Land resources

Land resources mean the resources available from the land, thus the agricultural land which contain natural fertilizer for
growth of the products sown; the underground water, the various minerals like coal, gold and other raw materials. Land
resource refers to the land available for exploitation, like non agricultural lands for buildings, developing townships etc.
Land is a major resource because it is required for :food production, animal husbandry, industry, and growing human
settlements.
Land use has been defined as “the arrangements, activities and inputs people undertake in a certain land cover to produce,
change or maintain it”. Land use denotes how humans use the biophysical or ecological properties of land. Land use
includes modification and or management of land for agriculture, settlements, forestry and other uses including those that
exclude humans from land, as in the designation of nature reserves for conservation.
Land use patterns can be parsimoniously characterized in four dimensions:
 degree of centralization or decentralization (urban form),
 ratio of population or jobs to area (density),
 diversity of functional land uses such as residential and industrial (grain), and
 extent of interrelation and availability of multiple modes of circulation for people and goods among local
destinations (connectivity).
The important types of land use in the country are as follows:
Net Sown Area(NSA)
• The cropped area in the year under consideration is called net sown area. This type of land use is
significant, as agricultural production largely depends upon this type of land.This accounts for about 06% of the
total reporting area of India, i.e. 141.58 million hectares; as against the world average of 32%
Area sown more than once
As the name indicates, this area is used to grow more than once crop in a year
• The total cropped area has increased from 185.34 million ha in 2000-01 to 198.97 ha in 2010-11This means
that the area sown more than once has increased from 44 million ha in 2000-01, to 57.39 million ha in 2010-11. The
area under this category comprises of land with rich fertile soils and regular water supply
Forest Area
• This includes all land classified either as forest under legal enactment, or administered as forest whether
state owned/private and whether wooded or maintained as potential forest land.The area of crops grown in the
forest and grazing lands or areas open for grazing within the forests remain included under the forest
area.According to National Forest Policy 1952, the reporting area of the forest must be 3% of the total land.
Land not available for cultivation
This class consists of two types of land
• Land put to non-agricultural uses
• Barren and uncultivable waste
 The area put to non-agricultural uses includes land occupied by villages, towns, roads, railways or under
water i.e. rivers, lakes, canals, tanks, ponds, etc.
 The barren land covers all barren and uncultivated lands in mountainous and hill slopes, deserts and rocky
area, And these areas cannot be brought under plough, except at high input cost with possible low returns.
Permanent pastures and other grazing lands
• A total area of 10.3 million ha is devoted to permanent pastures and other grazing lands.This amounts to
about 4% of the total reporting area of the country. The area presently under pastures and other grazing lands is not
sufficient keeping in view the large population of livestock in the country.
Land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves
• This includes all cultivable land which is not included under NSA, but is put to some agricultural use.Land
under casuarina trees, thatching grass, bamboo, bushes, other groves for fuel, that are not included under orchard
are classed under this category.
Land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves
 • This includes all cultivable land which is not included under NSA, but is put to some agricultural use. Land
under casuarina trees, thatching grass, bamboo, bushes, other groves for fuel, that are not included under orchard
are classed under this category.
Fallow lands
• This category includes all that land, which was used for cultivation but is temporarily out of cultivationIt is
of two types: Current fallowand Fallow other than current fallow
• Fallow of one year is called current fallow, while that of 2-5 years is classified as ‘fallow other than current
fallow’.
• Current Fallow land amounted to 5% of the reported area in 2010-11 and fallow other than current fallow,
amounted to 3% of the reported areas
What is tragedy of the commons ?
The tragedy of the commons is the tendency of a shared, limited resource to become depleted because people act from
self-interest for short-term gain. When many individuals share a common resource without agreement on or regulation
of its use, it is likely to become overused very quickly. The tragedy of the commons applies not only to agriculture, but
to any publicly available resource that is not regulated, including land, air, and water
The tragedy of the commons is the result of an economic phenomenon called a negative externality. An externality is a
cost or benefit of a good or service that is not included in the purchase price of that good or service. For example, if a
bakery moves into the building next to you and you wake up every morning to the delicious smell of freshly baked
bread, you are benefiting from a positive externality. On the other hand, if the bakers arrive at three in the morning and
make so much noise that they interrupt your sleep, and you are not as productive at your job the next day, you are
suffering from a negative externality.
Any five points

