards

Flash memory cards are tiny solid-state devices with no moving parts capable of retaining data without power.

A smart card
A smart card is similar in size to a credit card. It stores data on a thin microprocessor embedded in the card.. When
the smart card is inserted into a specialized card reader, the information on the smart card is read
and, if necessary, updated.
Solid state modules
Solid state modules are solid state storage that resides in a Dual In-line Memory Module (DIMM). Solid state
modules devices are normally used in mobile devices.

Example of solid state modules include;

 Photographic film

Photographic film
Photographic film is a sheet of plastic such as polyester coated with a light sensitive emulsion that is used to record
and store photographs.

Difference between primary storage and secondary storage

Primary storage Secondary storage
Memory is directly connected t and accessed by Memory not connected to CPU
CPU

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

Memory is volatile Memory is non volatile

RAM is directly installed onto a motherboard Hard disk drive is connected to the motherboard by a cable
There is direct access by the CPU There is indirect access by the CPU
Data access is faster Data access is slower
Used for processing data Used for storing data
They are small in size They are lager is size

Units of Measuring Computer Memory

The smallest unit of measuring Computer Memory is a Binary digit (Bit). Binary digits are the numbers 1 and 0
which can be represented in a computer by switching voltage on and off.
Eight little bits make one BYTE.
Bit;
A bit is the smallest unit of measurement of computer memory. Each 0 or1 is called a―Bit
Nibble
A nibble is a group of four (4) binary digits
Byte;
A byte is a group of eight binary digits. It is the basic unit for measuring computer’s memory.
A kilo byte (KB);
10
A kilo byte is a group of 1000 bytes (or exactly 2 or 1024bytes)
Megabyte (MB);
20
A megabyte is a group of 1,000,000 bytes (or exactly 2 bytes)
Giga byte (GB);
30
A Giga byte is a group of 1,000,000,000 bytes (or exactly 2 bytes)
Terabyte (TB);
40
A Terabyte is a group of one trillion bytes (2 bytes)
Converting from binary to decimal

E.g.: Covert 1011 binary to Decimal

Soln: 1011 binary = 1x23 + 0x22 +1x21 +1x20
= 8+0+2+1
= 11
Converting from decimal to binary
Divide the decimal number by 2; and record the remainder. If the quotation is zero, the conversion is complete.
Otherwise repeat step (a) using the quotation as the decimal number. The new remainder is the next most significant
bit of the binary number. E.G.: Convert 11 decimal to binary

2 11 1
2 5 1
2 2 0
2 1 1
0 0 0
=1011
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

PROCESSING DEVICES
Central Processing Unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU) therefore, means an electronic device that interprets and carries out the basic
instructions that tell the computer how to work. The CPU in other words controls and coordinates the activities of all
the other components of the computer system and performs all the arithmetic and logical operations to be applied to
the data.

Types of central processing unit (processors)

 Pentium Pro  Core 2 quad
 Pentium II  Celeron M
 Pentium III  AMD Dual core
 Intel Core  Intel Pentium Dual core
 Intel core 2
Parts of central processing unit
The CPU is made up of three main components/parts;
1) Control unit
2) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
3) Registers (Memory)

CONTROL UNIT
The control unit is a group of electronic circuitry that has the overall function of directing and controlling and
coordinating most of the operations within the central processing unit.
It extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them. In fact, it regulates the flow of information
through the processor. In short, it can be said, this component receives, decodes, stores results and manages execution
of data that flows through the CPU. Its communication with both arithmetic unit and memory is inevitable.
Functions of the control unit;
 Interpreting each instruction issued by program and then initiating the appropriate action to carry out the
instruction.
 Directing data from storage to memory.
 Sending data required for mathematical operations from the memory to the ALU.
 Sending the data processed to the printer or a storage device.
 Erasing/deleting/rubbing data from memory when instructed to do so.
 Storing results in the CPU memory.

Machine cycle
A machine cycle is a series of operations performed to execute a single program instruction. For every instruction, the
control unit repeats a set of four basic steps that s. These four basic steps include;

1. Fetching
2. Decoding
3. Executing
4. Storage

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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.

Step 1: Fetching. The control unit obtains /gets/fetches instruction to be executed from memory (RAM).
Step 2: Decoding which means to interpret and understand the meaning of given information. The control unit after
receiving instruction, it interprets/translates instruction into commands the computer understand.
Step 3: Executing. Carrying out commands by the given control and performing the actual operation on the data such
as arithmetic computation and logical comparison by ALU.
Step 4: Storage. Storing results into registers or memory
Notice: The first two steps are called instruction time (I-time), and the last two steps are called execution time (E-
time)

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)is a part of CPU that executes all arithmetic and logical operations. Its function is to
perform arithmetic calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division as well as comparisons.

Program registers (Memory Unit)

Register is a part of CPU that acts as internal store used to store data within the CPU while being processed.
Register is a temporary storage area within the CPU which is responsible for holding data and instruction to speed up
processing.
Types of registers and their roles
1. Instruction register, which contains the instruction being executed;
2. Address register, which keeps track of where a given instruction or piece of data is stored in memory.
3. Storage register, which temporarily holds data taken from or about to be sent to memory (RAM).
4. Accumulator, which collects the result of computations before being sent to the output device.
5. General-purpose register, which is used for several functions, such as arithmetic operations.
Other processing devices inside a computer are as follows:

 Graphics card/Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)

 Sound card

Graphical Processing Unit (GPU)

GPU is solely dedicated to processing data destined to be displayed on the user's screen

OUTPUT DEVICES

Output is data that has been processed into a useful form called information. Output can be in a form of text, graphic,
audio, and video.

Text consists of characters (letters, numbers, punctuation marks, or any other symbol requiring one byte of computer
storage space) that are used to create words, sentences, and paragraphs.

Graphics are digital representations of non-text information such as drawings, charts, photographs, and animation (a
series of still images in rapid sequence that gives the illusion of motion).

Audio is music, speech, or any other sound.

Video consists of images played back at speeds to provide the appearance of full motion.

Output from a computer can either be is a hardcopy form or a softcopy form.

Hardcopy
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A hardcopy is permanent information from a computer printed on materials such as papers, cloth, etc.
Advantages of a hardcopy
 It cannot easily be changed without trace.
 It can be read off-line without a computer.
 It doesn‘t require computer devices in order to read the output hence becoming cheap.
 Hardcopies last longer if stored in a safe place compared to a softcopy which must all the time be changed
with the technological developments taking place.
 Hardcopies cannot be attacked by viruses as the case with the softcopy.
Disadvantages of a hard copy
 It Is Expensive.
 It Is Difficult to Store.
 Other Users Can Make Copies of the Hard Copy.
 It Is Not Environmentally Friendly

Soft copy
A soft copy is the unprinted digital document file. It can be viewed by appropriate editing programs like word
processor, data base, presentation software, etc.
Advantages of soft copy
 They are not presented physically
 They are easy to store on the computer hard drive
 They are easy to share or transfer electronically.
 They can easily be converted into a hard copy.
 They are less costly to produce
Disadvantaged of soft copy
 Information can easily be manipulated.
 It requires computer devices in order to read the output.
 Softcopy can easily be attacked by viruses.
Output devices are devices used to bring out information from the computer and present it in a suitable form to the
user.
Examples of output devices;
 Display devices  Earphones  Interactive whiteboard
 Printers  Fax machines  Terminals
 Speakers  Multifunction peripherals  3D-spectacles
 Headsets  Data projectors

DISPLAY DEVICES
Display devices also known as Visual Display Units (VDUs)are output devices that visually convey text, graphics,
and video information to the user. Information’s shown on a display device are known as soft copy.
Examples of display devices include;
 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors
 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors.
 Plasma monitors
 Data projector
 Head mounted display /A head gear
 Light emitting diode (LED)
Liquid Crystal display (LCD monitor)
A liquid crystal display (LCD) monitor is a computer flat panel screen that uses LCD technology to show clear
images.
They are available in a variety of sizes.
Advantages of LCD Monitors

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 They require little power.
 They take up less desk space than CRT.
 They emit very little radiation.
 They are portable than CRTs
Disadvantages of LCD Monitors
 They are very expensive than CRT monitors
 They can only be viewed from a very narrow angle.
 LCD color output is usually slow and poor
Factors that affects the quality of an LCD monitor
i) Resolution
ii) Response time,
iii) Brightness,
iv) Dot pitch,
v) Contrast ratio.
i) Resolution is the number of horizontal and vertical pixels in a display device. A pixel is a single point in an
electronic image.
A higher resolution uses a greater number of pixels and thus provides a smoother, sharper, and clearer image.
ii) Response time of an LCD monitor or screen is the time in milliseconds (ms) that is takes to turn a pixel on or
off.
iii) Brightness of an LCD monitor or screen is measured in units.
A nit is a unit of visible light intensity equal to one candela (formerly called candlepower) per square meter.
The candela is the standard unit of luminous intensity.
iv) Dot pitch, sometimes called pixel pitch, is the distance in millimeters between pixels on a display device.
v) Contrast ratio describes the difference in light intensity between the brightest white and darkest black that
can be displayed on an LCD monitor.
A Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors
A CRT (cathode ray tube) monitor is a desktop screen that contains a large sealed glass cathode-ray tube. Inside the
CRT, an electron beam moves back and forth causing dots on the front of the screen to glow, producing an image on
the screen. Each dot consists of a red, a green, and a blue phosphor, which combine to make up a pixel.
Advantages of CRT monitors
 Can produce a rich color output (very deep colors).
 Can be viewed from a very wide angle.
 They are cheaper than the LCD.
 They are more durable than the LCD.
Disadvantages of CRT monitors

 They are not as bright as LCDs. Not suitable for very brightly lit environments.

 There are not portable since they are heavy, and bulky.

 CRTs give off electromagnetic fields that pose a health hazard

 They consume a lot of electricity and produce a lot of heat.

A plasma monitor
This is a display device that uses gas plasma technology, which sandwiches a layer of gas between two glass plates.
When a voltage is applied, the gas releases ultra violet (UV) light. This UV light causes the pixels on the screen to
glow and form an image.
Advantages of plasma monitors
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1. They can be mounted on the wall
2. They are less bulky.
3. They produce deep blacks allowing for superior contrast ratio
4. They have a wider viewing angle than those of LCD
5. They are less susceptible to reflection glare in bright rooms
6. Have a richer color display than LCD monitors
Disadvantages of plasma monitor
1. Susceptible to screen burn-in and image retention
2. Generally, do not come in smaller sizes than 32 inches.
3. Heavier than LCD due to the requirement of a glass screen to hold the gases
4. Use more electricity than an LCD TV.
5. Do not work well at high altitudes due to pressure differential between the gases inside the screen and the air
pressure outside.
6. They are more expensive.
Data projectors
A data projector is an output device that can take small image generated by a computer and reproduce a
bigger image onto a screen, wall, or other surface for the audience to see clearly. There are three types of
data projectors;
 A liquid crystal display (LCD) projector
 A digital light processing (DLP) projector
 Cathode ray Tube projector
Applications of data projector today
 Project a PowerPoint presentation at a business meeting.
 Project a computer screen to teach a class in school.
 Project a TV or computer with a movie playing to a large screen.
 Demonstrate a product or service at a convention center.
 Transform a wall, house, or other object to give it a different appearance.
Head mounted display (HMD) / headgear
A headgear is made up of two tiny display and sound systems that channel images and sound from the source to the
eyes and ears, thus presenting a stereo three dimensional sound effect in the virtual world.

Light Emitting Diode (LED) displays

Light emitting diode is a flat panel electronic device that emits light when an electrical current is passed through it.

LEDs are commonly used for indicator lights (such as power on/off lights) on electronic devices. They also have
several other applications, including electronic signs, clock displays, and flashlights

Advantages of display devices (Visual Display Unit)

 Their time to display the image is fast.

 Their screen displays can include text, graphics and colors.
 Display devices are usually quiet.
 No paper is wasted for obtaining the output.
Disadvantages of display devices (Visual Display Unit)
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 Information produced on the screen is only temporary and will be lost when the power of the device
is off.
 Un suitable for users with display problems
 Needs a separate device (Such as a printer) to produce the hardcopy
PRINTERS
A printer is an output device that converts softcopy on a computer or other device into a hard copy. A hard copy can
be produced on a sheet of paper. Plastic, cloth, etc.

CATEGORIES OF PRINTERS;
Printers are categorized into two groups; Impact printers & Non-impact printers.

PRINTERS NON-IMPACT PRINTERS

IMPACT PRINTERS

 Inkjet printers
 Character printers
 Line printers  Photo printers
 Dot matrix printers
 Page printers
 Laser jet printers
 Daisy wheel printers  Label printers
 Braille printer
Impact Printers  Plotters
 Mobile printers
 Thermal printers

These are printers that produce a hard copy output by the print heads physically touching the print media.
Impact printersform characters and graphics on a piece of paper by striking a mechanism against an ink
ribbon that physically makes contact with the paper.
Examples of impact printers include;
 Character printers
 Line printers (High speed printers)
 Dot matrix printers
 Page printers
 Daisy wheel printers
 Braille printers
Character printers

Character printers are types of printers that print one character at a time instead of one line at a time.

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Line printers

A line printer is an impact printer that prints one line of text at a time or entire line of text at once from one end of a
paper to the other end

Dot Matrix Printers

Dot matrix printers are types of printers that produces characters by striking pins against an ink ribbon like in a type
writer to print closely spaced dots in the appropriate shape. Dot-matrix printers are relatively expensive and do not
produce high-quality output

Page printers
Page
Printeris aprinter which processes and prints a whole page at a time, as opposed to printers which print one line or
character at a time. They are much faster than all other printers.

Daisywheel printer

Daisy wheel printers are printers consisting of a wheel and attached extension on which molded metal characters are
mounted. When it is printing the wheel rotates until the right character is facing the paper.

Braille printers
Braille printers are impact printers that create tactile dots on heavy paper, making written documents accessible to
blind individuals. They press dots down onto a piece of paper to let a person using the Braille system read by using
their fingers.

Braille printers Braille paper

Advantages of impact printers
 They are easy to maintain (can withstand dusty environments, vibrations and high temperatures)
 They are more flexible and inexpensive.
 They print various styles and heavy graphics.
 They have a longer life span. Can print over 100 million characters in their lifespan.
Disadvantages of impact printers
 They are noisy during operation.
 They tend to overheat up especially during long printouts.

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 They have a lower print resolution compared to non – impact printers.

 Their printing speed is too low.
 They require special form of paper.
NON – IMPACT PRINTERS;
These are printers that produce characters and graphics on a piece of paper without the print heads physically
touching the printing surface.
Examples of non-impact printers include;
 Inkjet printers
 Photo printers
 Laser jet printers
 Label printers
 Plotters
 Mobile printers
 Thermal printers
Inkjet printers

Inkjet printers are printers that recreate digital image by propelling droplets of ink onto paper, plastic, or other
material.

In the inkjet printing mechanism, the print head has several tiny nozzles, also called jets. As the paper moves past the
print head, the nozzles spray ink onto it, forming the characters and images.
Cartridge
A cartridge is physical object in a protective plastic shell that contains ink or powder substances that is inserted into a
printer, allowing it to print. A compatible toner cartridge is one that is specially designed to work with a particular
brand and model of printer.

Photo printers
Photo printers are color printers that produce photo-lab-quality pictures. Some photo printers print just one or two
sizes of images.

LaserJet printers
LaserJet printers are high-speed and quality nonimpact printer that uses photocopier technology.
How LaserJet printer’s works
 When a document is sent to the printer, a laser beam "draws" the document on a selenium-coated drum using
electrical charges.
 After the drum is charged, it is rolled in toner, a dry black powder type of ink.
 The toner adheres to the charged image on the drum.
 The toner is transferred onto a piece of paper and fused to the paper with heat and pressure. After the
document is printed, the electrical charge is removed from the drum and the excess toner is collected.

Advantages of LaserJet printers

 Are generally quiet and fast.
 Can produce high quality output on ordinary papers.

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 Cost per page of toner cartridges is lower for than for other printers.
Disadvantages of LaserJet printers
 The initial cost of LaserJet printers can be high.

A label printer
These are small printers that print on an adhesive (sticky) type of materials that can be placed on a
variety of items such as envelopes, packages, DVDs, photographs, file folders, and toys. Most label
printers also print bar codes. Label printers are different from ordinary printers because they need to
have special feed mechanisms to handle rolled stock, or tear sheet (fanfold) stock

Plotters
Plotters are output device that is used to produce high quality wide graphics in a variety of colors.
Plotters are used to create maps, architectural drawings, graphs and charts.

These printers typically can handle paper with widths up to 98 inches.

Advantages of plotters
 Plotters can work on very large sheets of paper while maintaining high resolution.
 They can print on a wide variety of flat materials including plywood, aluminum, sheet steel, cardboard, and
plastic.
 Plotters allow the same pattern to be drawn thousands of times without any image degradation.

Disadvantages of plotters
 Plotters are quite large when compared to a traditional printer.
 Plotters are also much more expensive than a traditional printer.
A mobile printer
This is a small, battery-powered printer that allows a mobile user to print from a computer, Tablet PC,
PDA, smart phone or other mobile device while traveling.

Thermal printers
Thermal printers are non-impact printers generate images by pushing heated pins against a coated heat-sensitive
paper. The coating turns black in the areas where it is heated, producing an image. e.g. ATM receipt printers.

Advantages of Thermal printers

 They are inexpensive.
 They are nearly noiseless
 They consume very little power compared to other printers
 They don‘t experience inconveniences like paper jams or blocked nozzles.
 They can produce clear and crisp images with very high resolutions.
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Disadvantages of Thermal printers
 Needs a special temperature sensitive paper which may be expensive.
 Over heats during printing.
 The papers have limited shelf lives. They are easily damaged by sunlight, humidity and chemical
vapors.
 The papers have to be specially prepared before they can be used in printing
 Their print heads cannot be serviced or repaired even if a single dot heater fails.
 The print speed is so slow because the heads have to be allowed time to cool before the next printing
cycle.
 The print heads also have a short life span than for the other printers.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IMPACT AND NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
Impact Printers Non-impact Printers

1. They print characters or images by striking 1. They print characters and images without
print hammer or wheel against an inked ribbon. striking the papers.

2. Their speed is slower. 2. Their speed is faster.

3. Their printing quality is lower. 3. Their printing quality is higher.

4. They normally uses continuous paper sheet. 4. They normally uses individual paper sheet.

5. They generate lot noise during printing. 5. They generate no noise during printing.

6. They use inked ribbon for printing. 6. They use toner or cartridge for painting.

7. They are less expensive. 7. They more expensive.

8.Print heads are reliable, durable i.e. can last for 8.Print heads are less durable
a long time

9.They print limited colors 9.They are capable of printing strong clear colors

10.They are not commonly used today 10.They are commonly used today
The difference between screen output and print output
Screen output Print output
Displays soft copy output Prints hard copy output
The output is temporarily incase power goes off The output is permanent i.e. It can be maintained
for future reference
The output is silent Produces a lot of noise when outputting especially
impact printers
Different styles of print e.g. italics, and color A styled print is only possible with the advanced
displays possible. models having the color capabilities.
It is very fast Comparatively slow

Factors to consider when selecting/ buying a printer

1. The initial price and the subsequent coast of maintenance
2. The coast of consumable items like paper quality, cartridges it uses, ribbons etc.
3. Volume of printing expected that helps on the selection of the printer speed range of the computer.
4. The nature of report and print quality the printer can offer.
5. Range of viability for selected printer like multiple copy facility, print styles, page width etc.
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6. The type of the manufacturer should also be considered.
Speakers
Speakers are output hardware devices that connects to a computer to generate sound. The signal used to produce the
sound that comes from a computer speaker is created by the computer's sound card.

Most personal computers have a small internal speaker that usually outputs only low-quality sound.
Headsets
Headsets are hardware devices that connect to a telephone or computer that allow the user to talk and listen while
keeping their hands free.

Ear phones /Headphones;

Earphone is an electrical device worn on the ear to receive radio or telephone communications or to listen to a radio,
MP3 player, etc.

Fax (facsimile) machine

A fax machine is a device that transmits and receives typed or hand written documents over telephone lines. A stand
alone fax machine scans the original document, converts the image into digitized data, and transmits the digitized
image.

Multifunction peripheral (MFP)

A multifunction peripheral (MFP) is a single device that performs a variety of functions such as
printing, copying and scanning that would otherwise be carried out by separate peripheral devices.

Data projectors
A data projector is an output device that can take images generated by a computer and reproduce them onto
a screen, wall, or other surface so that an audience of people can see the image clearly. For example, you
could use a projector to show a presentation on a large screen so that everyone in the room can see it.

There are three types of data projectors;

 A liquid crystal display (LCD) projector
 A digital light processing (DLP) projector
 Cathode ray Tube projector
Applications of data projector today
 Project a PowerPoint presentation at a business meeting.
 Project a computer screen to teach a class in school.
 Project a TV or computer with a movie playing to a large screen.
 Demonstrate a product or service at a convention center.
 Transform a wall, house, or other object to give it a different appearance.
Interactive whiteboard (IWB)
Interactive whiteboard (smart board) is an instructional device that allows computer images to be displayed onto a
board using a digital projector. The instructor can then manipulate the elements on the board by using his finger as a

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mouse, directly on the screen. Items can be dragged, clicked and copied and the lecturer can handwrite notes, which
can be transformed into text and saved.

Terminal output devices

Are electronic or electromechanical hardware device that are used for entering data into, and displaying or printing
data from, a computer or a computing system.

Spectacles
These are common in modern computer games especially on fights. The user wears the glasses like ordinary sun
glasses except that here, instead of seeing through the glasses, one will be treated with high quality three –
dimensional pictures. It is similar to being in a cinema hall.

COMMUNICATION DEVICES
Communication device are devices that connects the communications channel to a sending device by converting the
data from the sending device into signals that can be carried by a communications channel
Example of communication devices;
 Modem  Cables
 Router  Bridge
 Hub  Repeater
 Switch  Network interface card
 Gateway  Multiplexer
Modem
A modem is a communication device that converts between analog and digital signals
Router
Router is an intelligent communications device that sends communications traffic to the appropriate network
using the fastest available path

Hub/concentrator
A hub is a device that connects multiple devices to the network so that they can send and receive signals along the
network. It serves as a central connection point for cables from computers, servers and peripherals on the network.

