Cartography

The science of preparing all types of maps and charts and includes every operations from original survey
to final printing of copies is cartography. It was derived from two Greek words CARTE; "an empty plane
paper to write or to draw and GRAPHINE; "to draw with mathematical accuracy. Also defined as,
organization, presentation, and utilization of geo-information in graphic, digital or tactile (hard copy)
form. It can include all stages from data preparation to end use in the creation of maps and related
spatial information products.

History of cartography

1. Manual mapping procedures were dominant during the longest period in the recorded history of
cartography.
2. People used to use brushes, quills etc. on medium like papyrus, silk and even clay and metal.
3. Oldest map found in clay tablet (nearly 5000 year) Showing Mountain, water bodies, and other
geographic features in Mesopotamia.
4. Demand of skillfully made charts of coastline and other navigational instruments emerged in
the 14th and 15th century made the map making a recognized profession.
5. Maps in land are rather poor. People used wooden cuts and intaglio copper plates.
6. In 1571, theodolites developed and map accuracy increased due to accurate surveying.
7. Gerhardus Mercator devised in 1569, a map projection-Mercator Projection- considered to be
father of cartography. Mercator used the term “Atlas” for volume of maps
8. With the invention of chronometer for keeping accurate time and the theodolite, latitude and
longitude were accurately determined in 17th century.
9. Lithographic and wax engraver developed in the 19th century.
10. The development of photography and application of etching techniques were major
technological development in cartography.

Scope and uses of cartography

1. The use of maps as research tools.

2. The study of maps as historical documents and works of art.
3. Promoting standard system of data capturing, storing, processing and visualization in different
mapping sciences like geodesy, surveying, photogrammetry, remote sensing and GIS.
4. To satisfy the need of map users from variety of fields connecting human thoughts and
environmental features mapped.
 Unit-2 Map

2.1 Definition

A selective, symbolized and generalized representation of the whole or part of the earth at a
reduced scale is map.
A representation, usually on a flat surface, as of the features of an area of the earth, showing
them in their respective forms, sizes, and relationships according to some convention of
representation i.e. projection is map.
A drawing of the earth's surface, or part of that surface, showing the shape and position of
different countries, political borders, natural features such as rivers and mountains,
and artificial features such as roads and buildings is a map.

2.2 Types and classification of map

Maps can be used in a variety of different ways, from navigation, to establishing ownership, to
presenting information. Based on their use and area of application maps are of following types;

1. Reference Map

Maps, where cities and towns are named, major transport routes are included along with
natural features like lakes and rivers etc. are general reference map. These are the
maps that are ideal for helping you to get to your destination – they tend to be easy to
read, and include street and tourist maps.
2. Topographical Map

Topographical maps stand out from the other offerings by showing detailed elevation,
with contour lines helping to map the landscape. Ordinance Survey maps are arguably
the best-known type of topographical maps.

3. Thematic Map
Rather than attempting to map the landscape or help to show you where to go, thematic
maps are designed instead to highlight information on specific topics. It could be
anything from geology to population density or weather. Unlike general reference maps,
which can typically be read and understood by pretty much anybody, thematic maps
may also require specific knowledge to understand.
4. Navigational Charts
Along with general reference and topographical maps, navigational charts are another
invaluable tool when it comes to actually getting around, whether you’re at sea or in the
air. Maps for the ocean are typically referred to as charts, and the same applies to air
navigation mapping. The charts tend to include information that’s important to avoiding
accidents – such as features in and around the water, like submerged rocks – along with
any specific navigational aids.

5. Cadastral Map
Cadastral map is a map which provides information about the real property within a
specific area i.e. map of any village indicating boundaries of all parcels or lots within the
village. Cadastral mapping is one of the oldest forms of mapping, with ancient Egyptians
known to have developed cadastral records to establish ownership of land after flooding
of the River Nile.
Classification of map

1. Based on the scale, the maps are classified as;

a. Large scale map

Map scale larger than 1:10000 are the large scale maps. These maps are used for
implementation of the project work.

b. Medium scale map

Scale between 1:10000 and 1:50000 are the medium scale maps. These maps are
used for study and analyze for the project.

c. Small scale map

Map scale smaller than 1:50000 are the small scale maps. These maps are used for
study and analyze for the development of project concept. Most of the thematic maps
are prepared in small scale.