The use and overuse of land for agriculture, forestry, and other human activities has led to significant land
degradation: the loss of some or all of the ability of soils to support plant growth
Mechanisms that initiate land degradation include physical, chemical, and biological processes.
Physical processes: Decline in soil structure leading to crusting, compaction, erosion, desertifi cation,
environmental pollution, and unsustainable use of natural resources.
Chemical processes: Acidification, leaching, decrease in cation retention capacity, and fertility depletion.
Biological processes: Reduction in total and biomass carbon, and decline in land biodiversity. Soil structure is an
important property that affects all three degradative processes.
Soil erosion can be defined as the movement of surface litter and topsoil from one place to another. Erosion is a
natural process often caused by wind and flowing water. It is greatly accelerated by human activities such as
farming, construction, overgrazing by livestock, burning of grass cover and deforestation.
Types of soil
i) Normal erosion or geologic erosion: caused by the gradual removal of top soil by natural processes
which bring an equilibrium between physical, biological and hydrological activities and maintain a natural
balance between erosion and renewal.
 ii) Accelerated erosion: This is mainly caused by anthropogenic (man-made) activities and the rate of
erosion is much faster than the rate of formation of soil. Overgrazing, deforestation and mining are some
important activities causing accelerated erosion.
There are two types of agents which cause soil erosion:
(i) Climatic agents: water and wind are the climatic agents of soil erosion. Water affects soil erosion in the form of torrential
rains, rapid flow of water along slopes, run-off, wave action and melting of snow.
Wind and water are the main agents of soil erosion. Th e amount of soil they can carry away is influenced by two related
factors:
 Σ Speed— the faster wind or water moves, the more soil it can erode
 Σ Plant cover—plants protect the soil and in their absence wind and water can do much more damage.
(ii) Biotic agents: Excessive grazing, mining and deforestation are the major biotic agents responsible for soil erosion. Due
to these processes the top soil is disturbed or rendered devoid of vegetation cover. So the land is directly exposed to the
action of various physical forces facilitating erosion.
Water-borne Soil Erosion
The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by water is controlled by the following factors:
a) Rainfall and Runoff
b) Soil Erodibility
c) Slope Gradient and Length
d) Cropping and Vegetation

a) Rainfall and Runoff

The greater the intensity and duration of a rainstorm, the higher the erosion potential. The impact of raindrops on the soil
surface can break down soil aggregates and disperse the aggregate material. Lighter aggregate materials such as very fine
sand, silt, clay and organic matter are easily removed by the raindrop splash and runoff water. Soil movement by rainfall
(raindrop splash) is usually greatest and most noticeable during short-duration, high-intensity thunderstorms.
b) Soil Erodibility
Soil erodibility – susceptibility of soil to agent of erosion - is determined by inherent soil properties
e.g., texture, structure, soil organic matter content, clay minerals, exchangeable cations and water
retention and transmission properties. Climatic erosivity includes drop size distribution and intensity of rain, amount and
frequency of rainfall, run-off amount and velocity, and wind velocity. Important terrain characteristics for studying soil
erosion are slope gradient, length, aspect and shape.
c) Slope Gradient and Length
The steeper and longer the slope of a field, the higher the risk for erosion. Soil erosion by water increases as the slope
length increases due to the greater accumulation of runoff.
d) Cropping and Vegetation
The potential for soil erosion increases if the soil has no or very little vegetative cover of plants and/or crop residues. Plant
and residue cover protects the soil from raindrop impact and splash, tends to slow down the movement of runoff water and
allows excess surface water to infiltrate. The erosion-reducing effectiveness of plant and/or crop residues depends on the
type, extent and quantity of cover.