Switch
A switch is a high-speed device that keeps track of which hardware addresses are located on which network segment.
It maps the internet protocol (IP) address with the Media Access Control (MAC) address of the LAN card.

Gateway

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A gateway is a communication device that consist of a combination of hardware and software that connects
networks that use different protocols technologies by performing the required protocol conversions

Cables
Cables(cords) refer to two or more wires that allows the transmission of power or data between devices.
They are insulated wires having a protective casing and used for transmitting electricity or telecommunication
signals.
There are two main types of computer cables;
Data cables are cables that provide communication between devices.
Power cables are any cables that powers the devices
Bridge
A bridge is a device that links two local area networks that use the same address method or protocol. It accepts all
packets from each network addressed to devices on the other, buffers them, and retransmits them to the other
network.

Repeaters
A repeater is a communication device that accepts a signal from a transmission medium, amplifies it, and retransmits
it over the medium in order to overcome attenuation.
N.B Attenuation is the process by which signals undergo reduction in its strength as it travels over long
distances.
Network interface cards (NIC) or LAN Adapter
A network interface card is communication device or an expansion card that enables a computer and other devices to
connect to a network.

Multiplexer
Multiplexer is a communications device that combines two or more input signals from various devices into a single
stream of data and then transmits it over a single transmission medium.

TOPIC 5:
COMPUTER SOFTWARE:
Computer software is a program that consists of step by step instructions that tell the computer how to perform a
given task. Software consists of computer programs that control the working of the computer hardware.
A program; A computer program is a sequence of instructions, written to perform a specified task with a computer.
Without software, the computer hardware cannot do anything.
Characteristics of computer software
 Computer software is intangible
 Computer software gives instructions/procedures to computers
 Computer software is copy righted
 Computer software can be installed
 Computer software is executable
 computer software is loaded into Memory when running
 All software has a source Code written by a programming Language.
Categories of computer software

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Computer software is categorized into two groups;

 System software
 Application software
SYSTEMS SOFTWARE
These are a set of instructions that control the operation of the computer and its devices. It is a collection of software
found in the CPU and ROM (firmware).
Firmware is a small program recorded by the computer manufacturers at the factory on electronic chips mounted on
the computer’s motherboard or any other devices to control the devices. Examples of devices that contain firmware
include remote control, cell phones, digital cameras and ROM chips.
Characteristics of system software
 It is machine dependent.
 It serves as the interface between the users.
 They are written by computer programmers or professional system programmers.
 Some system software resides in ROM (permanently) hence known as firm ware.
 It is usually supplied by the manufacturers of the computer
Types of system software
 Operating system  Programming languages
 Utility software
OPERATING SYSTEM;
Operating system is a set of programs that coordinate the operation of all hardware devices and application software
components of a computer. The operating system relies on device drivers to communicate with each device in the
computer.
A device driver is small program that tells the operating system how to communicate with a device
Examples of operating system
Disk Operating System (DOS): It is a command line operating system that enables the computer to operate.
Windows Operating System: These are operating systems that use icon–based /graphical user interface that
simplifies working on a computer such as Windows95, Windows98, windows 10, windows 8.1, windows 7 etc.
Networking Operating Systems (NOS): These are system software’s that organize and coordinates the activities on
a local area network. They are designed to be used on several computers that exist on a network. They include; Sun
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Solaris, UNIX, Linux, Novell Netware etc.
Tasks that are perform by networking operating system
 Administration of network users
 System maintenance tasks such as backup
 File management tasks
 Prioritizing print jobs on the network
 Monitoring security on network resources
Palm operating system: Is an operating system designed for the hand – held computers (Personal Digital Assistants–
PDAs). An example of palm operating system is Pocket PC2002.
Ubuntu
FUNCTIONS OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM
 Controls the hardware resources like accessing disk drives, printers and keyboard
 It calls into memory programs and instructions when required
 It protect hardware, software and data from improper use e.g. when deleting a file.
 It provides error correcting routines for instance when data is lost during transfer.
 It helps in managing files and memory by allocating items to the area of memory while they are being
processed.
 It Schedules and loads other programs in order to provide a continuous sequence of operation.
 It enable application software to interface with the hardware
 Provides an interface between the user and the application software and the hardware
 It monitors system performance by accessing and reporting information about various system resources and
other devices.
CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEM
Operating systems are categorized based on the followings:
1) The number of tasks an operating system can perform concurrently
2) According to the number of users that can be logged in at a time
3) The human computer interface (HCI) used.
4) According to the processing mode
Classification according to tasks handled
 Single operating system
 Multitasking operating system
 Multithreading operating system
 Multiprocessing operating system
 Multi programming operating system
Single task operating system is a type of operating system that allows processing of only one user program at a
time. This implies that the user can only run one interactive program at a time.
Multitasking operating system is a type of operating system capable of allowing multiple software processes to run
at the same time on one computer (CPU).
Multithreading operating systems is a type of operating system that allows different parts of a software program to
run concurrently. Multi-threading is the ability of a program to manage its use by more than one user at a time and
to manage multiple requests by the same user without having multiple copies of the program running on the
computer.
Multi-processing operating system is a type of operating system capable of supporting and using more than one
computer processor at a time
Multi programming operating system is a type of operating system cable of executing two or more programs on a
multi user operating system.
Classification according to the number of users
Single user operating system is a type of operating system designed to manage the computer so that a single user
can effectively do one task at a time. The Palm OS for Palm handheld computers is a good example of a modern
single-user, single-task operating system.

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Multiuser operating system is a type of operating system that allows multiple users to use the same computer at
the same time.
Classification of OS according to human–computer interface
The user interface is the aggregate of means by which the user interacts with the computer system. A user interface
provides:
 Input, allowing the users to manipulate a system
 Output, allowing the system to indicate the effects of the users' manipulation
Types of computer user interface
 Graphical user interface
 Command line interface
 Touch user interface
 Voice recognition interface
Graphical user interface (GUI) operating systems
A graphical user interface (GUI) is a type of user interface that allows users to interact with programs by
manipulating graphics, along with a keyboard and pointing devices such as a mouse, to provide an easy-to-use
interface to a program.
Advantages of a GUI operating System
 They make computer operation more intuitive, and thus easier to learn and use.
 GUIs generally provide users with immediate, visual feedback about the effect of each action. For example,
when a user deletes an icon representing a file, the icon immediately disappears, confirming that the file has
been deleted.
 GUIs allow users to take full advantage of the powerful multitasking capabilities of modern operating
systems by allowing such multiple programs to be displayed simultaneously.
 GUIs have windows that enable a user easily to view, control, and manipulate multiple things at once.
 GUI is easy to use because of the use of graphics because user simply uses the mouse to choose the
appropriate icons/commands.
 GUI enables a user to create shortcuts, tasks, or other similar actions to complete a task or run a program
Disadvantages of GUI operating System
 GUI requires a lot of system resources (e.g. memory space) because of each of the elements that need to be
loaded such as icons, fonts, etc.
 When it is not properly built, it can be very difficult to work with.
 It requires the installation of additional software, e.g., the "runtime environment" in the case of java.
 It is very slow to download into memory.
 The user choices are restricted to those on the menus
COMMAND-LINE USER INTERFACE (CLI) OS
The command line is a user interface (CLI) that is navigated by typing commands at a command prompt; for
example, the root MS-DOS command line prompt generally is C:\>.CLI can only be navigated by using a keyboard
and entering commands; it does not use a mouse.
This method of instructing a computer to perform a given task is referred to as ‘entering’ a command: the system
waits for the user to conclude the submitting of the text command by pressing the Enter key on the keyboard.
Advantages of command-line user interface
 It does not require a lot of memory resources to run because it is light.
 Users have much more control of their file system and operating system in a command line interface. For
example, users can easily copy a specific file from one location to another with a one-line command.
 It is precise because the user states exactly what he or she wants to do, and the more sophisticated CLIs keep
a record of the commands that have been issued.
Disadvantages of command-line user interface
 Difficult to use by new users because of the memorization and familiarity of commands needed to operate a
command line interface new user find it much more difficult to successfully navigate and operate a command
line interface.
 CLIs cannot show images.
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 It is fast and precise because command line users only need to use their keyboards to navigate a command
line interface and often only need to execute a few lines to perform a task.
Difference between command Line Interface and Graphic User interface
CLI GUI

The user has to know the commands or The commands are much more intuitive
look them up

The commands usually have to be entered Command shortcuts are possible such as
in full <Ctrl> C to copy

The user has to learn the commands and Less learning and training by the user is
more training is needed required

The interface can be daunting, more The GUI is more user-friendly

difficult to use and the user is more likely
to make mistakes

There are no graphics Graphics are used to represent tasks, files

etc.

There are no menus Menus are used for making choices and
selections

The user has complete control The user choices are restricted to those on
the menus

Commands have to be entered accurately Spelling and typing errors are avoided
with the correct spellings and syntax
(rules)

No pointing device is used A pointing device is used to select items

and make choices

TOUCH USER INTERFACE

These are graphical user interface that uses a touch screen display as a combined input and output device
VOICE USER INTERFACES
These are types of user interfaces that accept input and provide output by generating a voice prompt by pressing keys
or buttons or responding verbally to the interface.
Classification of operating System according to processing mode
Processing mode refers to the method of processing that the operating system supports. Examples include;
 Time operating system
 Batch process operating system
 Real-time operating system
 Distributed operating system
 Embedded operating system
Time sharing operating system is method where multiple users with different programs interact at the same time on
a multi-access system. For example, in a learning institution where students and professors are connected to the
central CPU at one time from different terminals

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Batch process operating system is where programs and data are collected together in a batch queue before
processing starts. Batch processing can be used for fairly automatic tasks; for example, weekly or monthly payroll
processing, processing utility bills (water, electricity, etc.) and credit card bills.
Real-time processing operating systems are the type of operating system designed to respond to an event within a
predetermined time. As soon as the data is input, it is processed and output immediately. These types of operating
systems are found in environments where computers are responsible for controlling systems continuously; for
example, robotics, manufacturing, interactive games, airlines and theatre booking systems.
Distributed operating systems are types of operating systems that manage a group of distributed computers.
Distributed computations are carried out on computer networks that work in cooperation.
Embedded operating systems are types of operating systems designed to operate on small machines like PDAs.
They are able to operate with a limited number of resources.
Factors to consider when choosing an operating system
 The Human–computer interface
 The Applications intended for the computer.
 The availability of operating system on the market.
 The basic design of the computer.
 The Hardware provisions of the computer.
 The available of operating systems for all sizes of computers.
 The operating system should be user friendly.
 The cost of the operating system
 Reliability and security provided by the operating system.
 The number of processors and hardware devices it can support.
 The number of users it can support
 The availability of basic utilities and accessory programs within the operating system
INSTALLATION AND UNINSTALLATION OF OPERATING SYSTEM
There are many reasons why you might need to install or reinstall an operating system:
 When you need to upgrade to a more advanced operating system.
 When the existing operating system files have been corrupted and it therefore no longer functions.
 When you need to set up a brand new machine which was supplied without an operating system.
 When you need to perform a recovery on your computer after it has suffered a fatal error (accidental error)
 In case of an irreparable Registry or System file corruption in the existing Windows installation.
Note: Before doing a clean install of an operating system, you will need to back up your data files.
UTILITY PROGRAMS
A Utility program is a type of system software that allows a user to perform maintenance-type tasks, usually related
to managing a computer, its programs and its devices.
Utility programs included with most operating systems provide the following functions:
 Managing and searching for files,
 Viewing images,
 Securing a computer from unauthorized access,
 Uninstalling programs,
 Scanning disks,
 Defragmenting disks,
 Diagnosing problems,
 Backing up files and disks,
 Setting up screen savers. etc
Examples of utility program include;
A file manager;
It is a utility that performs functions related to file and disk management such as;
 Formatting and copying disks
 Organizing files in folders
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 Displaying a list of files on a storage medium
 Checking the amount of used or free space on a storage medium
 Organizing, copying, renaming, deleting, moving, and sorting files; and
 Creating shortcuts.
A shortcut is an icon on the desktop that provides a user with immediate access to a program or file.
Formatting a disk is the process of preparing a disk for reading and writing.
A search utility
A search utility is a program that attempts to locate a file on your computer based on the criteria you specify. The
criteria could be a word or words contained in a file, date the file was created or modified, size of the file, location of
the file, file name, and other similar properties.
A personal firewall
A personal firewall is a utility that detects and protects a personal computer from unauthorized intrusions. Personal
firewalls constantly monitor all transmissions to and from a computer. When connected to the Internet, your computer
is vulnerable to attacks from hackers (people who try to access a computer or network illegally).
An uninstaller
An uninstaller is a utility that removes a program, as well as any associated entries in the system files.
A disk scanner
A disk scanner is a utility that searches for and removes unnecessary files from the hard disk. It is used to detect and
correct both physical and logical problems on a hard disk or floppy disk and searches for and removes the unwanted
files. A physical problem is one with the media e.g. any scratch on the surface of the disk.
A disk defragmenter
A disk defragmenter is a utility that reorganizes the files and unused space on a computer's hard disk so that operating
system can be able to access data quickly and running of programs faster. Disk defragmentation enables data to be
accessed more quickly and programs to be run faster.
A diagnostic utility
A diagnostic utility is a type of utility that compiles technical information about your computer's hardware and certain
system software programs and then prepares a report outlining any identified problems.
A backup utility
A backup utility is a utility that allows users to copy, or back up, selected files or an entire hard disk to another
storage medium. During the backup process, the backup utility monitors progress and alerts you if it needs additional
media, such as another CD or tape.
Disk checker
Disk checker is a utility that scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas that are faulty.
Disk cleaner
Disk cleaner is a utility used to find files that are unnecessary to computer and can decide to delete.
Disk compression
Disk compression is a type of utility used transparently to compress / uncompress the contents of a disk, and
increasing the capacity of the disk.
Network utility
Network utility is a utility used to analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure network settings, check
data transfer or log events.
A screen saver
A screen saver is a utility that causes a display device's screen to show a moving image or blank screen if no
keyboard or mouse activity occurs for a specified time. When you press a key on the keyboard or move the mouse,
the screensaver disappears and the screen returns to the previous state.
Importance of a screen saver
 To prevent ghosting problem that is images that are permanently etched on a monitor’s screen
 It prevents unwanted lookers from accessing information or data from your computer.
 For advertising business on the screen
 For entertainment- in which digital photos can be put on your screen as moving pictures
Debugger
Debugger is a utility program used during the testing of a program by tracing and removing of errors from newly
installed programs.
N.B. Debugging is a process of removing of errors from installed programs in the computer system.
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Antivirus utility
Antivirus utility is a utility used to detect remove, and prevent viruses from a computer‘s memory or storage devices.
A file compression utility
A file compression utility is a type of utility used to reduce or shrink the size of a file. A compressed file takes up less
storage space on a hard disk than the original file. Compressing files frees up room on the storage media and
improves system performance.
Disk partition
Disk partition is a utility used to divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own file system
which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive.
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
A computer program is a step by step set of instructions that a computer has to work through in a logical sequence
in order to carry out a particular task. The computer executes these instructions when told to do so by the user.
Computer programming
Computer Programming is defined as the process of creating computer software using a programming Language.
Computer programs are written by Human individuals (Programmers).
Programming Languages
Programming languages are the vocabulary and set of grammatical rules for instructing a computer to perform
specific tasks. There are many different types of programming languages each having a unique set of keywords
(words that it understands) and a special syntax (grammar) for organizing program instructions.
It is a set of instructions used to direct the operation of a computer.
Characteristics of programming languages
 Every programming language has instructions for input and output.
 They have instructions for calculations.
 They have instructions for transfer of control instructions for data storage and retrieval
 They gave instructions for data movements
Classification of programming languages
1. Machine code languages (First generation language)
2. Assembly languages (second generation language)
3. High level languages (Third generation language)
4. Fourth generation languages
5. Fifth generation languages
Categories of programming languages
There are two categories of programming languages;
 Low Level Languages
 High Level Languages
Low Level Languages
Low level languages are languages written without sequence of text including words, numbers, and punctuations.
There are two types of low level languages;
 Machine Code (First generation Language or1GL)
 Assembly language (Second generation Language or 2GL)
Machine Code languages (First generation Language or1GL)
These are languages written in binary form represented in the binary system by 1 and 0 respectively. Machine
language codes are very difficult to read and write by human beings hence susceptible to errors.
Characteristics of machine code languages (First Generation Language)
 They are fast to execute because it is already in the language that the computer can understand.
 Difficult to interpret hence requires the aid of a reference manual to interpret the meaning of each code).
 Very easy to make mistakes in the sequence of 1s and 0s; replacing a 1 for a 0 can result in the wrong
command/instruction being executed
 It is difficult to identify mistakes made
 Time-consuming and tedious to write
 They are machine dependent

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 Programming becomes more difficult as the complexity of the program increases

Advantages of machine code languages
 They are efficient
 They allow control of each operation
 They don’t require either a compiler or interpreter
Disadvantages of machine code languages
 They are very difficult to learn and very unfamiliar to humans.
 They are not user-friendly
 Their programs cannot be use in a different machine because of different codes.
 It is very tiresome to program in machine code language and many errors are likely to occur.
Assembly language (Second generation Language or2GL)
These are low level languages that consist of Mnemonics symbols (English like words) used to represent the binary
digits of zeros and ones of machine code language. An assembly language program has to be translated into machine
language by an assembler for a computer to understand.
Characteristics of Assembly languages (Second Generation Language (2GL)
 Similar to machine language, assembly languages are machine dependent.
 Assembly languages are faster and more efficient in the use of hardware than high-level programming
languages.
 Assembly languages have to be translated into machine language by language translators known as
assemblers for the processor to understand.
 They are easier to be written than machine language
 The code is not very easy to understand, hence the introduction of high level programming languages.
Advantages of assembly languages
 Programs are written more easily compare to machine language.
 They had closer control over the computer hardware and executes very efficiently.
 They are useful for writing operating systems and game programs which require fast and efficient CPU.
Disadvantages of assembly language
 They are designed for specific machines and specific processors.
 Programming in these languages is tiresome because programs cannot be moved from one computer
architecture to another without re – writing the code.
 Assembly codes needs translation to be executed by the computer.
 Programmers are trained in learning and writing programs.

High Level Languages (Third generation Languages or3GLs)

High level languages are languages which consist of statements that resemble human language or mathematical
notations such as valid words, symbols and sentences
Characteristics of high-level languages
 They are machine independent hence portable
 They are user friendly and easy to learn
 High-level language programs are easy to debug
 They are more flexible hence they enhance the creativity of the programmer, increasing productivity
 They are executed much slower than low-level programming languages
 They have to be translated into machine code before execution; this is done by compilers and Assemblers.
 One instruction translates into several machine code instructions
Advantages of high level languages
 They are easy to learn because they use English like vocabularies
 They are much easier to learn, understand, write, correct and revise compared to machine language
 They are machine independent and user friendly.
 Programs are easy to modify correct errors and maintain

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Disadvantages of high level languages
 A source program needs a compiler/translator to converts it into machine code.
 They take a lot of time because they consume large amount of memory.
 They are less efficient in the use of CPU and other facilities.
Categories of high level languages
i) Commercial languages
ii) Scientific languages
iii) Special purpose languages
iv) Multipurpose languages
v) Command languages for operating system
Commercial languages
This language was developed purposely for commercial use. Example of commercial language is
COBOL
It is an acronym for Common Ordinary Business Oriented Language. It was a high level language widely used in
business. COBOL has the ability to handle input and output of large volumes of alphanumeric data.
Advantages of COBOL
 It is fairly easy to understand.
 It can be used on different types of computers.
 It enables programmers to easily re – arrange records within a file.
 It enables programmers to easily produce reports.
Disadvantages of COBOL
 Coding is lengthy and tiresome to make.
 It takes longer to learn
Scientific languages
These languages were developed purposely for engineering applications and for scientific use. Examples include;
FORTRAN (Formula Translation), and ALGOL (Algorithmic Language)
FORTRAN (Formula Translation)
It was developed in 1956 by IBM to provide an easier way of writing scientific and engineering applications because
of its simplicity, conciseness, standardization, efficiency and numerical precision.
Advantages of FORTRAN
 It is widely accepted and understood.
 It is easy to write a simple FORTRAN program.
 It includes mathematical functions that are good for solving problems.

Disadvantages of FORTRAN
 It is difficult to use it for other applications other than scientific and engineering applications.
 Input and output operations cannot be accomplished easily.
 Difficult to read reports and screen displays.
ALGOL (Algorithmic Language). It is suitable for scientific and engineering computations.
Special purpose languages
These are languages intended to be tailor made for a particular type of problem, e.g. machine control, wages,
simulations, control experiments. Examples are; Ada and SQL (structure Query language).
Multipurpose languages
These are languages which are intended to deal with a number of different types of application areas especially in the
areas of business and science, e.g. BASIC, Pascal, C, C++, and JAVA
BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)
It was developed in 1964 to teach programming languages to beginners who did not have any knowledge in
programming. It is a simple language which is easy to learn and to use it.
Advantages of BASIC
 It is easy to learn and use.
 It is so popular
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 Several books exist that are used as self – teaching manuals.

Disadvantages of BASIC
 It is not a standard language
 There are many different versions of BASIC with so little compatibility between them.
PASCAL
It was named in remembrance of the inventor of the mechanical adding calculator, Pascal Blaise . It was developed to
teach the concepts of structured programming.
Advantages of Pascal
 It reinforces the principles of structured programming.
 It is not limited to business or scientific applications.