2. Based on the purpose, the maps are classified as;

a. Topographical map
The map showing topographical features including natural and cultural details are
topographical maps.

b. Cadastral map
The map showing parcel and parcel number for property mapping are the cadastral
maps.

c. Aeronautical charts
The map showing details required for flying an airplane are aeronautical charts. It
includes the distance and bearing from one destination to other and some features
which are the norms of International Charter Aviation Organization (ICAO). Before
using the chart by the pilots, it must get approval from ICAO.

d. Thematic map
If map is prepared to include the information related with a theme is a thematic map.
So there could be many varieties of thematic maps. Some of them are as discussed;
i. Geological map
Map showing geological features such as rocks, geological fault lines etc. are
geological maps. These maps are used for project designing in order to determine
the stable or danger area.

ii. Atlas
A set of maps to meet the purpose is atlas, for example school atlas or socio
economic atlas. School atlas includes political physiographic details of continents
and different political division of the country. Socio economic atlas includes
information on population distribution, minerals, temperature, rainfall, education
information etc.
 iii. Tourist map
A map showing information necessary for the tourists such as road network, banks,
entertainment spot, cultural location etc. is tourist map. The map will be used by
the tourists for hiking, trekking and mountaineering.

iv. Land resource map

Maps prepared by analyzing the soils of land, landscape, and situation of land
are the land resources maps. They could be land utilization maps, land system
maps, land capability maps etc. these maps are used for programme
implementation of agriculture, forest, urban planning and land zoning.

3. Based on originality of the maps

a. Original map
If the map is prepared either by surveying the details and features on the ground or
compiled from an aerial photograph or satellite data and the related information are
collected on ground, the map is an original map. In general, these maps will be
prepared at larger or medium scale. For example: topographic map at the scale of
1:25000, cadastral maps etc.

b. Derived map
It the map is prepared by compiling existing map in which features will be simplified
and generalized is a derived map. Usually the scale of derived map will be small
scale map. For example; district map, 1:100000 scale topographical map, etc.

2.3 Map scale

We know that all maps are reductions. The first decision that a map-maker has to take is about
the scale of the map. The choice of scale is of utmost importance. The scale of a map sets limits
of information contents and the degree of reality with which it can be delineated on the map.
Map scale is the ratio of the distance between two points on map and their corresponding
distance on real ground. Real world objects have usually been reduced by a constant amount,
and the map scale tells us the amount of reduction (or enlargement. If a map scale is “1:100”,
one inch on the map represents 100 inches in the real world. The unit of measurement is not
important; one could just as easily say one foot on the map represents 100 feet on the ground;
the ratio remains constant. However, you should be careful not to mix units.

1. Representative fraction or Numerical scale

In this case, the proportion existing between the length on the map and the actual length on
the ground is indicated by a fraction whose numerator is always 1 (one). Such a fraction is
called representative fraction (R.F.).
 2. Statement scale

In this case, the numbers of units on map that represent the corresponding number of units
on ground are stated. For example; 1 cm= 400 meter, 1 inch= 1 km etc.

3. Plain or linear or graphical scale

This consists of a line drawn at the bottom of the map, conveniently divided and subdivided
so that the distances on the map can be easily read from it with the help of a pair of
dividers.
When graphical scale is constructed the following should be borne in mind;
a. It should be sufficiently long so that the longest measurement can be made from it.
b. It must represent a convenient round number of units employed so that it can be readily
divided and subdivided. A round number is a number which generally be divided by 5,
10, 100 and so on.