Different types of erosion by water

Sheet Erosion
Sheet erosion is the movement of soil from raindrop splash and runoff water. It typically occurs
evenly over a uniform slope and goes unnoticed until most of the productive topsoil has been lost.
Deposition of the eroded soil occurs at the bottom of the slope or in low areas.
Lighter-coloured soils on knolls, changes in soil horizon thickness and low crop yields on
shoulder slopes and knolls are other indicators.

Rill Erosion
Rill erosion is the removal of soil by concentrated water running through little streamlets, or headcuts. Detachment in a rill
occurs if the sediment in the flow is below the amount the load can transport and if the flow exceeds the soil's resistance to
detachment. As detachment continues or flow increases, rills will become wider and deeper. Rill erosion mainly occurs as a
result of concentrated overland flow of water leading to the development of small well-defined channels. These channels
act as sediment sources and transport passages, leading to soil loss.

Gully Erosion
Gully erosion is “the removal of soil or soft rock material by water, forming distinct narrow channels, larger than rills,
which usually carry water only during and immediately after rains”. Gully erosion is an advanced stage of rill erosion. A
gully is a distinct channel, carved into a hillslope or valley bottom by intermittent or ephemeral runoff. Such channels are
carved where the force exerted by flowing water – a function of its mass and velocity – exceeds the subsoil’s resistance.
Gully erosion results in significant amounts of land being taken out of production and creates hazardous conditions for the
operators of farm machinery.

Bank Erosion
Bank erosion is the wearing away of the banks of a stream or river. This is distinguished from erosion of the bed of the
watercourse, which is referred to as scour. Natural streams and constructed drainage channels act as outlets for surface
water runoff and subsurface drainage systems. Bank erosion is the progressive undercutting, scouring and slumping of
these drainage ways.

Effects of Water Erosion on site

 The main on-site impact is the reduction in soil quality which results from the loss of the nutrient-
rich upper layers of the soil, and the reduced water-holding capacity of many eroded soils.

 The breakdown of aggregates and the removal of smaller particles or entire layers of soil or organic
matter can weaken the structure and even change the texture.

 Textural changes can in turn affect the water-holding capacity of the soil, making it more susceptible to
extreme conditions such as drought.

 Crop emergence, growth and yield are directly affected by the loss of natural nutrients and applied
fertilizers.

Effects of Water Erosion Off-Site

 Water erosion’s main off-site effect is the movement of sediment and agricultural pollutants into
watercourses.
 This can lead to the silting-up of dams, disruption of the ecosystems of lakes, and contamination of
drinking water.
 In some cases, increased downstream flooding may also occur due to the reduced capacity of
eroded soil to absorb water.
 Sediment can accumulate on down-slope and contribute to road damage.

Wind-borne soil Erosion

The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by wind is controlled by the following factors:
1. Soil Erodibility
2. Soil Surface Roughness
3. Climate(wind patterns, precipitation, frost action)
4. Unsheltered Distance
5. Vegetative Cover
6. Topography (exposure, elevation, terrain roughness, localised funnelling of wind)
7. Cultural practices (cultivation,vegetation depletion).

Soil Erodibility

 Suspension occurs when very fine dirt and dust particles are lifted into the wind.Once in the atmosphere,
these particles can be carried at a very high and be transported over extremely long distances. Soil moved by
suspension is the most spectacular and easiest to recognize of the three forms of movement.
 Saltation - The major fraction of soil moved by the wind is through the process of saltation. In saltation,
fine soil particles are lifted into the air by the wind and drift horizontally across the surface increasing in velocity as
they go. Soil particles moved in this process of saltation can cause severe damage to the soil surface and vegetation.
 Creep - The large particles which are too heavy to be lifted into the air are moved through a process called
surface creep. In this process, the particles are rolled across the surface after coming into contact with the soil
particles in saltation.