C
It is a high level language. It is the most portable general purpose language. Derivatives of C are; C+ ++ the
, C
language is based on C and it is very popular for object oriented programming (OOP)
++
JAVA is an Object Oriented Programming (OOP) language that resembles a simplified form of C . Object Oriented
Programming (OOP) uses objects which combine data and behavior. OOP enables rapid program development.
Examples include; Visual Basic.
Fourth generation Languages (4GLs / Application generators / program generators)
Are languages designed to make the process of creating a computer – based application easier by doing the
programming themselves. The user defines certain tasks and then the application generators will create the program
code that will perform the tasks that have been defined. Examples of 4GLs
Structured Query Language
Fifth Generation Languages /5GLs (Artificial Intelligence Languages)
These are languages used in intelligent knowledge based systems (IKBs) such as robots. They―think and reason like
human beings because of the programs installed on them. They are extremely used in artificial intelligence projects
like space exploration.
Web development languages
These include HTML and JAVA. HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is one of the programming languages used to
create web pages for the internet and intranets.
LANGUAGE PROCESSORS (TRANSLATORS)
These are programs used to translate high level programming languages to low level languages that processors can
understand.
Compilers
These translate a program written in a high level language into machine code language. The entire program is
translated into machine code at once.
Assemblers
These translate a low level language (assembly language) into machine code.
Interpreters
These translate source program, line by line while the program is running. This is done each time a program is
executed. As a result, a program running under an interpreter runs very slowly compared to a compiled program.
Linkers
These programs combine compiled programs and determine where the program will be located in memory.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software’s are programs that perform specific tasks for users. They are programs designed to enable a
computer to do a particular job.
CATEGORIES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE
General-purpose software
This is software which can be used or adapted to suit a wide selection of users’ specific needs.
Specialized software
Specialized software is a program written for a specific task rather than for a broad application area. These programs
provide facilities specifically for the purpose for which they were designed. For example, a payroll program, expert
systems, accounting programs ,etc.
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Open source software (OSS)
Open source software is copyrighted software for which the software plus the source code are freely distributed.
The OSS free software license/copyright permits users to use, change, and improve the software, and to redistribute it
in modified or unmodified forms.
Source codes (code) are the program instructions (statements) written in a computer programming language to
specify the actions to be performed by a computer.
A software license (copyright) is a legal instrument governing the usage or redistribution of software to protect the
interests of the program designer.
Copyrighted software is the software with legal restrictions in terms of usage, redistribution etc.
Freeware
Freeware is copyrighted software that is offered at no cost but whose source code is not provided. Software that is
not freeware is referred to as commercial software or pay ware or commercial software.
Proprietary software (closed source software)
Proprietary software is copyrighted software obtained at a cost where the software publisher grants a license to use
one or more copies of the software, but the ownership of those copies remains with the software publisher such that
all rights reserved by the software publisher.
Shareware
Shareware is copyrighted software that is distributed free on a trial basis (as a trial version) with the understanding
that the user may need or want to pay for it later.
Once the trial period has passed, the program may stop running until a license is purchased.
Public domain software
Public domain software is the software which is not copyrighted because it has been formally released to the public.
Copy lefted software
This is free software whose distribution terms ensure that all copies of all/modified versions of the copylefted
software to carry the same distribution terms like the original version.
Software Piracy
Software Piracy is the unauthorized/illegal duplication and use of computer software/programs.
Integrated software/packaged software:
Integrated software is a single application package which combines the most commonly used functions and
commands such as word processor, spreadsheet, database and presentation packages. For example, Microsoft office.
SOFTWARE SUITES
A software suite/application suite is a software package that has several applications that work well together because
they have related functions, features and user interfaces, and are able to interact with each other. e.g. Microsoft
Office, OpenOffice.org, and iWork, etc.
Advantages of integrated software and software suites
 It is easy to transfer data from one component of the application to another.
 Integrated software takes up less disk space than individual packages.
 The user can move much faster from one application to the next.
 It is usually easier to learn how to use the applications in a software suite because the user interface for
choosing commands is similar for all applications.
 A software suite tends to be more powerful and versatile than individual applications.
 A software suite is less likely to crash and contains fewer errors (bugs), since it has been widely tried and
tested.
 The producers of software suites often offer after-sales services (e.g. online help facilities); users can also get
support from user groups and magazines.
 Software suites are usually cheaper to buy than purchasing the packages individually.
Disadvantages of integrated software and software suites
 Not all the features of a single application are included.
 Some integrated packages do not contain all the applications that may be required to complete a task.
Classifications of application software
Application software’s are classified into two;
 Special purpose/Custom (Tailor –made software)
 General purpose/Off-the shelf software (standard software)
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Special purpose/custom (tailor-made) software
Custom-made software is a program uniquely designed based on the user’s request to perform particular user’s needs.
The individual user hires programmers to design such a program which does not target the general market.
Examples of custom made software
 Locally made school management information systems (SMIS)
 Inventory management systems
 Payroll management systems
 Library management systems

Advantages of Custom-made software

 A custom-made application directly addresses the user’s needs because it is written to the user’s requirements
and fits in with his/her work.
 The solutions it offers given the greatest depth, breadth and flexibility possible in meeting the needs of an
organization, since the software product is tailored to the organization’s specifications.
 The software developer delivers and installs the software and trains the end users in the use of the new
software.
 The software also performs tasks that the general purpose software cannot perform.
 This kind of software can be quickly changed when the needs of the organization change, since the source
code belongs to the company.
Disadvantages of custom made software
 High costs of developing the software, on-site installation, support and training.
 It takes time to acquire because of the need to get information necessary and to write the code of the new
software.
 There is high possibility of undetected errors/bugs in the software.
Off-the-shelf software (OTS) or standard software
These are already-made and available for sale to users and designed to meet the needs of a wide variety of users.
Examples of off-shelf software packages
 MS office suite
 Computer games packages
 Education software packages
Advantages of off-the-shelf software
 Off-the-shelf software’s are relatively cheap. The cost of development can be spread over a large number of
users.
 Off-the-shelf software offers a wide range of capabilities, performs several functions.
 They are easily available from most computer vendors
 This software is thoroughly tested so there are no serious problems or bugs.
 Off-shelf has a lot of user support that is; books, user guides, online help and discussion forums on the
Internet.
 Off-shelf is easy to learn and use (user friendly)
 Off-shelf can be customized to the user’s needs.
 The off the shelf programs are easy to install.
Disadvantages of off-the-shelf software:
 Off-the-shelf software is highly complex because it includes large sections that a user may never use.
 Off-the-shelf software does not address needs of specific users.
 Off-the-shelf software may take a long time to learn properly. This is because this software tends to be large
and complicated.
 Using off-shelf is time consuming to learn and adopt because it requires the user to adapt to the system itself
to do work.

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 It is very difficult to gain any competitive advantage from its use over business rivals because they use the
same software.
EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE
 Word processing software  Web page authoring software
 Spreadsheet software  Video and audio editing software
 Database software  Educational software
 Presentation software  Entertainment software
 Desktop publishing software  Communications software etc
 Accounting software
 Paint and image editing software
Uses of application software

There are many different applications programs:

Word-processor: allows you to create, edit, store and print a range of different text documents; from letters and
faxes to books and essays.

Spreadsheet: enables you to use formulas to perform a large number of calculations on data stored in cells arranged
in rows and columns.

Database: uses forms to store data in tables made up of records and fields. The data can be searched using queries in
order to find out useful information. It can be used to create anything from an address book to a complex application
that produces end of year reports.

Graphics program: can be used to create posters, perform image processing in order to improve or alter photographs
or create original artwork.

DTP software: Desk Top Publishing software allows you to manipulate text and graphics in frames on a page in
order to create magazines, brochures and other complex documents.

Presentation Software: allows you to create a slideshow to illustrate a talk, or a presentation for other people.

Communications software: could include a web browser or email client software as well as other programs that
allow you to communicate with

APPLICATION PROGRAMS

These are programs that are designed to perform specific tasks for the user. These are programs that do the real work
for the user. Examples include: -
 Word processing  Databases
 Spread sheets  Graphic design
 Presentation  Desktop publishing

TOPIC 6:
WORD PROCESSING

W ord processing is the process of creating text based documents such as reports, letters, brochures, memos,
mailing labels and newsletters.
Word processor is software used to create, edit, format, save and print text based documents
Examples of word processing software;
 Microsoft word  Lotus WordPro
 Corel WordPerfect  WordPad

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 WordStar  Ami pro.

 Abi word.  Magic wand. e.t.c
 Mac write
Functions of word processing software
 Allow text to be edited easily e.g. insert, delete and move text anywhere in the current document
 It can be used in mailing documents
 It is use for mail merging letters.
 It can be used in graphics creating and handling e.g. frames, shapes
 It has inbuilt mathematical formulae especially in tables which can be used in manipulating data easily.
 It is used in creation of tables which are used to present data in a more organized way.
 It can be used in sharing of documents.
 It can be used by researches to compare data using graphs and charts.
 It has a word count feature which can be used in counting if words easily.
 It can be used in creating web pages for organizations.
 They are used by researchers and managers to create foot notes and cross references.
 They are used in creation of letters, document, memos etc
 Helps in saving on a storage device
 Word processors are used in formatting and designing of simple office publications.
Features of a word processor;
Editing is the process of making changes to the existing content of a document
Common editing features include; Copying, Cutting, Pasting, Inserting, Deleting, Undo, Redo, Selecting, Find etc
Undo is the feature that allows actions that have been performed to be reversed such that if some text was
accidentally deleted, then the action can be undone.
Redo It is the feature that allows actions that have been undone to be reversed.
Insert is an editing feature that allows adding text or graphics to a document
Delete is a feature that allows the user to erase text or graphics from a document.
Cut Isa feature used for removing the original text from its original position onto the clip board
Copy is a feature that allows the user duplicate a section of the text and stores it on the clip board
Paste is an editing feature that allows the user to insert a whole text or a section of text somewhere else.
Find is a feature that allows the user to locate all occurrences of a particular character, word or phrase.
Replace is a feature that allows a user to substitute existing characters, words or phrases with new ones
Formatting is the process of making changes to the appearance of a document.
Levels of formatting
Character formatting which involves changing the font, font size, or font style of the text. It involves applying the
boldface, italics and underline text.
Paragraphs formatting; Involves changing the alignment of text, line spacing, indenting text, tab settings and
boarders
Section formatting allows the user to specify page numbers, headers and footers for different sections or chapters of
a document.
Document formatting allows the user to specify the overall page layout for printing. It involves choosing the paper
size (letter, legal, A4, A3), page orientation (portrait or landscape), changing page margins (top, down, left or right)
and the distances between the main body of text and the edges of the paper.
Saving is the process of transferring data / information from memory to a storage medium such as a floppy disk or a
hard disk.
Print is the feature that allows the user to send a file to a printer to generate output on medium such as paper.
Word wrap is a Microsoft Word feature which allows a user to type continually without pressing the enter key at the
end of each line.
Spelling checker allows a user to check the spelling of a whole document at one time or check and correct the
spelling or individual words as they are typed (Autocorrect).
Thesaurus is a Microsoft word feature that suggest alternative words with the same meaning (synonyms) for use in
the document
Mail Merge is a feature that allows the user to create similar letters, mailing labels, and envelopes to be sent to
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several people.
A table is an MS Word feature which allows a user to organize information into rows and columns.
Macros allows a user to record or save frequently used keystrokes and instructions which can be executed later by
running the corresponding macros
Clip art gallery allows a user to insert drawings, diagrams and photographs into a document.
Drop cap is feature used to enlarged the beginning letter of a sentence or paragraph
Footnote is a feature used to comment or add additional text found at the bottom of a page that helps to refer to a
document
Endnote is a feature used to comment or add additional text found at the end of the document that helps to explain
word in a document.
N.B. Footnotes are used for detailed comments while endnotes are used for citation of sources.
Header is the area in the top margin of each page where text can be entered.
Footer is the area in the bottom margin of each page where text can be entered.
Line spacing refers to the vertical distance between lines of text. It is a feature allows a user to select a vertical or
horizontal spacing between the characters depending on his need.
Changing Case is a feature that allows a user to type text in different cases. These cases are:
Lowercase: All characters appear in small letters.
Uppercase: All characters appear in capital letters.
Title case: All the first letters of each word in a sentence appear in capital letters.
Toggle case: All characters changes from upper case to lowercases and vice versa.
WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) allow the user to print a document exactly as it appears on the
computer screen.
ADVANTAGES OF WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE OVER THE ORDINARY TYPEWRITER
 Easy and fast to make changes to the document
 Have many features to create documents that look professional and visual appealing.
 Documents can be previewed before being printed.
 Documents can be saved for future reference and editing.
 It is convenient in making letters and mailing labels.
 It is possible to move blocks of text to different positions in the same document.
 One can insert and delete lines of text.
 The layout of the document can be altered before printing.
 All typing mistakes can be corrected.
 The document can be printed many times.
 Text can be added to a document without having to type it again.
 It can be used to mail documents unlike the ordinary typewriter.
 It can create graphics such as shapes, frames etc.
 It can be used to create WebPages.
 One can easily count the words in the document using the word count feature.
 It allows automatic insertion of footnotes and endnotes.
Disadvantages of word processing software
 Data can sometimes be lost due to data corruption.
 Requires a computer to edit or view documents which may sometimes not be there.
 Require skills to use
 Require electric power to function

TOPIC 7:
ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEETS
A spreadsheet is an electronic worksheet that is used to organize data in rows and columns and perform calculations
on the data.

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There are two types of spreadsheets;
1. The manual spreadsheets
2. The electronic spreadsheets
A manual spreadsheet is the type of the spreadsheet in form of books as a ledger book with many sheets of papers
divided into rows and columns on which data is entered manually using a pencil or a pen
An electronic spreadsheet is the type of the spreadsheet that uses the computer program that enable the computer
use to enter data in rows and columns and perform calculations automatically using formulae and functions.

USES OF SPREADSHEETS
 It can be used by business men to record sales
 It can be used by business men to produce invoices
 It can be used to compile statements (e.g. Bank statements)
 They are used for project planning and forecasting.
 They can be used for creating personal lists such as shopping lists etc.
 They are used for statistical analysis for instance in calculating average, mode, median etc
 They are used for budget planning such as weekly, motherly, annual budgets.
 They are used for processing examinations results.
 They are used in schools for creating class registers and mark sheet.
 They are used in accounting by generating cashbook, ledger books, balance book etc.
ADVANTAGES OF USING SPREADSHEES
 Handle a variety of applications
 Easy organizing and processing of information
 Automatic calculations
 Enables easy formatting & editing of work
 Speedy, flexible and efficient
 Can be stored and retrieved at a later time
 Reduces inventory (storage)costs
 Easy sharing over the network
 Neat work with various illustration like charts
Disadvantages of using Spreadsheets
 It requires a lot of resources like computers which are expensive
 It is costly in terms of training personnel and resources needed
 It is limited to power availability that is it can‘t work without power.
 The whole work is lost in case of Virus attacks
 Data can easily be change with ease by hackers.
Advantages of using electronic spreadsheets over manual worksheets
 It is easy to make changes and corrections to data on the worksheet.
 The rest of the worksheet is recalculated whenever data on a worksheet changes.
 It is fast with the help of built-in functions and macros.
 Calculation is always accurate, provided that data and formulae entered are correct.
 It is easy to create different kinds of charts or to change chart types.
 Information on charts is updated automatically whenever related data on the worksheet changes
 Spreadsheets are much larger than manual worksheets
 They can perform mathematical, statistical and financial calculations quickly and accurately.
 Cells in electronic spreadsheets can use information from other cells
 Electronic spreadsheets can be stored and retrieved for repeated use.
Examples of spreadsheet program include;  Corel Quattro Pro
 Microsoft excel  Lotus1-2-3
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 VisiCalc
 Super Calc  Multiplan
MICROSOFT EXCEL (MS Excel)
This is an electronic spreadsheet that can be used for practically manipulating of data and figures.
Parts of Ms Excel document
A cell is the intersection of a column and a row.
A cell address is a unique address which defines the location of a cell in a worksheet (e.g. A1, A2, Q7, etc)
Range is a rectangular selection of a worksheet containing two or more cells
Work sheet is the biggest range consisting of all the cells in one sheet.
Work book is a collection of various worksheets
Range address is a range reference which has a format of top-left cell address: bottom-right cell address (e.g.
D12:F19)
Labels are text that identify the data and help to organize the worksheet. All label entries are left aligned by default.
Column letter is a column that runs vertically on a work sheet and each one is identify by a letter in the column
header.
Row number is a row that runs horizontally on a work sheet and each one is identify by a number in the row header.
Values are numbers to be used for calculations.
Cell reference is the location of a cell on a worksheet.
Types of cell references
Relative cell reference is a cell reference in which the cell address (e.g. B1 + C1) will be self-adjusted when the
formula is moved or copied to another cell (e.g. B2 + C2)
Absolute cell reference is a cell reference in which the cell address (e.g. $B$2) is always fixed.
Mixed cell reference is a cell reference that uses absolute column and a relative row reference. Example $A2 and
A$2
FORMULAE AND OPERATORS
A formula is a set of instructions for performing a calculation and displaying the resulting value in the cell. A
formula always begins with an equal (=) or a plus (+).
Types of formulae
 Numeric (Arithmetic)
 Text
 Logical
Numeric (Arithmetic) formulae is a formula use to perform calculations on values and use +, -, *, ^ and % numeric
operators for calculation.
Examples=25+5, =A15*B1/B5
Text formulae are formulae used to manipulate text. The text is normally enclosed in (quotation marks) and to
combine strings of text, use & (ampersand).
Logical formulae are statements that evaluate a condition. They result into 1 if true and 0 if false.
They use =, <,>,>=, <= and <>, AND, OR, and NOT to calculate various conditions. Example
Entry Results
=5>4 - Results in true or1
=5<A1 - Result in 1 or true if A1 has a value less than5
=AND(A1=1,A2=2) - Result in 1 or true (if A1 contains 1andA2contains2
=OR(A1=1,A2=2) - Result in 1 or true (if A1 contains 1orA2 contains2)
=NOT(A1=0) - Result in 1 or true (if A1 contains any value but not zero)
Basic mathematical operators used in spreadsheets
Symbol Description Example
() Parentheses =B2*(C4+D5)
* Multiplication =B2*C4
/ Division =B2/C4
+ Addition =(B2+C4)
- Subtraction =(B2-C4)
% Percentage =C5*60%
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^ Exponential =C4^2
Rules governing formulas
1. Always begin the formula with an equal sign or plus sign.
2. Type names of the functions correctly
3. Use the number of brackets on either side
4. Do not leave unnecessary spaces between functions and brackets
5. Separate multiple arguments with commas
6. Enter the correct number of arguments in their correct order
Functions;
A function is a predefined formula that helps to perform common mathematical functions. Each function has a
specific order, called a syntax which must be strictly followed for the function to work correctly.
Syntax order
All functions begin with the =sign. After the = sign, define the function name (e.g. SUM). One or more arguments,
numbers, and text or cell references enclosed in parentheses: if these are more than one argument, separate each by a
comma.
Types of FUNCTIONS used in spreadsheet
 Statistical functions
 Logical functions
 Mathematical functions
 Lookup functions
Examples of statistical functions
Function Example Description
sqrt =SQRT(A4) Calculates the square root of a number
Count =COUNT(B1:B2) Counts the number of cells that contain value within a range
Max =MAX(C2:C3) It returns the largest values in a set of values
Min =MIN(G1:G3) It returns the smallest values in a set of values
Mode =MODE(B2:C4) It returns the most frequently occurring value in a set of values
Median =MEDIAN(B3:G8) it returns the middle value in a given range
Rank =RANK(A2,A2:A6,0) It returns the rank of a number in a list by comparing its size
relative to the others
Average =AVERAGE(C2:C5) It returns mathematical mean of a set of values that contain
numbers
Logical function
If =IF(LOGICAL_TEST_,VALUE_IF_TRUE,VALU It returns a specified value if a condition
E_IF_FALSE) is evaluated is found to be True and
another value to be False

Mathematical functions
Sum =SUM( A1:A2) Returns all the values in range of cells
Products =PRODUCTS(A3:B3) It adds values in a range of cells and
returns the result in the specified cell
Sumif =SUMIF(A1:A10) It adds values in the cells specified by a
given criteria or condition
Countif =COUNTIF(A1:A10) It counts the number of cell within a
specified range that meet the given
criteria

Lookup functions

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Hlookup =HLOOKUP( It looks up data that has been formatted

by columns instead of rows
Vlookup It look up data that has been formatted by
rows instead of columns

N.B. In IF function, there are three items between the round brackets to be notice
IF (logical test, value_if_true, value_if_false)
1. Logical test; This is the first argument that you want to test for.
2. Value_if _true; This is what you want to do if the answer to the argument is Yes.
3. Value_if_false; This is what youwant to do if the answer to the argument is No.

TOPIC 8:
ELECTRONIC PRESENTATION
Electronic presentation is software used to create slides which can be used to communicate ideas/illustrate a speech
to a group or audience. Presentation is a collection of data and information to be delivered to a specific audience.
The presentation can be viewed as a slide show on a large monitor or a projection screen. Examples of presentation
software;
 Microsoft PowerPoint  Harvard Graphics
 Corel presentations  Micro media director etc
 Lotus Freelance graphics
Functions of a presentation
 It allows text to inserted and formatted.
 It is used to insert and manipulate graphics, images or animations with objects
 It has a slide show system to display the designed slide content.
Principles of a good presentation
 Avoid excessive visuals and slides to detract you from your message.
 Be the primary source of presentation but not power point slides.
 Use flowcharts and photographs to illustrate more abstract points.
 Think carefully about the sequence or the flow of your slides.
Factors to consider when designing a good presentation
 Identify the goal of the presentation
 Use slide design effectively
 Include the title page with your name, contact, date and session topic for the presentation.
 Include only the main points
 Present information consistently
 Include only one main concept per slide.
 Include graphics, charts, and videos to keep your audience alert
 Avoid fancy fonts
 Don not includes too many slides in your presentation.
 Avoid excessive use of animations and transitions
Common terms used in Microsoft Power Point;
Slide is an individual page in a presentation. They are normally viewed using projectors.
Title slide is the first slide in your presentation normally with a heading and sub-heading.
Slide Master/ Master Slide is a single slide that controls all other slides in a given presentation. Any changes made
to it affect the rest of the slides respectively.