Assignment:

1. Convert the given Statement of Scale of 1 inch represents 4 miles into R. F.

2. Convert R. F. 1 : 253, 440 into Statement of Scale
3. Construct a graphical scale for a map drawn at a scale of 1: 50,000 and read the distances in
kilometer and meter.
4. Construct the graphical scale for a map drawn at a scale 1: 2500 and read the distances in meter
and centimeter.
5. Convert the Statement of Scale 5 cm represents 10 km into Representative Fraction.
6. Convert the Statement of Scale 2 inches represents 4 miles into Representative Fraction.
7. Convert the given Representative Fraction (R. F.) into Statement of Scale in the System of
Measurement shown in parentheses:
i. 1 : 100000(in km)
ii. 1 : 126,720 (into miles)
iii. 1 : 50,000 (into meters)

2.4 Introduction to drawing and scribing

Drawing
Process of representing the data collected for map construction or reproduction on base material in a
proper way is called drawing. Fair drawing should have following characteristics;

1. Drawing area should be neat and clean.

2. Lines used should be smooth, sharp, and uniform.
3. Spacing between the letters and words used in map should be uniform
4. Color contrast between the background and detail should match.
5. Undershoot, overshoot and silver polygon should be omitted.
 From above figure; 1 represents undershoot, 2 represents overshoot and 3 represents the silver
polygon.

Drawing equipment and materials

1. Graphos pen
a. A shape nib
 Size: 0.1 to 0.8 mm
 Used to draw line and write small letters.
b. T shape nib
 Size: 1.0 to 2.5 mm
 Used to draw frame line and write large sized letters.
2. Technical pen
 Can be used for long time once ink is filled.
 Used to draw line from 0.1mm to 2.5 mm.
 Eg; Rotring pen, stadtler pen, G-tech etc.
3. Crowquill pen
 Used to draw lines and contour lines.
4. Special pen
 Used to draw special features such as circle, parallel lines etc.
 Eg; circle pen, parallel line pen etc.

Drawing materials

a. Ink
Characteristics of drawing ink
 Should have high opacity.
 Should be dark and non-oozing.
 Should be water proof.
 Should be adhesive to base material.
 Should be of high stability.
 b. Base material
Base material could be either of paper, plastic (perma trace paper) or cloth made.
Characteristics
 Should have high dimensional stability.
 Should have smooth surface.
 Should be of appropriate hardness and elasticity.
 Should be of fine fibers.

Scribing

Scribing was used to produce lines for cartographic map production before the use of computer based
geographic information systems (GIS). Scribe sheet is a stable plastic base material.

Procedure;

1. An impression (the original) of the corrected compilation sheet is photographed (camera or in

contact) onto scribe sheet material or drawn using pencil.
2. On the scribe sheet are traced with a metal or sapphire-tipped scribe tool.
3. Lines of translucent coating are removed to produce a handmade negative image.

Scribing instrument

a. Pen type graver

Used for free hand line scribing.
b. Rigid graver
Has a fixed nib and is also used for scribing linear features.
c. Swivel graver
Has nib that can rotate in all four directions and is used for scribing linear and parallel lines.
d. Special graver
These graver are used for scribing special features. Eg: dot graver, building graver etc.

Scribing materials

a. Base material
It can be either polyster sheet or glass sheet.
Characteristics;
 Should be dimensionally stable.
 Must be transparent and smooth.
 Should be light in weight.
 Should have hard surface.
 b. Scribing coat
Scribing coat is made from plastic using different chemicals.
Characteristics;
 Sufficient actinical opacity
Property of coat that allows only a single wavelength of light to pass through it. For
example coating of red color just passes red but blocks blue light.
 Sufficient hardness
 Color should be untiring.
 Long lasting.
 Uniform and smooth coating.