Soil Surface Roughness

Soil surfaces that are not rough offer little resistance to the wind. However, ridges left from tillage
can dry out more quickly in a wind event, resulting in more loose, dry soil available to blow.
Climate
The speed and duration of the wind have a direct relationship to the extent of soil erosion. Soil moisture levels are very low
at the surface of excessively drained soils or during periods of drought, thus releasing the particles for transport by wind.
Unsheltered Distance
A lack of windbreaks (trees, shrubs, crop residue, etc.) allows the wind to put soil particles into motion for greater
distances, thus increasing abrasion and soil erosion.
Vegetative Cover
The lack of permanent vegetative cover in certain locations results in extensive wind erosion. Loose, dry, bare soil is the
most susceptible; however, crops that produce low levels of residue
(e.g., soybeans and many vegetable crops) may not provide enough resistance.

Effects of Wind Erosion

 Wind erosion damages crops through sandblasting of young seedlings or transplants, burial of
plants or seed, and exposure of seed.
 Crops are ruined, resulting in costly delays and making reseeding necessary.
 Plants damaged by sandblasting are vulnerable to the entry of disease with a resulting decrease in yield,
loss of quality and market value.
 Soil drifting is a fertility-depleting process that can lead to poor crop growth and yield reductions in areas
of fields where wind erosion is a recurring problem.
Tillage Erosion
Tillage erosion is the redistribution of soil through the action of tillage and gravity. It results in the progressive down-slope
movement of soil, causing severe soil loss on upper-slope positions and accumulation in lower-slope positions. This form
of erosion is a major delivery mechanism for water erosion. Tillage action moves soil to convergent areas of a field where
surface water runoff concentrates. Also, exposed subsoil is highly erodible to the forces of water and wind.
The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by tillage is controlled by the following factors:
1. Type of Tillage Equipment
2. Direction
3. Speed and Depth
4. Number of Passes
Tillage equipment that lifts and carries will tend to move more soil. As an example, a chisel plow leaves far more crop
residue on the soil surface than the conventional mold board plow but it can move as much soil as the mold board plow and
move it to a greater distance. Using implements that do not move very much soil will help minimize the effects of tillage
erosion.
Direction : Tillage implements like a plow or disc throw soil either up or down slope, depending on the direction of tillage.
Typically, more soil is moved while tilling in the down-slope direction than while tilling in the up-slope direction.
Speed and Depth : The speed and depth of tillage operations will influence the amount of soil moved. Deep tillage disturbs
more soil, while increased speed moves soil further.
Number of Passes: Reducing the number of passes of tillage equipment reduces the movement of soil. It also leaves more
crop residue on the soil surface and reduces pulverization of the soil aggregates, both of which can help resist water and
wind erosion.