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Handout is a combination of 2 to 6 slide images on a single page.
Speaker’s notes are notes that help in the actual delivery of a presentation. Power point lets you enter and print a
notes page for each slide
Colour scheme is the overall colour design for all the slides in a presentation
Timing is the period of time a slide stays on the screen during a slide show.
Templates are already created files stored in the computer for reference purposes that defines what your presentation
will look like. Power point provides over 100 professionally designed templates containing proven layouts, color
schemes and background textures.
Slide Layout is the given design of a slide showing divisions/areas or sections of a slide where work can be done.
E.g. title only and blank slide layouts
Animations are visual effects applied to individual items in a slide such as graphics, images, titles etc.
Transition is a way a slide moves off the screen and the next slide appears.
Wizard is a series of automatic steps that guides you through a task. It helps the user to choose a style and design for
the slides.
Transitional looping is a facility which sets up the presentation to run continuously until it is stopped by the
presenter.
Action buttons are built in button shapes that you add to a presentation to use as hyperlink.
Viewing a presentation
Power point provides five different presentation views i.e.
 Outline view  Notes page view
 Slide sorter view  Slide show view
 Slide view
Slide view shows the user how the slide will appear when printed or displayed. It is similar to page layout in a word
processor for windows. All text, graphics and other media elements appear in slide view.
Outline view enables one to outline content much as you would in a word processor to enter, arrange and edit textual
information. It is useful in organizing one‘s thoughts and developing textual content for a presentation.
Slide sorter view provides a light table for viewing multiple slides. When selected, this view arranges small
thumbnail presentations of your slides, complete with text and graphics, rows and columns.
Notes page view allows you to insert edit and delete reminder notes for yourself on each slide. It allows you to use a
slide‘s notes page for creating extended notes as an audience handout. It lets you enter text and graphics in a notes
place holder located below the image of the slide.
Slide show view (Also called on-screen presentation) is a view that takes up the full computer screen, like an actual
presentation. It lets you see how your graphics, timings, movies, animated effects, and transition effects will look
during the actual presentation to the audience.
Advantages of presentation software over traditional chalk and talk
1. It provides a wide variety of presentation formats and layouts for the slides.
2. Allows addition of multimedia components such as clipart images, video clips and audio clips.
3. Allows setting of timing for the slides so that the presentation automatically displays the next slide after a
predetermined period of time.
4. Allows application of special transition effects on each slide.
5. The presentation can be viewed and printed in different formats.
6. Provides no dusty environment
7. Provides security through the use of password
8. Provides different print formats e.g. Handouts, slides.

TOPIC 9:
DATABASE
A database is a collection of related information stored for a particular purpose. It is a collection of interrelated data
about a particular subject or for a specific purpose which allows a user to retrieve, update and manipulate data any
time. Examples of database include;
 Telephone books (directories)  Television guides etc
 Customer address books  School registers
 Dictionaries  National voters register
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 National passport register etc

CHARACTERISTICS OF DATABASES
 The data is arranged in columns (fields) and rows (columns).
 Each column has similar data items.
 Each row contains information belonging to a single individual.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD DATABASE
 Should make use of the computer resources
 Should be fast
 Should interface smoothly with existing facilities
 Should be updatable
 Should provide easy access to authorized users
 Should preserve data integrity
 Should ensure the privacy of data
Database Management System (DBMS) is a collection of programs which allows a user to create access and
maintain a database.
Examples of DBMS
 Dbase I, II, III, IV, V
 Microsoft access
 Oracle
 Lotus Approach
 SQL (Structured Query Language)

FUNCTIONS OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

 It enables the user to add and delete records
 It enables the user to update and modify the existing records
 Provides an interface to the user to enter data
 Ensure security for data against unauthorized access
 It enables users to filter out records by meeting certain given criteria
 Enables the creation of summary reports
TYPES OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS/ MODELS
Database model refers to the way data can be stored, organized and manipulated.
There are five commonly logical types of database models;
1. Flat file model
2. Hierarchical database model
3. Relational database model
4. Network model
5. Object oriented model
Flat file model is a database made up of only one table. It is easy to set up and use
Hierarchical database is a type of database model in which data is organized into a tree-like structure. Each record
contains one root segment and a variable number of subordinate segments that define a field within a record.
A relational database is a database which can take information from two or more database tables and combine them
into a new table or report.
NB: A relationship determines the way in which the details in one table are related to the details in another table. It
can be a one to one relationship, one to many or many to many relationships.
The network databases (Online databases) is a type of database model in which data relationship, items and the
database itself link to each other in form of a network. Combines records with link which are called pointers; the
pointers physically establish the relationships between records.
Object oriented model is a database model that appears as independent objects which can relate with each other.

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Advantage of using a Database Management System over manual based systems
 Databases allow control of data redundancy because most of the data is storing in one place hence less
duplication
 It provides security and authorization to to its users.
 Database management system provides possibilities for data backup and recovery.
 It provides possibilities of data access via network connection.
 Data is entered, stored, modified and accessed by methods that are not affected by application programs.
 Database management system eliminates data duplication that minimizes costs of maintenance.
Disadvantage of using a Database Management System over manual based systems
 There is lack of confidentiality, privacy, and security when information is made available to user from the
remote location
 Data quality is compromised when there is increasing number of users accessing data directly.
 It provides threats to data integrity when different people are tempting to update the same data at the same
time.
 They are also difficult and time consuming to develop.
 Database management systems are expensive to set up and to maintain because of their complexity and
efficiency.
 It creates user resistance to change from traditional file orient system to database management system
Common terms/words used in Microsoft Access
An object is a compilation of table, quarry, form, reports, pages, modules and macro in a database
A record is a row in a table that contains information about a given person, product or event
A table is a primary element used to collect data that are related to a particular subject organized into rows (records)
and columns (fields) similar to an electronic worksheet.
The table structure is the number of fields, field names, and field lengths and data types in the database table
Table relationships are the associations of data between tables e.g. one-to- one & one-to-many
A file is a combination of related records.
A field is a column in a table that contains a specific piece of information within a record
A field name/Label is a title or a name of a particular column.
Field Length is the maximum number of characters that can be stored for data in a particular field
Field properties refer to specific characteristics of a particular field.
Validation is the process of checking of input data for errors (e.g. data type) before processing
Data verification is the checking for mistakes when data is copied from one place to another
Data type (field type) is the type of value that you enter into the field. This is a column that specifies data that will
be stored in the field.

Examples of data type (Field type)

Data type (Field type) Description
Text (Short Text) Allows characters (numbers) up to 255 characters that can be calculated
Memo (Long Text) It is used for lengthy descriptive text and number which allow storage of
data up to 64,000 characters
Number Allow storage of numbers only for calculation
Date/time Allows date or time or a combination of both e.g. Date of birth
Currency Is a numeric field automatically assigned a currency sign
Auto number Creates a unique sequential number for each record
Yes/No Allows storage of logical or Boolean values of Yes/No, On/Off,
True/False

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Object Linking and Allows a linkage to pictures, photographs & other objects created in
Embedding (OLE object) another program such as word document, excel spreadsheet
Lookup wizard Allows you to link the field to another table
Hyperlink Allows a link to an internet, internet site or to another location in the
database

Examples of Field properties

Field properties Description
Field size The maximum number of characters needed for any data item (by default 50)
Format The appearance of that particular item in that particular field
Indexed It specifies whether or not duplicates in the field should be allowed in order to
speed up the data search, sort, filter, etc.
Capitation This is a default label in a form or report e.g. DOB for date of birth, L/name for
last name, F/name for first name, M/S for marital status, etc.
Input mask Specifies the pattern or predefined format for data to be entered in that field
e.g. (--/--/--) i.e.dd/mm/yy for date or (-- :--:--) Hh: Min: Sec as for time, etc.
Others are :!( 999} OOO-OOOO for telephone number.
Default value A value that appears in the field automatically even before you enter there
anything i.e. it works as a placeholder e.g. MSMN/ _, U0063/ _, for index no.,
0.0 for numeric fields, etc.
Field validation rule An expression that defines data entry rules i.e. it limits values that can be
entered in that field e.g. "F" or "M" for sex, >=10 for age, "married" or
"Single" for marital status, etc.
Validation text An error message that appears when a validation rule is violated e.g. "Please
only For M for sex."
Required (Yes/No) Specifies whether or not an entry must be entered in that field i.e. if yes you
must type an entry but if No, you may proceed without entering anything.
Decimal places Specifies whether or not number and currency values should have decimals. If
yes, how many.
Allow Zero length A provision for a field to be left blank in case of unavailable data to be entered
later even if the setting for required is yes. To enter a null, leave the required
property as No and leave the field blank e.g. a company without a fax
machine/no., etc.

DATABASE OBJECTS
A database is made up of several objects, grouped into a single file; among them include;
Database objects Description
Tables Are primary structures in a database that holds raw data
Queries These are tools used to select records from one or more tables in a database so
they can be viewed, analyzed, and sorted on a common datasheet. They do
questioning tasks like how many boys from stream A

Forms These are graphical interfaces that are used to display and edit data. Forms can
be developed from a table or a query.
Reports These are tools that enable one to preview and print data in a meaningful
format.
Pages Are tools used for creating/editing world wide web pages
Macros These are simplified programming languages which you can use to add
functionality to a database

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Modules These are collection of declaration, statements, and procedures that are stored
together as a unit, modules, like macros, are objects one can use to add
functionality to a database.
QUERY CRITERIA
A query criterion refers to as expression in Microsoft office access. Criteria are similar to a formula.
Consider the following criteria use in query;
Criterion Query result
“Kampala” Returns records where the location field is set to Kampala.
Not “Jinja” Returns records where the location field is set to a location other than
Jinja.
Like U” Returns records for all countries whose names start with "U", such as UK,
USA, and so on.
Not Like U” Returns records for all countries whose names start with a character other
than "U".
Like “*Lira*” Returns records for all locations that contain the string "Lira".
Not Like “*Lira*” Returns records for all locations that do not contain the string "Lira".
Like “*ina*” Returns records for all locations whose names end in "ina", such as China
and Argentina.
Not Like “*ina*” Returns records for all locations that do not end in "ina", such as China
and Argentina.
Is Null Returns records where there is no value in the field.
Is Not Null Returns records where the value is not missing in the field.
““(a pair of quotes) Returns records where the field is set to a blank (but not null) value. For
example, records of sales made to another department might contain a
blank value in the location field.
Not”” Returns records where the location field has a nonblank value.
““Or Is Null Returns record where there is either no value in the field, or the field is set
to a blank value.
Is Not Null And Not”” Returns records where the location field has a nonblank, non-null value.
>=“Jinja” Returns records of all locations beginning with Jinja and continuing
through the end of the alphabet.
Like“[A-D]*” Returns records for location whose names start with the letters "A"
through "D".
“Uganda” Or “USA” Returns records for Uganda and USA.
In (“Kampala”, “Jinja”) Returns records for all locations specified in the list.
Right ([Location],1)= “X” Returns records for all countries/regions where the last letter is "X".
Len ([Location])>10 Returns records for locations whose name is more than 10 characters long.
Like "Chi??" Returns records for locations such as China and Chile, whose names are
five characters long and the first three characters are "Chi".

DIFFERENT KEYS USED IN DATABASE

Primary Key is a key that uniquely identifies each record in the table. The primary key cannot be the same for two
records.
Foreign Key is a copy of the primary key in another table
Composite Key is a primary key that is comprised of two or more fields. It can also be called a compound or
concatenated key.

Wildcards
A wild card is a symbol used to replace or represent one or more characters. Wildcards are typically either
an asterisk (*), which represents one or more characters or question mark (?), which represents a single character. A
wildcard refers to a character that can be substituted for zero or more characters in a string.
Wild card Description
? Allow a single character 0r digit at the position marked by?
* Allow any characters, digits, quantity at position marked by*

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# Allow access to match any single numerical digit

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN DESIGNING A DATABASE

 The number of tables needed.
 The number of fields and the field names
 Unique identifiers of fields with unique vales
 Relationships between the tables if any
 Practicability of the database

TOPIC 10:
ELECTRONIC PUBLISHING
What is publishing?
This is the process of making information available for the general public.
Desktop publishing (DTP) is the process of creating document using page layout skills on a personal computer.
Electronic publishing refers to a type of publishing that is used to create and disseminate information by electronic
means including emails and via the web.
FORMS OF ELECTRONIC PUBLISHING
 Web publishing
 Online publishing
 Desktop publishing

Examples (Types) of electronic publication software’s (programs)

 Microsoft publisher  Corel draw
 Adobe in design  Adobe illustrator
 Photoshop  Ventura publisher
 Adobe page maker  Print shop

TYPES OF ELECTRONIC PUBLISHING

1) Email & Email news letters 5) Web publishing
2) Print on demand 6) Digital content
3) E-books 7) Electronic ink
4) E-journals 8) Portable document format (PDF)

Examples of electronic high quality colored documents include;

 Advertisements  Flayers  Greeting cards
 Award certificate  Business forms  Letterhead
 Brochures  Calendars  Invitation cards etc
 Business cards  E-mails
 Banners  Gift certificates

Features of electronic publishing

 It has inbuilt templates that can be use for publication
 It has texts formatting features
 It has inbuilt fonts of various types and sizes
 It has the ability to import text and graphics from other documents
 It has standard shapes such as lines for drawing
 It allows users to incorporate graphics

Advantages of electronic publishing

 It is less expensive in terms of printing and publication with the publishing houses.
 It is easy and immediate to access the document through the internet.
 It allows anyone with access to a networked computer to publish on the internet.

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 It is a ideal format for disseminating the latest research

 It provides high global visibility for the network
 Electronic publishing offers various conceivable forms of presenta6tion such as audio & video recordings,
animations, simulations and computer programs.
 It helps to overcome the geographical limitations associated with print media

Disadvantages of electronic publishing

 It requires a lot of time to study on how to use various features and templates

Common terms used in electronic publishing

Frames are graphics, tables or text box used to resize, moved, manipulated to suite the users need. There are two
types of frames that is text and picture frames.
Handles are small circles that appear around the edge of the frame for adjusting the frame.
Templates are tools or pre-chosen design styles that you can easily use to create basic publications. There are many
different types of templates in publisher that can be used such as banners, business cards, business forms, calendars, f
layers, greeting cards, invitation cards, menu, E-mails, award certificate etc

TOPIC 11:
DATA COMMUNICATION & NETWORKING
Definition of Data communication
Data communication is the process of transferring data, instructions and information from one computer to another
computer.
Elements of data communication
 A sending device
 Message
 A communication device
 A communications channel
 Protocol
 Communications software
 A receiving device

A sending device;
A sending device is a device that initiates an instruction to transmit data, information, or instructions. It can be a
computer system, a terminal, a cellular telephone, a GPS receiver, an Internet- enabled PDA, or another device that
originates the message.
Message
This is the data/content/information to be transmitted over a transmission medium. The message is usually in a
discrete form.

A communication device;
Is a device that connects the communications channel to a sending device by converting the data, instruction or
information from the sending device into signals that can be carried by a communications channel; It can be a
modem, repeater, switch, router, gateway etc.
A communications channel/medium Also known as communication links or Data links a communication channel is
a medium over which Data travels/is transmitted from one computer (device) to another.

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It is a path through which the signals are sent either physically (cables) of wireless waves. It can be a standard
telephone line.

Protocol
This is a set of rules and procedures for exchanging information among computer device on a network.
A receiving device;
It is the device that accepts the transmitted signals from the sending device. They include computers, fax machine,
digital cameras, phone, PDA, etc.
Communications software;
This software consists of programs that manage the transmission of data, instructions and information between the
sending and receiving computers. It controls and manages the activities and functions of the communications
network.
Definition of data communication tools
These are tools that enable the user to emulate and test the networks.
Types of electronic data communication tools
 Phones
 Email
 Social network
 Instant messaging

Phones
Wireless phones are the most dominant form of communication in the world. Text messaging is now rampant because
of the advent of smart phones which allows the mobile phones to have personal computer functionality of sending
large pictures and video files.
Email
Email is a function of the internet and users can access it from countless devices including cell phones. Email is
virtually instant, much like modern communication modes.
Social network
Social medium that enable instant interactions among user, who can communicate directly through twitter, face book,
what saps etc.
Instant messaging
Instant messaging is done more often on keyboards over internet. Skype offers online calling, messaging and video
calling cat across the world via internet.
Services offered by data communication tools
 Voicemail  Newsgroups (Discussion groups)
 Fax  Internet telephony
 E –mail  Videoconferencing
 Bulletin Board System (BBS)  Telecommuting
 Instant messaging (IM)  Groupware
 Chat room  Skype

Voicemail
This functions like an answering machine. It allows a caller to leave a voice message which is stored in a voice mail
box for the caller party. The called party can listen to the message, add comments to the message and reply or forward
the message to another mail box in the voice mail system.
Fax
A facsimile (fax) machine is a device that transmits and receives documents over telephone lines. Sent or received
documents are called faxes. Fax capability can be added to a computer using a faxmodem.
E –mail
Email is a transmission of messages via the internet and users can access it from countless devices including cell
phones. Email is virtually instant, much like modern communication modes.
Bulletin Board System (BBS)
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It is a computer that maintains centralized collections of electronic messages. They are declining because of the
emerging of internet which can serve the same purpose.
Instant messaging (IM)
Instant messaging is a real time communications service that notifies a user when one or more people are online and
then allows the user to exchange messages or files with them.
Chat room
Chart room is a location on an internet server that permits users to chat with each other by typing lines of text on the
computer.
Newsgroups (Discussion groups)
It is an online area where users conduct written discussions about a particular subject.
Internet telephony
It is also called a Voice over IP (VoIP). It is a web based telephone that allows a user to talk to others for just the cost
of the internet connection. A microphone, sound card and special internet telephony software are required for
conducting internet telephony.
Videoconferencing
It is a meeting between two or more geographically separated people who use a network or the internet to transmit
audio and video data.
Groupware
It is a software application that helps groups of people to work together and share information over a network. It
enables members of a workgroup to communicate, manage projects, schedule meetings and make group discussions.
Skype
This service allows users to communicate with peers by voice using a microphone, video by using a webcam and
instant messaging over the internet.
Telecommuting
Telecommuting is a work arrangement in which employees work away from the standard workplace of a company,
but communicate with the office using some kind of communications technology
Advantages of telecommuting
 Reduces time and expenses for travelling to and fro work.
 Eliminated travelling during bad weather conditions
 Allows flexibility in the work schedule
 Reduces air pollution by vehicles driven to and fro work
 Employers reduce costs due to less office space and furniture required.
 Favors the disabled employees

Disadvantages of telecommuting
 Reduces human face – to – face interactions among the working staff
 If any device of the communications system fails, the work has to stop.
 Leisure time at home may be replaced by work.
 There is less security over the company’s information.

Global positioning (GPS)

It consists of one or more earth based receivers that accept and analyze signals sent by satellites in order to determine
the receiver‘s geographical location.
Uses of GPS
 To locate a person or an object
 To find the best route between two points
 Monitor the movement of a person or object.
 Create a map
 To get weather information
 Used by cars and ships to provide directions.

Forms (modes) of Data transmission (Communication)

(modes)
Serial transmission

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Serial transmission is the sequential transmission of one bit of signal at a time sent over a single wire. Low data
transfer rates are possible, but can be used to transfer data over longer distances.
Parallel transmission
Parallel transmission is the simultaneous transmission of the signal elements of a character or other entity of data over
two or more separate paths. Multiple electrical wires are used which can transmit multiple bits simultaneously, which
allows for higher data transfer rates.
Asynchronous Data transmission
Transmission where each group of digital or analog signals making up the code for one character is separated and
individually wrapped with a start BIT and a stop BIT and an error check BIT.
Asynchronous transmission is relatively slow because of the extra bits that must be sent with the data bits for each
character.

Synchronous Data transmission

This is the transmission where characters are sent as blocks of signals with header and tailer bytes at the beginning
and end of the block. Synchronous transmission is faster because characters are sent as blocks.

MODES OF DATA TRANSMISSION

Simplex transmission
This is a type of transmission where data flow in only one direction from the sending device to the receiving device.
Eg in Radio and Television broadcast, communication between a mouse and computer.
Half duplex
This type of transmission allows data to flow in either direction from the sending device to the receiving device and
back but not at the same time. Eg in radio calls, ATM machines, Fax machines, credit card verification systems,
etc,
Full duplex
This type of transmission allows data to flow in both directions at the same time for instance modern telephone
system.

Point to point transmission

A point-to-point connection refers to a communications connection between two nodes or endpoints.

Multi-Drop transmission
Multi –drop transmission is a transmission in which all components are connected to the electrical circuit. A process
of arbitration determines which device sends information at any point. The other devices listen for the data they are
intended to receive. There are both physical (cable or wired) media, and wireless media.
Definition of data transmission media
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This is a communication channel or path over which the data signals are sent from the source to the destination.eg
cables and wireless.
TYPES OF DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA
There are two types of transmission media, i.e.
 Physical (Guided/bounded) transmission media
 Wireless (Unguided/Unbounded) transmission media

Data Transmission media

Physical/Guided/Bounded Transmission Media Wireless/Unguided/Unbounded Transmission Media
Twisted pair Cables Microwaves
Unshielded twisted pair cable Satellites
Shielded twisted pair cable Infrared
Coaxial cables Bluetooth
Fiber Optic Cables Wi-Fi

PHYSICAL (GUIDED/BOUNDED) TRANSMISSION MEDIA

This is a kind of media which uses wires, cables to send communications signals. These include twisted pair cables,
coaxial, and optical fiber cables.
Twisted Pair Cable
Twisted pair cables are types of cables in which each two wires care twisted together for the purposes of improving
electromagnetic compatibility and to reduce electromagnetic radiation, crosstalk between neighboring pairs
and rejection of external electromagnetic interference.

TYPES OF TWISTED PAIR CABLE

Shielded twisted pair cable (STP)
Shielded twisted pair cable is where each of the two copper wires that are twisted together are coated with an
insulating coating that functions as a ground for the wires. The extra covering in shielded twisted pair is for protection

Unshielded twisted pair cable (UTP)

Unshielded Twisted Pair able is a pair of wires without a metal wrapper for shielding noise that are twisted around
each other to minimize interference.
UTP connector (RJ 45)
RJ stands for “registered
jack”
Advantages of twisted pair cables
 They are relatively cheap to use because its cost per unit length is low.
 They are convenient to use because they are small in size.
 They are easy to install because of their flexibility it is easily strung around the room or wall.
 Shielded twisted pair has a foil shielding to help provide a more reliable data communication.
 TP is easy to terminate
 It is inexpensive and easy to install.

The Disadvantages of twisted pair cables

 Used over a short distance, usually less than 100 meters
 Twisted pair cables are prone to the electromagnetic interference which leads to signal loss.
 They are easily damaged. Especial the UTP
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 They are low frequency cables, not suitable for transmission of very high frequency signals like cable TV,
TV antenna and radio antenna signals

Coaxial cable;
This is an electrical cable that consists of a single copper wire surrounded by three insulating layers i.e. an insulating
material, a braided metal and a plastic outer coating.
Features of coaxial cable
 Both conductors share a common center axial, hence the term "co-axial"
 It has a high bandwidth
 It is highly resistant to signal interference
 It is used for long distance (300-600 meters)
 It is quite bulky and sometimes difficult to install
 It has higher installation costs
 Coaxial is prone to lightning strikes
 It is more expensive than twisted pair cables
 It is not flexible

Advantages of coaxial cables

 It has a high bandwidth capacity
 It can be used for long distances between 300-600 meters
 It is very effective at carrying many analog signals
 It is resistance to signal interference because of its protection shield

Disadvantages of coaxial cables

 It is not flexible
 It is quite bulky and sometimes difficult to install
 It is more expensive that twisted pair cables
 It has high installation cost
 It is prone to lightning strikes which can damage the cables.

Fiber – optic cable;

A fiber optic cable is a cable that contains many thin strands/fibers (tiny threads) covered by insulated glass coated in
plastic that use pulses of light to transmit data or signals.
Advantages of fiber optic cables over wired cables
 Carry more signals that wired cables.
 They transmit data faster.
 They are less susceptible to noise from other devices
 Has a better security for signals during transmission
 They are small in size and lighter that wired cables.

Disadvantages of fiber optic cables over wired cables

 They are more expensive
 They are difficult to install and modify
 They are delicate.
 It is difficult o add additional nodes on the network
 It is very complex to configure

WIRELESS (UNGUIDED) TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Thi media that sends communications signals through the space using radio wave, microwave and infrared signals.
Wireless telecommunications technologies transport digital communications without wires between communications
devices.
Categories of wireless transmission media
 Broadcast radio  Bluetooth,
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 Microwaves  Cellular radio

 Communications satellite  Infrared (IR)
 Wi-Fi

Broadcast radio
Radio broadcast is a wireless transmission medium that uses radio waves through the air to send transmissions over
long distances to a large audience who will listen to the transmission over a radio.
A transmitter is needed to send the broadcast radio signal. To receive the broadcast radio signal, a receiver with an
antenna that is located in the range of the signal is needed.
Bluetooth,
This is a short range wireless medium for exchanging data over short distances between paired devices. In order for
devices to communicate, they must be Bluetooth enabled.
Advantages of Bluetooth Technology
 Connection establishment is very quick because users only need to pair two devices.
 It has low power consumption.
 It can pass through walls.
 It has better range than Infrared communication.
 It is used for voice and data transfer.
 Bluetooth technology is adopted in many products such as head set, in car system, printer, web cam, GPS
system, keyboard and mouse.
 Bluetooth devices are available at very cheap cost.
 It has less interference compare to other wireless technologies
 Easy to install
 It makes connecting to different devices convenient
Disadvantages of Bluetooth Technology
 It can easily be hacked into by intruders
 It only allows short range communication between devices
 It can only connect two devices at once
 It can lose connection in certain conditions
 The bandwidth is lower compare to Wi-Fi.
 Battery usage is more compare to the condition when Bluetooth is powered OFF
Microwaves
These are high-frequency radio waves media that provide a high speed signal transmission through the space. They
provide a high speed signal transmission by receiving signal amplifies it and transmits it to the receiving devices or
retransmits it to the next microwave transmission tower.
A microwave station is an earth-based reflective dish that contains the antenna, and transceivers. Microwaves
transmit signals in a straight line with no obstructions between microwave antennas.

Advantages of microwaves
 Their higher frequencies allow broadband width and high data flow
 They enable long distance transmission of data.

Disadvantages of microwaves
 Microwave frequencies travel only in straight line path hence difficult to propagate.
 Microwave transmission towers are expensive to construct and maintain.

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 Microwave systems do not pass through solid objects. This can be problematic in cities with a lot of tall
buildings or mountainous regions.

 Microwave is also degraded by snow, heavy rain and fog in atmosphere.

Applications of microwaves
 Broadcasting and telecommunication
 To detect the range, speed, and other characteristics of remote objects (Radar technology is a technology that
uses radio waves to find the position of objects which cannot be seen)
 Radio astronomy
 In navigation especially global navigation microwave systems (GNSS)
 Heating and power application e.g. microwave ovens

Communications satellite; Satellites are communication devices stationed in space to communicate with earth based
communication facilities using microwave. These earth-based stations often are microwave station.

Applications of satellites
They are used in applications such as;
 Air navigation,  Paging,
 Television and radio broadcasts,  Global positioning systems,
 Weather forecasting,  Internet connections etc
 Video conferencing,

Advantages of satellites communication

 They receive and broadcast data/signals over larger geographical regions.
 They sent a lot of data/ signals simultaneously.
 They allow high quality broadband communication across continents

 They are cheaper over long distances.

Disadvantages of satellites
 It takes long time to propagate satellite tower.
 The initial cost is very expensive and costly
 They are subjected to interference by weather
 Repair of the satellite is almost impossible, once it has been launched
 The infrastructure needed to access satellite communications is also expensive.

Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a short form for "wireless fidelity," it is a wireless networking technology/medium that allows devices to
exchange data using radio waves over a computer network. Internet.
Devices must be WI-FI enabled to access Wi-Fi via a wireless network access point. Eg PC, smart

phones, tablets, etc.

Advantages of Wi-Fi
 It is easy to add or remove wifi clients
 Installation is very quick and easy. It does not require technical knowledge of wifi system and its protocols.
 Wifi network can be accessed from anywhere within the wifi AP (Access point) coverage range
 Wi-Fi protected access encryption is considered secure

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 Different competitive brands of access points and client network inter-operate at a basic level of service.
 Manufacturers are building wireless network adapter into most laptops leading to the reduction in the price of
the chipsets for Wi-Fi
 Wi-Fi allows cheaper deployment of local area network.

Disadvantages of Wi-Fi
 Wi-Fi networks have limited range, and this range varies with frequency band
 Devices that uses Wi-Fi has high power consumption
 Wi-Fi connections can be disrupted or the internet speed lowered by having other devices in the same area.
 Wi-Fi is less secured than wired connections for instance Ethernet because an intruder does not need physical
connections.
 It a limited range which does not favor mobile devices.

Cellular radio
Is a form of broadcast that is used for mobile communications using radio waves.Eg wireless modems and cellular
phones.
Infrared (IR)
Is a wireless transmission medium that transmits signals across short distances to transmit data between devices using
infrared light waves

These devices have an IrDA port that enables the transfer of data from one device to another using infrared light
waves.
Advantages of IrDA (Infrared)
 The devices are very cheap.
 The devices are compact, lightweight and consume low power.
 The technology based devices are easy to use.
 They are more secure compare to RF technologies.

Disadvantages of IrDA (Infrared)

 They are used for very short distance applications only.
 Due to line of sight communication is blocked by obstacles.
 They allow only one device at a time
 They require both transmitter and receiver to be in line of sight.
Terminologies Useful Used In Data Transmission
Baseband transmission media is the kind of media that can only transmit one signal at a time.
Broadband transmission media is the kind of transmission media that can transmit multiple signals simultaneously.
Latency is the time it takes a signal to travel from one location to another on a network.
Attenuation is the process by which signals undergo reduction in its strength as it travels over long distances.
Throughput refers to the amount of data to be transferred from one location to another in a given amount of
time.
Bandwidth is the difference between high frequency and low frequency
Advantages of using wireless technologies
 Wireless technologies overcome inconvenience of using too many wires for communication.
 Wireless technology makes it easy to set up temporary network installations
 Wireless increase flexibility and mobility at the work place because works can sit anywhere with their
computers without being limited by the extent of cable connections.
 Fast data transfer rates are possible where there are no environmental obstacles
 Wireless technology is appropriate to use in places where cabling is practically impossible.

Disadvantages of using wireless technologies

 They are slower than LANs using cabling
 They are prone to electrical interference from light and radio
 They are subjected to obstruction especially walls

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 Wireless access point and Wi-Fi technology in general have limited range that is signal strength decrease as
the range increase.
 Poor security of data on a wireless network, outsider can easily log on an unsecured wireless network.

Factors to consider when choosing a communication/transmission media

 Speed of data transmission
 Cost of transmission media
 Installation cost
 Data security
 Country/company policy
 Availability of the communication media in the market
 Size of the network
COMPUTER NETWORK
A Computer network is the interconnection of two or more computers and other devices to share information and
resources.

Purpose of computer networking

 To allow users to share information,
 To enable sharing of software’s
 To allow the users to share resources such as printers, modems, storage devices etc
 To enable communication between computers users through tools like e-mail.
 To enable data communication I.e. transmission of electronic content over a given medium
 To ensure security of data by putting in place administrative controls over the network
 To share databases

Basic Requirements for Setting Up a Computer Network

 Computers/clients/workstations
 Network hardware devices
 Transmission or communication media/channels
 Network software
 Server
1. Computers/clients/workstations

These are other computers on the network that sends request and receive responses from the server
2. Network Hardware Devices
These are devices that handle the movement of data in a computer network.
 Modems  Bridge
 Router  Repeaters
 Hub  Network interface cards
 Switch  Multiplexer,
 Gateway

 A modem

The word "modem" is a contraction of the words modulator and demodulator i.e. Modulation and Demodulation.
Modulation is the process of converting digital signals into analog signals while Demodulation is the process of
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converting analog signals into digital signals.
A modem modulates outgoing digital signals from a computer or other digital device to analog signals for a telephone
line and demodulates the incoming analog signal and converts it to a digital signal for the digital device.
Therefore, a modem is a communication device that converts between analog and digital signals.

A DSL Modem
Wireless modem
A wireless modem is a communication device that converts digital data into radio signals and back.
Fax modem
A fax modem is a communication device that enables a computer to transmit and receive documents as faxes.
 Router
Is an intelligent communications device that sends communications traffic to the appropriate network using the
fastest available path.
 Hub/concentrator
A hub is a device that connects multiple devices to the network. It serves as a central meeting place for cables from
computers, servers and peripherals on the network.
 Switch
A switch is a high-speed device that maintains a bridging table, keeping track of which hardware addresses connected
to a network. It maps the internet protocol (IP) address with the Media Access Control (MAC) address of the LAN
card. It sends the data packets only to the destined computer.
 Gateway
A gateway is a communication device that consist of a combination of hardware and software that connects networks
that use different protocols technologies by performing the required protocol conversions
 Bridge

A bridge is a device that links two local area networks that use the same address method or protocol. It accepts all
packets from each network addressed to devices on the other, buffers them, and retransmits them to the other
network.
 Repeater

A repeater is a communication device that accepts a signal from a transmission medium, amplifies it, and retransmits
it over the medium in order to overcome attenuation. Hence repeaters are needed over the medium to boost up these
signals
N.B Attenuation is the process by which signals undergo reduction in its strength as it travels over long
distances.

 Network interface cards (NIC) or LAN Adapter

A network interface card is an electronic communication device or an expansion card that enables other devices on a
computer to connect to a network.
Wireless Network Card
 Multiplexer

Multiplexer is a communication device that combines two or more input signals from various devices into a single
stream of data and then transmits it over a single transmission medium.
3. Transmission or communication (Network) media/channels
Transmission or communication (Network) media/channels is also known as communication links or Data links. It is
a medium over which Data travels/ transmitted from one computer (device) to another.

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4. Network software
Network software’s are Communication programs that are used in combination with network devices to enable
transmission of data between network terminals. Eg protocols.
Commonly used protocols
 TCP/IP-transmission control protocol/Internet protocol.
 HTTP- Hypertext transfer protocol
 FTP- file transfer protocol.
 POP- post office protocol
 SMTP-Simple mail transfer protocol
 IPX/SPX-stands for Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange. IPX and SPX are networking
protocols used primarily on networks using the Novell NetWare operating systems
 NETBEUI-(NetBIOS Extended User Interface) is a new, extended version of NetBIOS, the program that lets
computers communicates within a local area network. it does not support the routing of messages to other
networks,
 Telnet (Telecommunication Network) for Remote access between computers
 IMAP; Internet Message Access Protocol.
 The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) which is a data link protocol commonly used in establishing a direct
connection between two networking nodes.

5. Server
A server is a computer that runs software that enables it to serve specific requests from other computer (clients).
IMPLICATIONS OF USING COMPUTER NETWORKS
Positive Implications (Advantages)
 It facilitates easy communication for instance through electronic mail.
 Allow users to log on and access their work from any workstation on the network
 Computer network provides rapid method of sharing files instead of using movable disks.
 Computer networks enable workgroup computing
 It allows software to be upgraded easily on the network since it is done at ago on the server.
 It enables online learning and collaborative research
 Computer network allows sharing of data and information stored on any other computer on the network.
 It reduces on cost by sharing hardwires and software’s among the network since one device is jointly used in
the network instead of installing a hardware and a software to each computer.

Negative implications (disadvantages)

 Initial cost of installing a network on Cables, network cards, and software are expensive, and the installation
may require the services of a technician.
 Networks require Administrative Time and expertise for Proper maintenance of a network which leads to
additional cost.
 Time can be wasted on social networks instead of doing meaningful work.
 The entire networker fails if the server crashes, When this happens, the entire organization loses access to
necessary programs and files.
 There is increased risk of data corruption, since many users will be using the system to access the same
documents, some of whom may be careless or deliberately tamper with it.
 Increased exposure to hackers which puts private data at risk
 There is a greater risk from viruses, because they are easily spread between the computers that are part of the
LAN.
 A break in the communication channel can stop the entire network.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORK

Communication networks can be grouped into the following categories based on the geographical locations of its
computer terminals;
 LOCAL AREA networks (LANs)
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 Metropolitan area networks (MAN)

 WIDE AREA networks (WANs)
 Wireless local area network (WLAN)
 Wireless Wide area network (WWAN)
 International network (Internet)

Local Area Network (LAN)

A local area network is a network that connects computers and other devices within a small geographical area such as
a room or a building, home a school or a computer laboratory. The devices are interconnected using a medium such
as cables or a wireless medium

Types /categories of local Area Networks (Network Models or architectures)

There are two categories of local area network models or architectures;
 Peer-to-peer networks
 Clients-server networks

Peer-to-peer networks
This is an interconnected group of equal computers where each computer acts as both a client and a server to others
on the network. There is no hierarchy among them,

Peer to peer Configurations

Characteristics of peer to peer network
 All computers access resources equally.
 Each computer stores files on its own storage devices.
 Each computer has its own network operating system and application software.
 It normally connects less than 10 computers together.
 It is suitable for home and small scale business users
 Each computer has resources it shares with others on the network.

Advantages of a peer to peer network

 It is very simple/easy to setup
 It is inexpensive to maintain
 Do not require additional specialized network administration software
 Do not require a dedicated network administrator.
Disadvantages of a peer to peer network
 They are not easy to administer
 Each user must be trained to perform administrative tasks
 Reduced performance because all the devices share resources equally
 It doesn‘t allow remote installation of software
 It lacks security due to absence of a server.
 It’s not appropriate for big networks (cannot be used for big networks).

Clients-server networks
This is a type of local area network that consists of a central computer (the server) on which other computers (clients)
are connected. The central computer providing services to client computers

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Characteristics of client server network

 It can connect more than 10 computers
 It requires a network administrator to manage the network
 The server controls communication and shared network resources.
NETWORK SERVER
A server (Network server) is a computer on a network that controls and manages the network resources, making them
available to its clients (computers connected to it).
Client Computer
Client computer is one that is connected to the Network server to receive services from the server.

Advantages of Client-server network

 It offers a reliable centralized storage and sharing of files.
 It ensures high security of the network through access controls installed on the server.
 It is easy to monitor the network performance on the server
 It is easy to solve network problems.
 It’s cheap to install software which can be done on the server alone instead of all computers on the network.

Disadvantages of client-server network

 It’s expensive to setup.
 Extra expenses on buying a server computer
 Extra expenses on hiring a network administrator
 The server is one point of failure. In case the server fails to work, the whole network comes to a standstill

Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

A metropolitan Area network is a computer network that connects two or more local area networks together which
are geographically separated but in the same city.

Wide Area Networks (WANs)

A wide area network is a network that connects two or more local area networks together over a large geographical
distance such as across districts, cities or regions.

Wireless local area network (WLAN)

Wireless local area network is a type of network that connects computers and other devices in a small geographical
using wireless
Examples of wireless local area network devices are;
 Wireless adaptor/card  Wireless router
 Wireless Access Point  Antennae
 Wireless Bridge

 Wireless adaptor/card is a device that provides an interface between the network operating system and an
antenna to create a wireless connection to the network.

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 Wireless Access Point (WAP) is a device that connects wireless communication devices together to form a
wireless network. For a computer to be able to communicate with wireless device, it must have a wireless
network adaptor.

N.B Access Point (AP) is a wireless equivalent of a hub that receives buffers, and transmits data

 Antenna is a structure made of metal rods or wires which receives and sends out radio and television signals.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) topologies

Wireless Local Area Networkcan be built with one of the following topologies:
 Peer- to – Peer (Ad hoc) topology
 Access Point – based topology
 Point –to– Multipoint bridge topology

Peer –to- Peer (ad hoc) topology

This is a type of topology where devices are configured to communicate directly to each other.

Access point – based topology

This is a type of topology where access point(s) are used to enable a wireless device to communicate with any other
wired or wireless device on the network.
Access points are used to bridge traffic onto a wired or wireless backbone, or where network devices are
interconnected using access points.
Point – to – multipoint bridge topology
This is a wireless local area network topology where a wireless bridge is configured to connect a LAN in one building
to a LAN in another building even if the buildings are not close together but within a clear line of sight.

Wireless Wide area network (WWAN)

This is a wireless network over a wide area in which separate areas of coverage are connected wirelessly.
Examples of Wireless Wide Area Networks equipments especially long distance wireless
 Satellite
 Microwave dishes
 Microwave antennae

Wireless application Protocol (WAP)

The Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) refers to a group of related technologies and protocols widely used as a
standard protocol in providing Internet access to mobile phones or other small mobile devices.
International network (Internet)
Internet is an International/global interconnection of computer networks

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Topology is the physical and logical arrangement of a local area network. The physical topology of a network refers
to the physical arrangement of cables, computers, and other communication devices on a network
Logical topology is the method used to pass information between workstations on a network.
Types of physical network topologies
 Bus network topology  Star network topology
 Ring network topology  Hierarchical network topology
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 Mesh network topology  Tree topology

 Hybrid topology

Bus topology or linear bus topology

Bus network topology is one that consists of a main, central cable known as the backbone with a terminator at each
end of it where all devices on the network are connected to the main/central cable.
Bus Topology

Advantages of Bus topology

 It is less expensive than a star topology due to less footage of cabling, only needs one main cable and no network
hubs
 It is good for smaller networks not requiring higher speeds
 It has a high transmission speed if coaxial cable is used.
 It is easy to add new workstations on the network.
 Multiple servers can be used.
 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a bus.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.
 Failure of one device doesn‘t affect others.

Disadvantages of Bus network

 It is Limited in size and speed
 The Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Difficult to troubleshoot. it is difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down
 It is less secure since all data is transmitted down one main cable.
 Transmission slows down as more work stations are added.
 If the main cable fails, then all workstations are affected.

Ring topology
This is a topology where all devices on the network are connected to one another to form a closed ring. Data travels
in from one device to another device around the entire ring in only one direction until it reaches its final destination.

Advantages of ring topology

 It is a Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to transmit
 It performs better than a star topology under heavy network load
 Can create much larger network using Token Ring
 It is Cheaper to install than star network as there is only one cable between each workstation.
 High speed can be achieved as each workstation can boast the signal.
Disadvantages of a Ring network
 One malfunctioning workstation or bad port in the central hub can create problems for the entire network
 Moves, additions and changes of devices affect the entire network.
 Network adapter cards are expensive.
 It is much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load
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 Less secure than star network as data pass through a number of workstations before reaching its destination.
Star topology
A star topology is a type of topology where computers and other devices are connected directly to a central network
hub or switch thus forming star.
Data on a star network passes through the hub or switch before continuing to its destination

Extended Star topology

This is a network where two or more star topologies are connected together. At the center of the star is a hub or a
switch. It extends the length and size of the network.

Advantages of Star /extended star topologies

 It is suited for large networks
 It is easy to expand the network without any negative effects
 If one cable or station fails, the entire network is not affected
 It is easy to install, maintain and troubleshoot because the problem usually isolates itself.
 Different types of cables can be used to maximize efficiency.
 High speed transmission is possible since each station has a dedicated cable.
 Greater security as connection from one station to server is unique.
 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.

Disadvantages of Star/extended star topologies

 Breakdown of the switch/Hub becomes a single point of network failure
 It’s expensive to set up due to increased cabling costs and the need for a switch or hub.
 Mass of cables are needed around in case of a large network.
 If the cable fails the workstation cannot receive data via any other route.
 The server can get congested as all communication must pass through it
 Requires more cable length than a bus topology.
 If the hub or switch fails, nodes attached are disabled.

Hierarchical topology
This is a type of topology that resembles extended star topology, except that computer controls traffic instead of a hub
or a switch.

Hybrid Topology
Hybrid topology is combination of two or more different topologies (bus, star, ring, etc.).
Advantages of hybrid topology

 Very reliable and easy to detect the Faulty system.

 Troubleshooting is easy.
 It includes both wired and wireless network.
 It is expandable network.

Disadvantages of hybrid topology

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 Its design is difficult to understand.
 The cost of this network design is high, because of requirement of lot of cables, cooling systems, etc.
 MAU (Multi-station Access Unit) is required.
 It is expensive to install and maintain

Tree topology
A tree topology is a type of network topology that has combined characteristics of bus and star topologies; it consists
of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a bus backbone cable.
Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network

Advantages of Tree topology

 Allows for Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Expansion of Network is possible and easy.
 It is easy to manage and maintain because the network is divided into segment
 Error detection and correction is easy.
 If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected
Disadvantages Tree topology
 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

 Difficult to troubleshoot problem.

 This network is not secure, anyone can see transmitted data.
 As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes difficult.