Control of erosion
(i)Conservational till farming: In traditional method the land is ploughed and the soil is broken up and smoothed to make a
planting surface. However, this disturbs the soil and makes it susceptible to erosion when fallow (i.e. without crop cover).
Conservational till farming,popularly known as no-till-farming causes minimum disturbance to the top soil. Here special
tillers break up and loosen the subsurface soil without turning over the topsoil. The tilling machines make slits in the
unploughed soil and inject seeds, fertilizers, herbicides and a littlewater in the slit, so that the seed germinates and the crop
grows successfully without competition with weeds.
(ii) Terracing: It is used on still steeper slopes are converted into a series of broad terraces which run across the contour.
Terracing retainswater for crops at all levels and cuts down soil erosion by controlling run off. In high rainfall areas, ditches
are also provided behind the terrace to permit adequate drainage.
(iii) Strip cropping: Here strips of crops are alternated with strips of soil saving cover crops like grasses or grass-legume
mixture. Whatever run-off comes from the cropped soil is retained by the strip of cover cropland this reduces soil erosion.
Nitrogen fixing legumes also help in restoring soil fertility
(iv) Alley cropping: It is a form of inter-cropping in which crops are planted between rows of trees or shrubs. This is also
called Agroforestry. Even when the crop is harvested, the soil is not fallow because trees and shrubs still remain on the soil
holding the soil particles andprevent soil erosion.
(v) Wind breaks or shelterbelts: They help in reducing erosion caused by strong winds. The trees are planted in long rows
along the cultivated land boundary so that wind is blocked. The wind speed is substantially reduced which helps in
preventing wind erosion of soil.
Desertification
Desertification is a phenomenon that refers to the persistent degradation of dryland ecosystems by human activities –
including unsustainable farming, mining, overgrazing and clear-cutting of land – and by climate change
Factors affecting desertification
Climate
With little shifts in the boundaries over time, deserts have been confined to the Earth’s sub-tropical zone. It is
evident from the global pattern of air circulation that the sub- tropical regions are characterized as the regions of
subsiding air. When air subsides, it warms up and its capacity to hold moisture increases, which consequently influences
the precipitation.
.
Environmental Conditions
Arid climate: High evaporative conditions in an arid environment are responsible for a significant loss of vegetation,
especially in sandy desert areas.
Sand Erosion and Deposition: Drifting sand and migrating sand dunes in severe wind erosion areas are a continuous threat
to potential agricultural land, range plant life, settlements, highways and other areas.
Resalinization of Agricultural Lands: Irrigation waters contain salts in different amounts and proportions. Resalinization of
irrigated agricultural lands results from many factors including arid climate, geology and configuration of the terrain. These
factors determine soil properties, land drainage, water and crop management practices.
Reduction in Soil Moisture: The desert soils normally retain moisture for several weeks after precipitation, whereas ground
dryness may cause a desert to persist.
Human Activities: Human activities leading to desertification are mainly related to agriculture.
Unsustainable Agricultural Practices: Unsustainable agricultural practices include extensive and frequent cropping of
agricultural areas, excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides, and shifting cultivation without allowing adequate period of
recovery.
Unsustainable Water Management Practices Poor and inefficient irrigation practices, and over abstraction of ground
water, particularly in the coastal regions resulting in saline intrusion into aquifers are some of major unsustainable water
management practices which has led to problems of desertification.
Overgrazing Grazing land is estimated to cover about one-third of the land surface of world. Livestock grazing is one of the
main causes of degradation in arid regions.
Deforestation The plant community in arid regions is generally patchy and scarce. Cutting wood for fuel purposes and fires
destroy the plant community in the desert.
Increase in Atmospheric Dust Human activities can also induce desertification through production of airborne dust.
Impacts
Environmental Impacts
 The direct physical consequences of desertification may include an increased frequency of sand and dust
storms and increased flooding due to inadequate drainage or poor irrigation practices.
 This can contribute to the removal of topsoil and vital soil nutrients needed for food production, and bring
about a loss of vegetation cover which would otherwise have assisted with the removal of carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere for plant photosynthesis.
 Desertification causes a drop in biological productivity of land which to a decline in economic productivity.
It adversely affects the lives of wild species, domestic animals, agricultural crops and people. Desertification
can also initiate regional shifts in climate which may enhance climate changes due to greenhouse gas emissions.
Economic Impacts
Land degradation is not merely an environmental issue, but has social and economic implications as well (Li, 1998).
The World Bank estimates that at the global level, the annual income foregone in the areas affected by desertification
amounts to US$ 42 billion each year, while the annual cost of fighting land degradation would cost only US$ 2.4 billion
a year. In China, desertification causes a direct economic loss estimated between US$ 2–3 billion annually, while the
associated indirect loss is 2–3 times more
Poverty and Mass Migration
Desertification brings hunger and poverty. People living in areas threatened by desertification are forced to move
elsewhere to find other means of livelihood. Mass migration is a major consequence of desertification. From 1997 to
2020, some 60 million people are expected to move from the desertified areas in Sub-Saharan Africa towards Northern
Africa and Europe.