Mesh topology
This is a network where each device has its own connections to all other devices on the network. It provides each
device with a point-to-point connection to every other device in the network. Data sent on a mesh network can take
any of the several paths from the source to the destination.

Advantages of Mesh topology

 A mesh topology provides much protection from interruption of service because of possible routes through
the network that is the damage of one or several cables or computers may not have vital impact except the
involved computers
 Mesh networks provide redundancy, in the event of a link failure; meshed networks enable data to be routed
through any other site connected to the network.

Disadvantages Mesh topology

 Much cabling is needed hence expensive
 Not easy to troubleshoot in case of failure
 Not easy to install.
 It is the most expensive and difficult to maintain topology because each device has a point-to-point connection
to every other device.
 The damage of at least one cable or device may damage the network seriously If there are only few cables in
the network

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Summary of physical types of topologies

Logical topology (Media Access Method)

Logical topology is how computing devices access the network and send data over the network. The logical topology
of a network determines how the devices communicate across the medium.
There are four commonly used media access methods:
A. Ethernet,
B. Token Ring,
C. Packet switching
D. Circuit switching

Ethernet
Ethernet is a type of local area network technology that uses coaxial cable or special grades of twisted pair wires.
Ethernet is also used in wireless LANs.
Token Ring
A Token is a special packet that contains data and acts as a messenger/carrier between each computer and device on a
ring topology.
Each computer must wait for the token to stop at its node before it can send data over the network so as to avoid
collision of data packets on the network.

Packet switching
This involves breaking the data into individual segments known as packets which are transmitted individually and
then re-assembled when they reach the destination computer.

Circuit switching
Circuit switching is a method of communicating in which a dedicated communication path referred to as a circuit is
established between two devices before communication takes place.
Each circuit that is dedicated cannot be used by others on the network until the circuit is released and a new
connection is set up. The telephone system uses circuit switching.

Factors to consider when choosing a network topology

 Cost of installation. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do not
have to purchase concentrators.
 Number of computers and other devices to connect/size of the organization
 The architecture of the building to be used
 The purpose of the network
 Distance of connectivity
 Safety provisions of the network
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 Personnel provisions/technicalities involved

 Ease in accessing the network
 Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
 Future growth for instance with a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another
concentrator
 Cable type to use that is the most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often
used with star topologies.

NETWORK AND DATA SECURITY

Network and data security consists of the provisions made on computer network and policies adopted by the network
administrator to protect the network and the network-accessible resources from unauthorized access to data, as well as
guarding against Data loss and the effectiveness (or lack) of these measures combined together.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF TRANSMISSION ON A NETWORK

Bandwidth of the medium; [rate of transmission]. The higher the bandwidth, the more data will be sent over a
medium and vice versa.
NB; Bandwidth; Bandwidth is the amount of Data that can be transmitted along a communication channel in a given
time (per second) which is measured in bits per second.
Line configurations; these are either point – to – point or Multipoint. A point – to – point connects the sending
and receiving devices such that a terminal with a central computer.
A Multipoint line is a single line that interconnects several communications devices to one computer. Data moves
faster in a point – to point than in a multipoint.
Serial and parallel transmission
In serial transmission, bits are transmitted sequentially, one after the other. In parallel transmission, bits are
transmitted through separate lines simultaneously. Therefore, data transmission is faster in parallel transmission than
in serial.
Direction of transmission
This can be simplex, half duplex or full duplex. In simplex, data can travel only in one direction. In half duplex, data
travels in both directions but only one direction at a time. In full duplex, data travels back and forth at the same time.
Transmission mode
This can be either asynchronous or synchronous. In asynchronous transmission, data is sent one byte (character) at a
time. In synchronous transmission, large quantities of data are transmitted at ago at regular intervals.
Packet switching
A packet is a block of data for transmission over a network. Packet switching is a technique for dividing electronic
messages into packets for transmission over a network to their destination . It can handle high volume of traffic in a
network.
Protocols (rules for data transmission)
A protocol specifies the type of electrical connections used the timing of message exchange, error detection
techniques; specify how the receiving devices will acknowledge sending devices (handshaking) etc.
Network topology
There may be data collisions in a bus topology hence slowing down the network. A star and ring topology has fewer
collisions and usually runs faster.
Capacity of hardware in the network
The speeds of hubs, switches and NICs will greatly determine the speed of the network.
The server
The amount of RAM installed in the server and the speed of the hard disk greatly affects the speed of the network.
Location of software and files
If software is stored on the workstation hard disks, it increases (speeds up) performance and reduces network traffic.
Qn .Differentiate between standalone computers and networked computers
Standalone computers are computers that are not connected to a network meanwhile Networked computers are
computers connected to a network.
TOPIC 11:
INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB
Definition of internet
Internet is an International/global interconnection of computer networks.
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It is described as a global network of networks. These networks

CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERNET
 It is made up of numerous networks worldwide.
 There is No organization that has a direct control over the Internet.
 It is dynamic; ever changing.
 It offers very many services
 The Internet size and technology is growing at a very faster rate.
 It is not owned by any single organization (has no central control.

ADVANTAGES OF USING INTERNET

 The biggest benefit offer by internet is that it is a source of all valuable information
 The primary goal of internet is communication because it offers a speedy communication through the use of
e-mail
 The internet is now the most popular form of entertainment. Movies, songs, videos, games etc. is available
and can easily be downloaded from the internet

 Internet has facilitated social networking that is the sharing of information to people across the world. Any
job vacancy, emergency news, ideas etc. can be shared in the social networking websites such as Face book,
what saps, twitter etc
 As far as learning is concern, internet has now become a part of education in the sense that online studies, e-
library, uploading educational information’s, and research can easily be carried out using internet.
 All business deals can be carried in the internet like transaction of money that is e-money, online
reservations, online ticket booking for movie, online shopping, advertising for goods and services.

DISADVANTAGES OF USING INTERNET

 Internet leads to the loss of information that is information crucial to us or any important files can be easily
taken by the hackers.
 Internet offers high possibility for the fraudulent people to easily access personal details such as names,
address, credit card number etc
 Networked computers connected to internet are susceptible to virus attack leading the crushing of the hard
disk and alternate the normal behaviors of the computer.
 Internet allows anybody to access and down unnecessary materials and pornographic photos and films hence
leading to moral degeneration in the society
 Internet had led to social disconnecting in the society that is reduction into face to face interaction for
example the use of social media such as face book, what sap, twitter etc.
 Internet has also led to the distribution of unwanted bulky e-mails (spamming)

USES OF INTERNET AS A LEARNING TOOL

 Used to search for information using search engines and directories
 E-mail system is used in collaborative learning.
 Enables distance learning for those who are unable to attend collage/school physically.
 Allow discussions over educational chat rooms.
 Enables downloading of relevant documents.
 Using computer assisted assessments (CAA) for online exams.
 It enables the use of electronic libraries and textbooks.
 Development of skills of research and communication by the students.
 Assignment are received, done and sent across the network by the students.
 Video conferencing is used to share views and ideas among students and teachers.

ADVANTAGES OF INTERNET IN SCHOOLS

 A lot of information is obtained which is not available in a single textbook.
 Updated or current information is obtained since internet is dynamic.
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 Learning is fun and easy as internet is exciting due to the multimedia content used.
 It offers different sources of information hence a variety of opinions on a topic.
 It is a quick way of getting information where internet connection is good.
 It encourages group work through collaboration therefore sharing of information and experience among
students and teachers.
 Related topics are easily accessible through hyperlinks.
 Students are able to attend virtual classes.
 Different skills such as typing, use of web browsers, problem solving, E-mail are developed through the use
of the Internet.
 Instant or timely communication is done by use of the E-mail system.
 Shopping for item such as books is made easy and less expensive.

DISADVANTAGES OF THE INTERNET IN SCHOOLS

 No Information control over the Internet such that all sorts of bad information is accessed.
 There is no privacy of information and information piracy is common.
 Indecent materials are published on the Internet.
 It’s not readily available to most people.
 It is expensive to access drains school resources.
 Time is lost where Internet speed is low due to poor links, hardware and congestion.
 Some sites give outdated therefore misleading information because they are not regularly updated.
 Time wasting occurs when students easily stray into non-essential materials.
 Many Internet sites have been commercialized therefore emphasize adverts and selling such that less free
academic content is given.
 Computer viruses can easily spread over the Internet.
 Difficult to obtain information relevant to a particular level of a student.
 It is possible to obtain contradictory information.
 Many students and teachers do not have adequate skills of accessing the Internet.

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO INTERNET ISSUES

 Use of firewalls against illegal access to networks
 Use of updated antivirus software against viruses
 Use of anti-spyware against hackers.
 Carefully choosing an ISP who will provide the best service within your means.
 Installing filters against pornographic and other undesirable content.
 Use of encryption software to protect sensitive information and prevent fraud.
 Use of complicated passwords to restrict access to.
 Use of digital certificates. This is a means of authenticating that an organization is genuine and that any
transaction undertaken with it will be honored. The certificate contains the name of the organization and a serial
number registered with a Certification authority who issues the certificate.

INTERNET PROTOCOLS
The Internet Protocol (IP) is a standard set of rules for sending and receiving data from one computer to another on
the internet. For a Host computer to be recognized by other devices, it must have an internet protocol address.
Internet protocol (IP) address is a number that uniquely identifies each compute on the internet. IP address consists of
four groups of number, each separated by periods e.g. 192.168.5.6. The first three values that 192.168.5 usually
identifies the network and the last value that 6 represent the specific computer
Examples of internet protocols
 Transmission communication protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP)
 Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP)
 File transfer protocol (FTP)

BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR INTERNET CONNECTION

 Host computer
 Communication hardware such as Modem and router.
 Communication Software such as a Web browser and internet protocols
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 Communication media such as VSAT, wireless antenna or telephone line.
 Internet Service provider(ISP)

Internet Service Providers

Internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides connection and services for accessing and using the
Internet at a subscription fee.
Examples of internet service providers in Uganda
 Airtel Uganda limited  Uganda telecom limited (UTL)
 Mtn Uganda limited  Roke Uganda limited
 Lyca Uganda limited  Infocom Uganda limited etc

Services Offered By Internet Service Providers

 They offer internet access and internet connectivity
 They do system analysis and consultancy
 They provide network servicing and maintenance
 They Provide network security
 They provide other services like website hosting
 They facilitate domain name registration
 They provide electronic mail services
 They facilitate video conferencing

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING AN INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP)

 Setup costs
 Experience for both ISP and client.
 Auxiliary/additional services offered by the ISP e.g. E – Mail/telephone SMS facility.
 Availability of online help.
 Compatibility of ISP software with yours e.g. windows VsLinux .
 Efficiency/Effectiveness of ISP devices e.g. speeds of ISP modem, Bandwidth etc. cabling architecture, Bit–Bus
architecture for devices etc.
 Available technology. For example, In case you intend to hire a dial-up service, you need to consider the
availability of a local phone number or toll-free number for access; this would help to reduce cost of acquiring
totally new technology or equipment.
 Technology offered by the ISP. The ISP should be able to offer the latest and most efficient technology.
 Technical support. What kinds of support services can the ISP provide; Are there any additional charges for
support?
 The terms of service. You need to consider the terms of services offered by the ISP for instance, is there a limit to
their service eg a limit on the amount of download or upload.
 Other services offered by the ISP that you can have on top of internet connection. E.g. web hosting and domain
services.
 The fee charged for the services. What is the monthly fee for the service? Are there any additional equipment or
setup fees compared with other service provider companies?
 The size of the ISP’s Client base. The bigger the client base the more reliable is the ISP.
 Coverage. Does the ISP coverage reach your location or not?
 Your Internet service needs. Suppose all you need to do is check e-mail and read web pages, a dial-up connection
may be enough. But most people also want to download music, television shows, or watch videos. For these, you
will need a faster connection with broadband access, such as a digital subscriber line (DSL), a cable modem, or
satellite.

COMMON TERMINOLOGIES USED IN INTERNET CONNECTION

 Dial-up (dun)  Cable modem
 Bandwidth  Leased line
 Broadband internet access  Bit rate

Dial-up (DUN)
This is a connection method where the client must request for a connection to the ISP server each time he wishes to
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access the Internet.
Leased line
This is where there is a permanent connection between the user and the ISP at a fixed fee. This connection normally
uses digital subscriber line (DSL) technology
Cable modem
A cable modem is a type of modem that provides access to a data signal sent over the cable television infrastructure.
Broadband Internet access
Broadband Internet access (broadband) is high-speed Internet access.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the amount of Data that can be transmitted along a communication channel in a given time (per second)
which is measured in bits per second.
Bit rate
Bit rate is the speed at which a particular transmission is taking place. It is measured in bits per second (bit/s or bps)
and represents the actual speed of transfer of data.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINES THE INTERNET ACCESS SPEED

 The amount of bandwidth allocated by one’s ISP.
 Connection technology used; telephone lines are much slower than newer technology such as ISDN and
ADSL.
 The volume of traffic. The more the number of people logged on the internet the slower the internet speed.
 Adapter or modem speed used.
 The processing speed and amount of RAM of the host computer
 Type of data/files being downloaded or uploaded.
 The age of computer set, whether clone or new

SERVICES OFFERED BY INTERNET COMMUNICATION

 E-mail  Telnet
 World wide web (WWW)  Electronic commerce (e-commerce)
 Chat rooms  Social network
 Mailing lists  Internet banking (e-banking)
 Instant messaging (IM)  Search Engine (Web Search)
 Internet Relay chat (IRC)  Wikis and blogs
 News group  Discussion boards
 Message board (Internet forum)  Portals.
 Voice over internet protocol (VoIP)  Podcasts.
 Usenet  E- Libraries
 Video conferencing  Electronic waste (e-waste)

 E-mail

Electronic Mail is a method of exchanging messages between people with E- mail addresses using computer and
other electronic devices.
In order for any two users to receive or exchange E-mail messages online, they must have E- mail addresses.
E-mail address is a set of characters such as letters, number, symbols etc that are required to send and receive emails.
 World wide web (WWW)

The World Wide Web (WWW) is an information space where all the Web pages, pictures, videos and other online
content can be accessed via a Web browser. Web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs),
 Chat rooms

A chat room is an online service that permits users to chat (converse) with each other through the internet by
typing and sending lines of text using the computer.
To start a chat session, a user must connect to a chat server through a chat program on his or her computer. Some chat
rooms require a username and password in order to log in or join a conversation.
 Mailing lists

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A mailing list is a collection of names and addresses used to send material to multiple recipients. Mailing lists are
used as a means to share content with subscribers whereby once a message is sent to a mailing list, every person in
the list will receive a copy of the message.
 Instant messaging (IM)

Instant messaging (IM) is a type of online chat that offers real-time text transmission over the Internet
between two parties.

 Internet Relay chat (IRC)

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a text based communication system that allow people to chat with one another on
the Internet within the chart room. It allows people within the same chart room to send and receive instant message
 News group

A newsgroup (discussion group} is an online discussion forum about a particular subject. To participate in a
discussion, a user sends a message to the news group and other users in the news group read and reply to
the message.
 Internet forum (Message board)

An Internet forum, or message board, is an online discussion site where people can hold conversations in the form of
posted messages. .
Voice over internet protocol (VoIP)
This is a technology for sending and receiving voice messages over Internet .
 Usenet

Usenet is a collection of newsgroups where the users can post messages and these posted messages are distributed via
Usenet servers. Each server holds the posted messages for a certain period of time which is also known as retention
time.
 Video conferencing

Video conferencing (or video conference) is a mean of conducting avideo discussion using a set of
telecommunication technologies between two or more participants at different locations by using Internet. Each
participant has a video camera, microphone, and speakers mounted on his or her computer.
Telnet
Telnet is a protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide a bidirectional interactive text-oriented
communication facility using a virtual terminal connection.
 Electronic commerce (e-commerce)

E-commerce (electronic commerce or EC) is an online buying and selling of goods and services using internet.
Examples of transactions conducted online
 Online shopping
 Online banking
Advantages of e – commerce
It operates 24 hours a day hence transactions can be conducted at any time.
Information about a product can be changed and be available quickly (i.e. it is easy to update)
It gives immediate feedback
Allows manufacturers to buy and sell directly hence avoiding the cost of middlemen.
Customers can easily compare prices.
It allows business to gather customer information, analyze it and react appropriately.
Businesses have access to millions of people with internet connections.
It widens the market easily. It can work globally hence saving time for participants on both ends.
Distribution costs for information is reduced or completely eliminated.
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 Social network

This is a dedicated website which enables users to chat, post comments, and share files online by using social media
such as face book, Twitter, . Instagram, WhatsApp, etc.
. Internet banking (e-banking)
Internet banking/electronic baking or online banking is a method used to enable the customers to have easy and safe
access to the bank account in order to carry out online transaction services via the Internet.

 Search Engine (Web Search).

Search engine is a service that allows Internet users to search for content via the World Wide Web (WWW). A user
enters keywords or key phrases into a search engine and receives a list of Web content results in the form of websites,
images, videos or other online data.

The most popular and well-known search engine is Google. Other popular search engines include AOL, Ask.com,
Baidu, Bing and Yahoo.

 Wikis and blogs

A wiki is a website that allows multiple users to create, modify and organize web page content in a collaborative
manner via their web browsers. Wiki documents can be modified by anyone with access to the website. Examples of
a wiki is the Wikipedia

A blog is a website where users post entries that are displayed in reverse chronological order, with the most recent
posting at the top of the page. Blogs can take the form of online diaries, news columns and reports from special
events.

Discussion boards

A discussion board is a discussion forum (online forum) which allows members to hold discussion online about a
particular topic. Discussion is started by one member posting a topic and other members of the same group begin to
reply by sharing information and ideas.

 Portals.

A Web portal is a specially designed website that brings information from diverse sources, like emails, online forums
and search engines, together in a uniform way. Examples of portals include; UNEB portal etc.

 Podcasts.

A podcast, or generically net cast, is an episodic series of digital audio or video files which a user can listen to. It is
often available for subscription, streaming rather than downloading.

 E- Libraries

E-Library /Digital Library is a special library with a collection of digital objects that can include textbooks, visual
material, audio material, video material, stored as electronic media formats as opposed to print, or other media.
 Electronic waste (e-waste)

Electronic waste is a term abbreviated as "E-Waste” refers to the disposal of broken or obsolete electrical and
electronic equipments (EEE) and its parts that have been discarded by the owner as waste without the intention of re-
use such as televisions, stereos, copiers and fax machines.

Netiquette
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Netiquette is a short form of network etiquette or Internet etiquette and its defined as a set of rules for acceptable
online behavior. Similarly, online ethics focuses on the acceptable use of online resources.

In general, netiquette is the set of professional and social etiquettes practiced and advocated in electronic
communication over any computer network. Common guidelines include being courteous and precise, and avoiding
cyber-bullying. Netiquette also dictates that users should obey copyright laws and avoid overusing emoticons.

Rules of netiquette
 Keep messages brief. Use proper grammar, spelling and punctuation.
 Be careful when using sarcasm and humor as it might be misinterpreted.
 Be polite. Avoid offensive language.
 Read the message before you send it.
 Use meaningful subject lines
 Avoid sending or posting flames, which are abusive or insulting messages.
 Avoid sending spam, which is the internet‘s version of junk mail.
 Do not use all capital letters which is equivalent to SHOUTING!
 Read the FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions), if one exists. Many news groups and web pages have a
FAQ.
 Do not assume material is accurate or up-to-date. Be forgiving of other’s mistakes.
 Never read someone’s-mails.
Electronic mail (e-mail)
Electronic Mail is a method of exchanging messages between people using electronic devices. In order for any two
users to receive or exchange E-mail messages online, they must have E- mail addresses. E-mail address is a set of
characters such as letters, number, symbols etc that are required to send and receive emails

E – Mail address
An email address is a set of characters that are required to send and receive emails
Parts of an email address
Email address consist of four parts;
Consider this email address: [email protected]
1. Username: kalemageoffrey
2. @: at
3. Domain name: Gmail
4. Top level domain: com
Username:
A username is a name that uniquely identifies someone’s account on the email server that handles the email.
@:
It separates username or account name from the name of the mail server.
Domain name:
It consists of Email server name (Gmail) that comes after the @ symbol in an email address
A top level domain:
A top level domain refers to the last segment of a domain name, or the part that follows immediately after the "dot"
symbol. It’s usually a three letter extension which shows the type of a particular organization.
Examples of top level domain names
Top-level domain name Purpose of host
.com a business or commercial enterprise (trying to make money)
.ac an academic institution or a university
.edu host is an educational institution
.org a non-commercial organization
.mil Military
.net for network(ISP)
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.gov Government

Country-codes Country
.ca Canada
.au Australia
.nz New Zealand
.ug Uganda
.uk United Kingdom
.za South Africa
Sending and receiving of an email
To send and receive emails, both the sender and the recipient must have the right tools.
 An internet connection
 An email address
 An email client
Email client is software that runs on a personal computer and relies on an internet connection to perform some
of its operations.
It works with ISP (Internet Service Provider) that uses standard internet email protocols that make i possible for
people using different email client software to communicate with one another.
Email message
An email message is a text, typically brief and informal, that is sent or received over a computer network including
attachments (such as image files and spreadsheets). Email message can be sent to multiple recipients at the same time.
Email message comprises of the 3 parts, these are:-
1. Message Header
2. Message Body
3. Message Envelope
Message Headers
The message headers contain information concerning the sender and recipients. The exact content of mail headers can
vary depending on the email system that generated the message. Generally, headers contain the following
information:
From: Contains the E-mail address and the actual name of the sender of the e-mail message.
To: Contains the E-mail address and the actual name of the recipient of the e-mail message
Date: Contains the date and time when the E-mail message is sent.
Cc: Carbon Copy
Contains another E-mail address (es) of recipients to whom the same copy of the E- mail message is
being sent.
The recipients of such an E-mail are able to view the e-mail addresses of all the other recipients who
have received the same mail.
Bcc: Blind Carbon Copy
Contains another E-mail address (es) of recipients to whom the same copy of the E- mail message is
being sent.
But the recipients of such an E-mail are not able to view the e-mail addresses of all the other recipients who
have received the same mail.
Subject: Contains the main theme/topic/content of the mail message.
Message Body
The email body is the main part of an email message. It contains the message's text, images and other data (such as
attachments)
The message body must include salutation, the actual message, complimentary close, and a signature or automatically
generated text that is inserted by the sender's email system.
Message Envelope
When email is handed over from the sending computer to the receiving computer the sending computer declares a
sender address (the “envelope-from", which is the address that bounce messages will go to if delivery fails at a later
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stage) and one or more recipient addresses ("envelope-to").
Notice: For one to create email address and access to e-mail via the Web, he or she is required to enter a
username and a password.
A username is a name that uniquely identifies someone account on the email server that handles the email.
A password is a private combination of characters associated with the user name that allows access to
certain computer resources or to a network. The password helps ensure that unauthorized users do not
access the computer.
Characteristics of a good password
 Should be easy to remember but not too obvious.
 Should be longer, at least eight characters.
 Should have a combination of mixed case letters and digits.
 Should be easy to type without looking at the keyboard.
Avoid the followings with a password
 Using your name, birthday, ID card number or telephone number.
 A password of all digits or all the same letter.
Safeguarding your password
Do not share your password with others
Do not write down your password
Change your password frequently

Advantages of email
 It is very quick to communicate quickly with anyone on the Internet.
 It is a cheap means of transferring files.
 Other computer files can be attached to the email.
 Records and copies are kept automatically online.
 Can be picked up anywhere in the world.
 Can be sent at any time to its destination (it works24-7)
 You can deal with your email at a convenient time.
 You can send letters, notes, files, data, or reports all using the same techniques.
Disadvantages of an email
 A computer and other hardware such as a modem are required hence expensive
 It is not secure
 It is easy to get on junk (useless) mail lists.
 Email isn't necessarily private. Since messages are passed from one system to another, and
sometimes through several systems or networks, there are many opportunities for someone to
intercept or read email
 Some email systems can send or receive text files only.
 It's possible to forge email. This is not common, but it is possible to forge the address of the sender. You
may want to take steps to confirm the source of some email you receive.
 It's difficult to express emotion using email. The recipient doesn't have the benefit of seeing your facial
expressions or hearing your voice.
 In case of any error in the address, email cannot be delivered.
 Email consumes a lot of time hence promoting laziness
 Parcels cannot be delivered via email which limit its usability

WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)

It is where all the Web pages, pictures, videos and other online content can be accessed over the internet using a Web
browser.
Common terms used in World Wide Web
 Web page  Web master
 Web server  Hyperlinks
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 Web publishing software  Web browser

 Domain name  Search engine
 Uniform Resource Locator (URL)  Website

A webpage
A web page is an electronic document or files of information stored on the web /website that contain text, animations,
audio, and video (i.e. multimedia elements), as well as hyperlinks to other documents.
A web server
A web server is a computer that keeps and delivers web pages requested by users.
A webmaster
A web master is an individual person responsible for creating, managing and developing web pages and maintaining a
website.
Hyperlinks
These are built-in links to other related documents, allowing users to quickly navigate from one document to
another when clicked
Hyper text
Hypertext is a web page that has hyperlinks to other WebPages program used to access and view web pages.

Homepage
Home page is the first page (starting page) or the table of contents of a website. Web publishing software
Web publishing software is specially software designed for creating web pages that contain text and
multimedia elements. Examples include: Microsoft FrontPage, Macromedia Dreamweaver, Adobe Go Live,
Adobe Page mill etc.
Domain name
A domain name is one that represents an IP address of a computer on the network. It identifies the organization or
group on the internet.

An example; www.bbc.co.uk
The domain is separated into four parts just like the IP address. A user normally finds it easier to use a domain name
instead of an IP address to access the internet, but the internet protocol only understands IP addresses so the domain
name must be translated(resolved) into an IP address by the DNS server (domain name system)

Domain name system (DNS)

Domain Name System (DNS) is a system on a computer that maps text names to IP addresses automatically.
The Domain Name System (DNS) translates the easily memorized domain names (e.g. www.google.com) to the
numerical IP addresses needed for the purpose of locating computer services and devices worldwide.
For example www.bbc.co.uk
Www; indicates the host server
,bbc; is the name of the organization (second level domain).
.Co; this part of the name is referred to as the top or high level domain name which indicates the type of the
organization.
Domain name hierarchy on the domain name
The hierarchy of domains descends from the right to the left label in the domain. Each label specifies a sub domain of
the domain to the right.
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Different levels of domain name;
 Top level (highest level) domain name
 Second level domain (SLD)
 Third level domain

Top level (highest level) domain name

Top-level domain (TLD) is the last part of an Internet domain name, that is, the group of letters that follow the
final/last dot of a domain name.
Examples of top level domain
 .org
 .gov
 .com
 .net

Commonly used Top level domain names

 .com indicates that the organization is a commercial one i.e. business
 .gov indicates that it is for a government department
 .ac is for an academic organization
 .org is for a non-commercial or non-business organization
 .sc is for a school organization
 .net is for a company that provides internet services

Top level Domain of some countries

 .uk which is the last part of the domain name indicates that the web site is based in the UK.
 Each country has been assigned a two letter code Such as;
 .au for Australia
 .de for German(Deutschland)
 .it for Italy
 .es for Spain (espania)
 .ug for Uganda

Second level domain (SLD)

The second-level domain is the label directly to the left of the top level domain.
Third level domain
This is the part of the domain name that is immediately to the left of the second level domain
For example, given the domain name www.bbc.co.uk
 .uk: The top level domain name
 .co: Second level domain
 .bbc: Third level domain
 Www: The host server

UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATOR (URL)

Uniform Resource Locator and is defined as the global address of documents and other resources on the World Wide
Web.
Uniform Resource Locator is an address that sends users to a specific resource online, such as a webpage, video or
other resource. Example: http://www.yahoo.com/household/stampcollecting/welcome.html

Parts of a Uniform resource locator (URL)

1. The protocol being used, which could be http or ftp
2. The domain name which is the location that contains the file of web page
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3. The path to a web page which may contain a folder name and document file name both of these separated by
forward slashes
4. The query string, or parameters. These are optional but show information about the page/file
5. URLs don’t contain capital letters or spaces, but contains dots and forward slashes.
6. The Forward slashes specify the path to the location of the file needed.

WEB BROWSER (WEB CLIENT)

This is the software program used to access and view web pages. A Web browser is communication software designed
to allow the user to access and view web pages (HTML documents) on the Internet’s World Wide Web.
Examples of web browsers
 Opera  Sea Monkey
 Google Chrome  Camino
 Mozilla Firefox  iCab
 Microsoft Internet Explorer  Mozilla Suite
 Safari  Sunrise
 Netscape

Functions of a web browser

 To request for web pages from a web server when the user type in the uniform resource locator.
 The web browser accesses information from the web server using the HTTP protocol over a network to
communicate with the web server.
 It displays web pages on the screen.
 It is used for steaming video content over the internet.
 Displays multimedia content.
The followings can be done using web browsers
 View hundreds of millions of Web Pages.
 Use mail clients to Send and receive e-mail.
 Download games, music and computer software.
 Chat
 Shop on line
 See and hear recorded broadcasts
 Participate in virtual conferences
 A view channel, a channel is a website that automatically transmits information to your computer at the time you
specify.

SEARCH ENGINES
A search engine is software that allows one to search for web pages on the WWW.
A user enters keywords or key phrases into a search engine and receives a list of Web content

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Examples of search engines

FEATURES OF A SEARCH ENGINE

 All pages are ranked by a computer algorithm not by subject category. They rank the most relevant pages first
or those that register most occurrences of the key word(s) usually more accurate pages are listed before sites
that include unreliable and erroneous material.
 They are huge databases.
 They are not Evaluated-They contain the good and the bad so the user must evaluate everything to determine
its relevance.

How search engines work

When the user types the key words in the search query in the search text box and presses ok button, the search engine
invokes a program that queries its database (a collection of all the web pages it has access to). The results are returned
to the user as a number of possible URL's ranked in priority, the top URLs are the ones with most occurrences of the
query words or phrases used.
Effective use of a search engine
 Note that one can do a more complex search using more than one keyword and linking them together with
“AND” and “OR” or “NOT” (Boolean’s logic)
 Be specific- e.g. if one wants to search about windows 98 bugs, the search query should be “windows 98 bugs”
not just “windows”
 Using the symbols + or - the plus symbol lets you find pages that have all the words in the query e.g. to get pages
that refer to both john and Tom on the same page, use +john +Tom
 Example 2 +computer +studies +schools gives pages on computer studies in schools
 Use the – symbol to eliminate characters from the search.
 Use parentheses to sequence operators and group words. Example; always group words joined by OR with
parentheses.
 Narrow the search query to avoid irrelevant results.

Evaluation of search results

Not all that is published over the internet is good or accurate. So there is need to evaluate what one finds. The
following are the guidelines;
Accuracy
 Is the information accurate?
 Is it reliable and error-free?
 Are the interpretations and implications reasonable?
 Is there evidence to support conclusions?
 Is the evidence verifiable?
 Do the authors properly list their sources, references or citations with dates, page numbers or web addresses,
etc.?

Objectivity
 What is the purpose of information?
 What do the authors want to accomplish?
 Does this purpose affect the presentation?
 Is the information fact, opinion, spoof, or satirical?

Currency
 Is the information current (up to date)?
 Is it still valid?
 When the site was last updated?
 Is the site well-maintained?
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 Are there any broken links?

Coverage
 Is the information relevant to your topic and assignment?
 What is the intended audience?
 Is the material presented at an appropriate level?
 Is the information complete?

A WEBSITE
A web site is a collection of web pages where information of a particular organization or company is stored.
Basic Types of Websites
 News websites  E- Commerce website
 Informational websites  Mobile device websites
 Online Business / marketing websites  Blogs
 Wikis  Personal websites
 Online social networks  Photo sharing websites
 Educational websites

WHY PEOPLE VISIT A WEB SITE

i. To find information they need
ii. To buy something thing online
iii. To get various multimedia elements for entrainment
iv. To be part of the community through social media
v. To complete a task

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD WEB SITE

 A web site must be supported by a reputable institution without bias in the information
 A website should be written at an appropriate level
 It should list the author and the appropriate credentials
 It should be well organized and the links should work well
 The information on the web page should be current
 The pages at the web site should download quickly and be visually pleasing and easy to navigate
 It should contain little advertising and be free of preconceptions

FUNCTIONS OF A WEB SITE

1. It acts as a source of information. It can be used in research to get information on the internet about
advertisements, entertainment, etc.
2. It helps users or a particular organization to share knowledge and information over the internet
3. It provides motivations to the users of an organization
4. It encourages pride of ownership
5. It enhances communication and collaboration
6. It helps in storing important information for an organization.
7. It helps organizations in easy and quick advertisement of their products.
8. It enables organizations to upload and download information to and from the internet respectively.
9. It helps organizations to easily maintain and update the information about them quickly

IMPORTANCE OF A WEB SITE TO A SCHOOL

1. It is used for communication purposes. The school can reach out to a wider audience worldwide, for example,
in school recruitment.
2. Used for mobilization of resources. The website can be used for resource mobilization as it can reach out to a
wide supporting audience.
3. For advertising purposes. The website can provide general information about the school.
4. The website can provide a forum for discussion of issues concerning the school using blogs.
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5. It can be used for teaching and learning in the following ways:
 The website can provide subject content notes to students.
 The website can present an opportunity for developing web designing technology skills for students
directly involved.
 The school community can collaborate with other students worldwide for project based learning.
6. The website can provide a forum for students and teachers to collaborate with others elsewhere.
7. The site can provide a forum for parents and alumni feedback.
8. It can work as a depository (store) where student’s achievement data is posted for easy access by the
stakeholders.
9. It can help teachers to collaborate with other teachers worldwide.
10. The site can be used to publish students and teachers work.

LIMITATIONS OF A WEB SITE TO A SCHOOL

1. Websites are expensive to be constructed. Therefore, some institutions may not be in position to come up
with one.
2. They require a lot of maintenance and update hence becoming expensive and time consuming.
3. They limit customers from directly interfacing with the business men. This makes customers to
sometimes be cheated.
4. Very many people and organizations are creating websites with a lot of information which is not
legitimate and some organizations lay the public through the websites.

TOPIC 13:
SYSTEM SECURITY, PRIVACY AND ICT ETHICAL ISSUES AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
Computer security system
Computer system security is the ability of a computer system to protect information and system resources with
regards to confidentiality and integrity. It refers to all processes and mechanisms by which computer based
equipment, information and services are protected from unauthorized access or destruction including unplanned
events and disasters.
Forms of computer security system
There are two forms or categories of computer security systems;
 Physical security
 Data security

Physical security; is the protection of personal programs, networks and data from physical circumstances and events
that could lead to damage. The protection includes protection from fire, natural disasters, buglers, theft, vandalism
and terrorism.
In order to protect the physical equipment, the following physical security access control measures must be put in
place;
 Use physical access controls such as locked doors and windows.
 Use cables to lock the equipment to desk, cabinet or floor.
 Install alarm systems to warn you in case of any intrusion
 Use passwords, and biometric devices.
 Install surveillance cameras to help you in easy monitoring of the hardware
 Putting up strong burglar poof doors and windows to avoid thieves
 Ensure that fire extinguisher is fixed in the computer lab in case of any emergency fire outbreak

 Consider installing a security alarm at a strategic point in case of a breakage.

 Do not welcome strangers into the computer room.
 Employing security guards to the entrance of the facilities
A possessed object is any item that one must carry to gain access to a computer or computer facility such
as card key to secure physical area
DATA SECURITY; refers to the methods of protecting a database from destructive forces and unwanted actions of

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unauthorized users. For data protection to be ensured the user must employ both hardware and software based
security mechanisms such as;
 Keep a copy of your data off site in case of any firebreak.
 Make regular backups of critical data. A backup: is a duplicate of a file, program or disk that can be used if
the original is lost, damaged or destroyed
 Protect data files by using password mechanism
 Install intrusion detection software to provide extra protection against hackers and other intruders.
 Use data masking. Data masking is the process of obscuring a specific data within a database table to ensure
that data is maintain and sensitive information is not exposed to unauthorized user.
 Install reliable antivirus programs on your computer system and update it regularly.
 You can use steganography program to hide data inside another data.
 Use encryption mechanism. Encryption is the process of transforming plain text or data into cipher
(unreadable) text that cannot be read by anyone other than the sender and the receiver. It is a process of
covering readable data into unreadable characters to prevent unauthorized access.
 Install a firewall-The key defense against Internet attackers is an Internet firewall.
 Avoid e-mail Attachments from Unknown Sources.
 Avoid booting computers from infected floppies.
 Avoid downloading programs from unknown/unlicensed sources.

INTERNET AND NETWORK ATTACK (HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE THREATS)

Internet and Network attacks are the “criminal offenses” done with use of the Internet and computer networks in
connection to hardware and software that are accessible to unauthenticated users.
Information transmitted over networks has a higher degree of security risk than information kept on a company‘s
premises.
Even a computer not connected into network; an intruder can still have access to the hard drives and destroy including
the data saved on them. Therefore, the security of computer hardware and its components is necessary including
protection of overall data.
Below are the most common and most damaging forms of security threats to network and Internet users and site
operators:
 Malware
 Unwanted programs,
 Phishing and identity theft,
 Hacking and cyber vandalism
 Credit card fraud/theft,
 Spoofing (pharming)
 Denial of Service
 Sniffing, insider attacks,
 Poorly designed server and client software
 Every unprotected computer is susceptible to the attack from malicious code.
Malware
Malware is software designed to infiltrate or damage a computer system without the owner's informed consent.
Malware is a general term used by computer professionals to mean a variety of forms of hostile, intrusive, or
annoying software/code.
Unwanted Programs:
These are programs on the internet that install themselves on a computer without the user‘s consent such as adware,
spyware, browser parasite.

Phishing and Identity Theft

Phishing is any deceptive (misleading/false), online attempt by a third party to obtain confidential information for
financial gain.
Hacking and Cyber vandalism:
A hacker is an individual who intends to gain unauthorized access to a computer system. Cyber vandalism is the act
of intentionally destroying computer equipment disrupting, defacing, or even destroying the site.
Credit Card Fraud/Theft:
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Theft of credit card data is one of the most feared occurrences on the Internet. Fear that credit card information will
be stolen frequently prevents users from making online purchases.
Spoofing (Pharming):
Spoofing is also called pharming. It involves redirecting a Web link to an address different from the Intended one,
with the site masquerading as the intended destination.
Denial of Service:
A denial of service attack is an assault whose purpose is to disrupt computer access to an Internet service such as
the Web or e-mail.
Sniffing:
A sniffing is a type of eavesdropping (spying) program that monitors information traveling over a network.

DEFENSE AGAINST INTERNET AND NETWORK ATTACKS

 Use a firewall

This is a software program that monitors all incoming and outgoing network traffic and allows only the connections
that are known and trusted.

 Use antivirus software and keep it up-to-date

 Regularly check for spyware and adware
 Don’t open unknown email attachments

Don’t open any email attachments unless they are authored by a person or company that you trust.

 Disable hidden filename extensions

 Disable Java and ActiveX if possible

 Turn off your computer or disconnect from the network when not in use

 Make regular backups of important data

Route information through a proxy server

Proxy servers are software servers that handle all communications originating from or being sent to the Internet,
acting as a spokesperson or bodyguard for the organization.
 Install intrusion detection software;
Intrusion detection software automatically analyzes vulnerabilities, identifies any unauthorized intrusions, and
notifies network administrators of suspicious behavior patterns or system breaches.
Set of honey pots;
A honey pot is a vulnerable computer that is set up to entice an intruder to break into it.
Solutions to network security problems
 Encryption all important files

Encryption involves converting data into a form that cannot be easily understood by others.
 Use Biometric devices.

This is a form of identity access management and access control which uses measurable physical and behavioral
characteristics of individuals as a way of identifying them as the authentic users. Examples of biometrics that might
be used to authenticate a user include fingerprints, retinal patterns, or speech/voice.
 Avoid booting computers from infected floppies.
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 Avoid downloading programs from unknown/unlicensed sources.

COMPUTER VIRUS
A computer virus is a computer program that can copy itself and infect a computer without permission or knowledge
of the user making it to malfunction.
It is a computer program designed to damage or makes a computer to malfunctions.
Computer viruses are basically designed to carry out two tasks i.e.
 To be able to replicate themselves from one computer to another

 To be able to position themselves in a computer system and destroy software programs.

Types of computer viruses
Computer viruses are categorized into two;
 Non-resident viruses
 Resident viruses

Non-resident viruses
Non resident viruses are viruses that which search quickly for other hosts that can be infected.
Resident viruses
Resident viruses are types of viruses that do not search for hosts when they are started instead they load themselves
into memory during execution.
These types of viruses’ dwell in the RAM memory. From there it can interrupt all of the operations executed by the
system: corrupting files and programs that are opened, closed, copied, renamed etc.
Examples of resident viruses;
 Multipartite Viruses  Polymorphic Virus
 Direct Action Viruses  File Infectors
 Boot Virus  Network Virus
 Directory Virus
 Macro Virus
Multipartite Viruses: Multipartite viruses are distributed through infected media and usually hide in the memory.
Gradually, the virus moves to the boot sector of the hard drive and infects executable files on the hard drive.
Direct Action Viruses: The main purpose of this virus is to replicate and take action when it is executed. When a
specific condition is met, the virus will go into action and infect files in the directory or folder that it is in.

Boot Virus: This type of virus affects the boot sector of a hard disk. This is a crucial part of a disk, where a program
that makes it possible to boot (start) the computer are found.
Macro Virus: Macro viruses infect files that are created using certain applications or programs that contain macros.
Directory Virus: Directory viruses change the paths that indicate the location of a file. By executing a program
which has been infected by a virus, you are unknowingly running the virus program, while the original file and
program have been previously moved by the virus. Once infected it becomes impossible to locate the original files.
Polymorphic Virus: Polymorphic viruses encrypt or encode themselves in a different way (using different
algorithms and encryption keys) every time they infect a system.
Network Virus: Network viruses rapidly spread through a Local Network Area (LAN), and sometimes throughout
the internet. Generally, network viruses multiply through shared resources, i.e., shared drives and folders.
SOURCES OF COMPUTER VIRUS
1. Fake games
2. Through use of contaminated disks on several computers.
3. Through using pirated software.
4. Through using freeware and shareware from the internet. since these are free, they are good grounds for
distributing viruses. They also in most cases contain bugs which may turn into viruses unintentionally
5. Through software updates most especially over the internet or other networks.
6. Through sharing of data in a network.

HOW COMPUTER VIRUSES SPREAD

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 Booting a PC from an infected medium such as a floppy.

 Executing an infected program.
 Opening an infected file.
 A virus can only spread from one computer to another when its host is taken to the uninfected computer.
 Viruses can spread to other computers over a network by infecting files on a network file system or a file system
that is accessed by other computers.
 Viruses often travel via e-mail attachments. E-mail messages by themselves do not carry viruses. Only .exe, .com
or other types of executable files can carry a virus.
 Diskette swapping: using other people’s diskettes for carrying data and programs to and from affects the
computer. Swapping means exchange of materials from one person to another.
 Via networking connection: when people are trying to connect to the internet, they acquire man made virus that
affects their programs.
 Via file down loading: downloading of files from the internet can spread viruses to your computer.
 Via computer laboratory where different users make unknown applications.
 Via peripheral devices that uses parallel parts of connection.

SYMPTOMS OF COMPUTER VIRUSES

 The computer runs slower than usual.
 The computer stops responding, or it locks up frequently.
 The computer restarts on its own.
 Applications on the computer do not work correctly.
 Disks or disk drives are inaccessible.
 Strange error messages appear on the screen
 An antivirus program cannot be installed on the computer, or the antivirus program will not run.
 New icons appear on the desktop that you did not put there, or the icons are not associated with any recently
installed programs.
 Strange sounds or music plays from the speakers unexpectedly.
 A program disappears from the computer even though you did not intentionally uninstall it
 It shuts down unexpectedly or crashes frequently.
 It experiences memory problems or runs out of disc space.
 Unusual files or directories appear on your system.

EFFECTS OF COMPUTER VIRUSES

1. Some viruses are programmed to damage the computer by damaging programs, deleting files, or reformatting the
hard disk. Others simply replicate themselves and perhaps make their presence known by presenting text, video,
or audio messages.
2. They take up computer memory used by legitimate programs.
3. They can result in system crashes and data loss.
4. They can prevent a computer from booting.
5. The computer may freeze
6. Files on the computer become corrupted
7. Failure to do print jobs
8. Computers may fail to save or accessing a file to save
9. A computer gives un usual sound
10. It becomes very slow in operation
11. Files go on missing/ cannot be seen
12. Expected files increase in size
13. The computer take time to respond to instructions
14. There will be changes in operation of peripheral devices such as mouse and printers.
15. There will be permanent damages to data files and computer programs.

HOW TO CONTROL COMPUTER VIRUS?

Do not use media like diskettes, backup tapes, CDs from unknown sources.
Scan all foreign media for viruses.
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Install antivirus software;

Ensure that the anti – virus software is up to date;
Employ a firewall to protect networks;
Filter all email traffic
Educate all users to be careful of suspicious-mails;
Scan internet downloads;
Don’t run programs of unknown origin;
 Make regular backups of critical data. A backup: is a duplicate of a file, program or disk that can be used
if the original is lost, damaged or destroyed.
OTHER FORMS OF MALICIOUS ATTACKS
Time bomb
It is a program code that is activated when it detects a certain condition or event. These events can be famous days
like Valentine, Fools – day, etc.
Droppers
These are programs that have been written to perform useful tasks like compressing files, previewing video clips,
etc. and in the process of performing those tasks; they introduce viruses in the system.
Bugs:
A bug is unintentional fault in a program that is normally misinterpreted as a real virus. Moat complex software in
computer systems normally contains bugs. Minor bugs normally cause simple inconveniences while major bugs can
cause loss of data
Adware
It is a program that displays an online advertisement in a banner or pop-up window on Web pages, email, or other
Internet services.
Browser parasite
It is a program that can monitor and change the settings of a user‘s browser.
Spyware
It is a program placed on a computer without the user's knowledge that secretly collects information about the user
e.g. email address, instant messages, etc.
Worms
A worm is a computer program that sits in the computer‘s memory, rewrites itself continuously into the
memory until the system runs out of memory and crushes. It differs from a virus in that the―reproduced
segments keep communicating with the mother code to function.
Trojan horse
It is a small program code hidden within legitimate software. Unlike a virus or a worm, a Trojan horse doesn‘t have
the ability to replicate itself but it is often a way for viruses or other malicious code such as bots to be introduced into
a computer system. They continue to operate as legitimate software until at such a time that they are activated to
cause trouble
Bots
Are a type of malicious code that can be covertly (secretly) installed on your computer when attached to the Internet.
Once installed, the bot responds to external commands sent by the attacker, and your computer becomes―zombie, and
is able to be controlled by an external third party
MEANING OF HACKING
Hacking refers to unauthorized intrusion into a computer or a network. The person engaged in hacking activities is
known as a hacker. Hacker may alter system or security features to accomplish a goal that differs from the original
purpose of the system.
Hackers employ a variety of techniques for hacking, including:
Vulnerability scanner: That is checking computers on networks for known weaknesses
Password cracking: the process of recovering passwords from data stored or transmitted by computer systems by
guessing for the password repeatedly.
Packet sniffer: applications that capture data packets in order to view data and passwords in transit over networks
Spoofing attack: involves websites which falsify data by mimicking legitimate sites, and they are therefore treated as
trusted sites by users or other programs
Root kit: represents a set of programs which work to subvert control of an operating system from legitimate operators
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Trojan horse: serves as a back door in a computer system to allow an intruder to gain access to the system later
Viruses: self-replicating programs that spread by inserting copies of themselves into other executable code files or
documents
Denial of service: This is an attempt to make a computer or network resources unavailable to its intended user.
Key loggers: tools designed to record every keystroke on the affected machine for later retrieval
Meaning of Denial of Service
Denial-of-service attack is a cyber-attack in which the perpetrator seeks to make a machine or network resource
unavailable to its intended users by temporarily or indefinitely disrupting services of a host connected to the Internet.
Hackers use DoS attacks to prevent legitimate uses of computer network resources.
Denial of service attacks are characterized by;
Attempt to flood a network, attempt to disrupt connections between two computers, attempts to prevent an individual
from accessing a service or attempts to disrupt service to a specific system or person. Those on the receiving end of a
denial of service attack may lose valuable resources, such as their e-mail services, Internet access or their Web server.
Common Denial of Service Attacks
Buffer Overflow
The condition in which data transferred to a buffer exceeds the storage capacity of the buffer and some of the data
overflows into another buffer, one that the data was not intended to go into hence corrupting data that is already
contained in that buffer
Ping of Death
A type of denial of service attack in which the attacker sends a ping request that is larger than 65,536 bytes, which
cause a buffer overload on the operating at the receiving end hence crashing the system.
Smurf Attack
A type of network security breach in which a network connected to the Internet is swamped with replies to ping
requests. A smurf attacker sends PING requests to an Internet broadcast address. These are special addresses that
broadcast all received messages to the hosts connected to the subnet. When a single attacker sends hundreds or
thousands of ping messages the ping replies bring the entire internet service down.
TCP SYN Attack
In a SYN attack, a sender transmits a volume of connections that cannot be completed. This causes the connection
queues to fill up, thereby denying service to legitimate TCP users.
Teardrop
A Teardrop is a type of denial of service attack where fragmented packets are forged to overlap each other when the
receiving host tries to reassemble them.
Denial of service attack control
 Installing and maintaining anti-virus software
 Installing a firewall, and configuration to restrict traffic coming into and leaving your computer
 Follow good security practices for distributing your email address.
Computer crime
Computer crimes are criminal activities which involve the use of information technology to gain an illegal or
unauthorized access to a computer system with the intent of damaging, deleting, or altering computer data.

DIFFERENT FORMS (TYPES) OF COMPUTER CRIMES

Child pornography - Making or distributing child pornography.
Cracking - Breaking or deciphering codes that are being used to protect data.
Cyber terrorism - Hacking, threats, and blackmailing towards a business or person.
Cyber bully or Cyber stalking - Harassing others online.
Creating Malware - Writing, creating, or distributing malware (e.g., viruses and spyware.)
Denial of Service attack - Overloading a system with so many requests it cannot serve normal requests.
Espionage - Spying on a person or business.
Fraud - Manipulating data, e.g., changing banking records to transfer money to an account.
Harvesting - Collect account or other account related information on other people.
Identity theft - Pretending to be someone you are not.
Intellectual property theft - Stealing practical or conceptual information developed by another person or company.
Phishing - Deceiving individuals to gain private or personal information about that person.
Salami slicing - Stealing tiny amounts of money from each transaction.
Scam - Tricking a person into believing something that is not true.
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Spamming - Distributed unsolicited e-mail to dozens or hundreds of different addresses.
Spoofing/Pharming - Deceiving a system into thinking you are someone you really are not.
Unauthorized access - Gaining access to systems you have no permission to access.
Wiretapping - Connecting a device to a phone line to listen to conversations.
Sniffing: The act of intercepting internet protocol packets while getting transferred on a network
Eavesdropping: The act of secretly listening to the private conversation of others without their consent

ETHICAL ISSUES IN ICT

Ethics, is a set of moral principles that govern the behavior of a group or individual. Therefore, computer ethics is set
of moral principles that regulate the use of computers.
Common Ethical Issues In ICT
The most common ethical issues that need to be address in the ICT industry include;
Label issue: Libel is the publication of a false statement that injuries one’s business or personal reputation.
Plagiarism: Plagiarism means using someone intellectual property such as ideas and written works and claim that
ideas is yours
Software piracy: Software piracy refers to the act of installing a copy of software into your computer without
authorization.
Misuse: Misuse is the use of the harmful acts such as hacking, spamming, cracking etc.
Copyright infringement: copyright infringement refers to the act of copying property without the written permission
from the copyright owner.

IT CODES OF CONDUCT

Codes of conduct are written guidelines that help to determine whether a specific action is ethical or unethical.

IT Ethical Codes of Conduct

 Don’t use a computer to harm other people.

 Don’t interfere with other people’s computer works
 Do not open people’s computer files without their permission
 Do not use a computer for stealing
 Do not use a computer to bear false witness
 Do not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid
 Do not use other people’s computer resources without their authorization
 Do not use other people’s intellectual property output
 Always use computer in a way that ensure consideration and respect for other people
 Think about the consequences of the program you are designing.

Unethical IT Codes of Conduct

 Modifying people’s information on the internet without authorization

 Selling someone information to other parties without the owner’s permission
 Using someone information or resources without authorization
 Stealing of computer software
 Sending or posting flames which are so abusive or insulting messages
 Invasion of privacy
 Using capital letters which is equivalent to shouting

Definition of; INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

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It also includes other types of rights, such as trade secrets, publicity rights, moral rights, and rights against unfair
competition.
Types of Intellectual Property

Copyright
Copyright is a legal term used to describe the rights that creators have over their literary and artistic works. Works
covered by copyright range from books, music, paintings, sculpture and films, to computer programs, databases,
advertisements, maps and technical drawings.

Patents
A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention. Generally speaking, a patent provides the patent owner with
the right to decide how - or whether - the invention can be used by others. In exchange for this right, the patent owner
makes technical information about the invention publicly available in the published patent document.

Trademarks
A trademark is a sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one enterprise from those of other enterprises.
Trademarks date back to ancient times when artisans used to put their signature or "mark" on their products.

Definition of information privacy

Privacy is the moral right of individuals to be left alone, free from surveillance or interference from other
individuals or organizations, including the state.
Information Privacy refers to the right individuals, companies or organizations have to deny or restrict the
collection and use of information about them.

DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF INFORMATION PRIVACY AND VIOLATION

 The use of Global Positioning system (GPS) and (RFID) technologies has led to the violation of information
privacy for example GPS which is use to tack the movement of people by mobile signals, and the use of
Radio frequency identification (RFID) enable companies to track their customer’s purchases and profile their
behaviors.
 Online services such as flight tickets, hotel bookings, and internet banking has made people to provide some
important private information to other organizations.
 Online social services such as email, what sap, twitter, face book etc are essential communication tools these
days but they are not secure ways to protect privacy.
 Individual’s personal data these days can be traced and gained through databases, spyware and cookies which
give providers wider chances to access personal information.

A cookie is a small text file that a Web server stores on your computer that allows a site to track the actions of its
visitors. E-commerce, Webcasting, and other Web applications often rely on cookies to identify users and track
information about viewers, customers, and subscribers.
A cookie resides on an individual’s hard drive, but does not interact with other information stored on the system.
MEANING OF EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
These technologies are generally new but include older technologies that are still controversial. Prediction suggest
that with the rapid advancements in information and communication technology more new technologies and
computer related devices are emerging up which will bring a lot of impacts in all aspects of life.
Lists of Emerging Technologies
Artificial intelligence
Artificial Intelligence is a group of related technologies that attempt to develop machines to emulate human like
learning, reasoning, communicating, seeing and hearing.
Three Dimensional (3D) optical storage media
This is a form of optical data storage in which data and information can be written, read and recorded with three
dimensional resolutions opposed by two dimensional resolution media such as CD and DVD.
Fourth generation (4G0 cellular communication
4G cellular communication is a system that provides mobile ultra-broad band internet access to laptops, USB wireless
modems, smart phones, and to other mobile devices. It is a successor of 3G cellular communication.

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Radio Frequency identification
Radiofrequency identification is the use of a wireless non-contact system that uses radio frequency electromagnetic
fields to transfer from a tag attached to an object for the purpose of automatic identification and tracking.
Three Dimensional (3D) printing
3D printing is a combined system with Internet technology allow for digital blueprints of virtually material products
to be sent instantly to another person to be produced on the spot, making purchasing a product online immediately.
Distributed ledger technology
Distributed ledger is a technology which provides transparent and immutable lists autonomous transactions through
the use of smart contracts. A smart contract is a vending machine that holds goods until money has been received and
then the goods are released to the buyer. The machine holds the property and is able to enforce the contract. There
were two main issues that needed to be addressed before smart contracts could be used in the real world. The first one
is the control of physical assets by smart contract to be able to enforce agreements. Secondly, the last of trustworthy
computers that is reliable and trusted to execute the contract between two or more parties.
Application areas of Emerging technologies
 The use of mobile phones allows transfer or transaction of money from any bank or credit line and vice versa.
 The application of Radio Frequency identification in the area of identification and tracking of assets use by
many legal firms
 One of the most common applications of car phones is in charging iPhones and other tablets freeing many
people from the worry of charring their devices.
 The application of digital forensics in criminal investigation before a criminal is presented before the court of
law.
 The application of smart contract machine for holding goods until money has been received and then the
goods are released to the buyer by business companies.
ADVANTAGES OF EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

Easy Access to Information

It has become pretty easy to get access to relevant information at anytime and anywhere. This has been possible
because of modern technologies like broadband internet.

Lots of data is being published and indexed online, sites like Wikipedia and YouTube have great original content that
is regularly used for research or entertainment.

With smart gadgets like the iPod, iPhone, Galaxy tablets, etc., users can easily have access to a vast amount of
information wherever they are through the use of the internet.

Encourages Innovation and Creativity

Today, it is simple to start a business while at home. On this platform, creative developers post projects to
seek funding from the community; this helps them generate capital for their ideas which later leads to the creation of
new jobs and further innovation of technology.

Improved Communication

Modern technology has blessed us with advanced communication technology tools. These include e-fax, electronic
mail, mobile phones, video conferencing, instant text messaging applications, social networking, etc.

The Convenience of Traveling/ Ease of Mobility

Modern transportation technology makes it very easy to travel long distances. Transport is a very important both in
our lives and in the business world. Transportation technology has evolved with years. Improved Housing and
Lifestyle

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New architectural technology has improved the kinds of home we build. People with money can afford floating
homes, and glass homes, mobile homes. Most of the items in our houses are now automated, for example, doors use
fingerprints, key cards, or Bluetooth on our mobile.

Improved Entertainment

Modern technology has played a significant role in changing the entertainment industry. Home entertainment has
improved with the invention of video games, advance music systems and visual systems like smart televisions, robot.

Efficiency and Productivity

Modern technology has helped businesses increase production. Humans are slow, and sometimes they fail to deliver
on time and quality. Many companies have integrated modern technology in their production line, increasing output
and allowing for more consistent quality.

Convenience in Education

Modern technology has made it simple for students to learn from anywhere through online education and mobile
education. Also, students now use modern technology in classrooms to learn more effectively. Social Networking

Modern technology has made it simple to discover our old friends and also discover new people to network with; this
is a benefit to both individuals and businesses. Many businesses have embraced social networking technology to
interact with their customers.

Benefits to the Health Industry

Today most hospitals have implemented modern technology in surgical rooms, and this has reduced mistakes made
by doctors. Humans can easily make mistakes because of work overload and stress factors. Additionally, health apps
emerged that enable us to monitor our health, weight or fitness.

DISADVANTAGES OF EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

Increased Loneliness

Social Isolation is on the increase, people are spending more time playing video games, learning how to use new
modern technologies, using social networks and they neglect their real life. Technology has replaced our old way of
interacting. If a user can easily interact with 100 friends online, they will feel no need to go out to make new friends
which at a later stage can lead to loneliness.

Job Loss

Modern technology has replaced many human jobs; robots are doing the jobs which used to be done by humans.
Many packing firms have employed robots on production lines to increase production and efficiency but it is bad
news for employees because they may become redundant.

Excessive dependency:

Increased dependencies on modern tools and applications like calculators and spelling checkers have reduced
creativity. This affected the way we use our brains. Also depending on machines and modern transportation put
people at a distinct disadvantage, because they became less self – reliant.

Security

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Due to the network of worldwide devices and systems, many have fallen prey to an identity thief, hacked accounts by
some mischievous hacker.

World Destruction/Advanced Weapons

Modern technology has been the main aid in the increasing of endless wars. It aids the manufacturing of modern war
weapons. So when these weapons get into the hands of criminals, they will use them for their selfish reasons. To add,
these weapons often severely damage the natural earth, making some areas uninhabitable.

High Maintenance costs

It is expensive to buy technology, but it is also costly to maintain it. Many small businesses cannot afford the cost of
hiring a full-time technical person, so they resort to monthly tech contractors who charge them for work done.

DIGITAL FORENSICS
Digital forensics, is a branch of forensic science encompassing the recovery and investigation of material found in
digital devices, often in relation to computer crime. The term digital forensics was originally used as a synonym
for computer forensics but has expanded to cover investigation of all devices capable of storing digital data.

Figure: A portable Tableau write-blocker

Digital Forensic Process (Stages)

The digital forensic process has got five basic stages;
Identification: The first stage is to identify potential sources of relevant evidence/information (devices) as well as
key custodians and location of data.
Preservation: This is the process of preserving relevant electronically stored information by protecting the crime or
incident scene, capturing visual images of the scene and documenting all relevant information about the evidence and
how it was acquired.
Collection: Collecting digital information that may be relevant to the investigation which involve removing the
electronic device(s) from the crime or incident scene and then imaging, copying or printing out its (their) content.
Analysis: The purpose of the analysis is to draw conclusions based on the evidence found.
Reporting: Providing reports basing on proven techniques and methodology and other reports provided by competent
forensic examiners by duplicating and reproduce the same results.
Branches of Digital Forensics
Computer forensics
Computer forensic is a branch of forensic related to the identification, preservation, collection, analysis and reporting
on evidence found on computers, laptops and storage media in support of investigations and legal proceedings. The
goal of computer forensics is to explain the current state of a digital artifact (object), such as a computer system,
storage medium or electronic document.
Mobile device forensics
It is a branch of digital forensics relating to recovery of digital evidence or data from mobile devices such as mobile
phones, smart phones, SIM cards, PDAs, GPS devices, tablets and game consoles.
Network forensics
It is a branch of forensic concerned with the monitoring and analysis of computer network traffic from both LAN
and WAN/internet, for the purposes of gathering information, collection of evidence and detection of intrusion in
a network.

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Database forensics
It is a branch of digital forensics relating to the forensic study of databases and their metadata. Investigations use
database contents, log files and in-RAM data to recover relevant information.
Advantages of Digital forensics

Disadvantages of Digital forensics

 The privacy of the client may be compromised in some cases. This normally happens if the information is
necessary to prove the crime and should be produced as the evidence in the court of law to prove the crime.
 It is also possible that some sensitive data or information to the client may be lost in order to find the
evidence.
 There are also chances of introduction of some malicious programs such as viruses or worms in the
computer system that may corrupt the data at a later stage of time.
 It is also possible that the hardware of the device system is damaged physically.
 Physically extracted and relevant evidence may be destroyed or lost.
 It is possible in some cases the operations cost may exceed. Steps should be taken to minimize the
costs.
 Data may be corrupted / modified in the process as they try to retrieve for lost or hidden data.
 The cost to maintain a laboratory containing appropriate computers, computer analysis tools, and
software and security implements to safeguard information can be enormous.
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN ICT - INDUSTRY
This refers to the job titles or professions related to information communication (ICT). The high growth
rate in ICT industry has resulted into many new kinds of jobs and careers.
These careers include;
Computer Operators
Responsibilities
 Entering data into the computer for processing
 Keeping up-to-date records of all information processing activities
Computer Technician
Is a person responsible for the maintenance, upgrading and repairing of computers and related devices.
Responsibilities
 Troubleshooting computer hardware and software related problems
 Assembling and upgrading computers and their components
 Ensuring that all computer related accessories such as printers, modems, storage media and devices are in a
good working condition.
Systems Analyst.
This is a person who is responsible for analyzing a company‘s needs or problems, then designs and develops a
computer based information system to help prevent the problem.
Responsibilities
 Reviewing the current manual or redundant information system and making recommendations
on how to replace it with a more efficient one.
 Working with programmers to construct and test the system.
 Coordinating training for users on how to use the new system
Computer Programmer.
Responsibilities
 Writing application programs or system programs.
 Customizing commercial application package to suite the organization needs.
 Testing, debugging, installing and maintaining programs developed or customized for the
organization.
Software Developer (Engineer)

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Software developer is a person who is skilled in software development and technical operation of computer
hardware.
Responsibilities
 Developing system and application software
 Developing user and technical documentations for the new software.
 Maintaining and updating the software to meet day to day requirements while overcoming
challenges.
Computer Engineer
Computer engineer is a technical person with skills and knowledge of designing and developing computer
components such as storage devices, motherboards, and other electronic components.
Responsibilities
 Determine the electrical power requirement of each computer component.
 Re – engineer computer components to enhance its functionality and efficiency.
 Design and develop engineering and manufacturing computer controlled devices such asrobots.
Information Systems Manager
Responsibilities
 He controls, plans, staffs, schedules and monitors all the activities of the ICT department in the
organization.
 Test the impact that an alternative course of action might have on the business.
 Ensures that all tasks in the IT department are done correctly and on time in order to support business
planning, control and decision making process.
 Prepares budgets for the ICT department.
 Keeps the department‘s inventory records up-to-date.
 Managing the human resource within the ICT department.
Database Administrators(DBA)
Responsibilities
 Designing and developing database applications for the organization.
 Setting up security measures needed to control access to data and information.
 Keeping the database up-to-date by adding new records, modifying or deleting unnecessary records.
Computer Trainer/Instructor/Teacher
Due to the dynamic nature of computers and information technology, there is a high demand for qualified ICT
trainers.
Responsibilities
 Training people on how to use a computer and various application programs.
 Developing training reference materials
 Guiding learners on how to acquire knowledge through carrying out research.
 Advising the learners on the best career opportunities in the broad field of ICT.
 Preparing learners for ICT examinations.
Website Administrator /Webmaster
Responsibilities
 Developing and testing websites
 Maintaining, updating and modifying information on the websites to meet new demands by the
users.
 Monitoring the access and use of internet connection by enforcing security measures.
 Downloading information needed by an organization or institution from the internet websites.
Computer Graphics Designer
This is a professional responsible who creates either graphics or 3D animations for software programs, games, movies
by etc. This person must have a good understanding of graphic software such as Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator,
etc
Network Administrator
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 Simplified “A” level ICT Departmental Notes.
This is a professional person responsible for designing, setting up and maintaining a network
Responsibilities
 Monitoring the network resources
 Troubleshooting network related problems
Secretary
A secretary is a person who uses computers to keep all the necessary information instead of keeping paper
files. He creates documents and keeps them.
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