2.5 Semiology

Study of signs and symbols used in cartographic map is semiology. Semiology is a broad concept and
can be subdivided into; map symbolism, sign processes, context and marginal notes.

a. Map symbolism
It is also called map language. It refers to the type of sign systems that are manifested in individual
maps; more exactly in individual map faces.
b. Sign processes
This is the step where humans handle sign for short. It can be understood as summation of three
process; sign production, sign perception and sign employment. Sign perception refers to the
extraction and derivation of information from signs. Sign employment to deal with the world and
the participants of cartographic communication.
c. Context
It refers to how the signs are to be realized and need to be processed. In this the territory to be
mapped, factors relating map use and intended audience and the objective of the map making
along with the perception of the map author must be considered.
d. Marginal notes
The assemblage of signs in a map face is complemented by marginal notes, which constitute a
separate, auxiliary sign system. They have two functions: explaining what entries in the map face
mean and providing background information. Among the marginal notes, the most versatile one
is the legend.
2.6 Map design and layout

Map design

Map design is a process of planning of map. This is like decorating, however, there are some general
rules, but it all comes down to personal choice. The most important aspect of map designing should be
in balancing the elements which are to be shown on the map as far as possible. When designing a map,
consider the following;

 What elements need to be included in map?

 How should these elements look?
 How should they be arranged?

Factors to be considered while designing a map;

 Purpose of the map

 Scale of the map
 Size of the paper
 Number of colors to be used
 Map layout

To design the map following major elements must be included:

1. Map scale
A map’s scale is a ratio that relates a unit of measure on a map to some number of the same
units of measure on the earth’s surface.
2. Title
Generally map refers to its title. Some of the examples are as follows;
 On a cadastral or road map, it is most likely the name of the region or area.
 On a thematic map, such as land use, it should include the name of the area and the
main subject of the map.
 On a topographical map, a most popular feature of the map sheet may appear such as
Mount Everest, Janakpur etc.
3. Authors
The name of the organization or person who made the map should be indicated in the map. This
also should include the source of the data if it is different that the person who created it.
4. Date
The following dates should be included in the map:
 Always include when the map was created or the date of the original data.
 Include a printed date and the date of the aerial photography, if appears on the map.
 Also include the date when the data are verified.
 5. Legends
Explains the symbols used on the map. All the symbols must be clear and easily readable.
Symbols should try and be the same size as they are on the map.
6. Orientation
Indicate how to place the map for the map reading and usually indicates as follows;
 Generally maps are drawn with the North towards the top of the map and South
towards the bottom.
 Very localized maps such as those for shopping malls or parks are often oriented around
the main point of entry.
 Include a north arrow, even if it seems obvious –there are a lot of poor map readers out
there.
7.Grid/ Graticules
It includes latitude/longitude or grid as per the map layout. Also define interval, thickness, color
etc.
These are the reference systems to define the position of points on earth surface. Rectangular
coordinate system uses grid as reference system while geographical coordinate system uses
graticules as reference system. Central meridian of the grid zone and the equator defines the
reference frame while the zero longitude (Greenwitch line) and zero latitude (equator) forms
the reference frame for the graticule system.
8. Name placement
The placing of name on a map is important for accuracy and legibility. There are some
conventions which are as;
 Name should be place covering minimum detail area. It must be clear and easily
readable
 No two names overlap each other
 Place name are places parallel to the horizontal grid line and preferably on the upper
right corner of the feature.
 For straight linear feature the name are places above or below the detail and must be
parallel to the horizontal grid line and for curve linear features the name is placed
parallel to the curved line.
 For the feature having area, either spread the alphabets of the name to cover the area
or place the name in more than one places.

Map layout

It can be of two types;

1.Grid based layout

Maps are prepared in a rectangular size which will be based on the adopted grid system.
 Generally size of the map sheet are fixed for example 50 cm *50 cm
 Used mostly for large scale maps.
 Graticules may be superimposed.
 2. Graticule base layout
Maps are prepared with respect to the graticules.
 Size of the map will be based as per the map sheet numbering system. For example;
 15’x15’ for 1: 50000 scale map
 7’30” x 7’30” for 1: 25000 scale map
 Used mostly for medium and small scale maps.
 Grids may be superimposed.

2.7 Typonomy and typography ………………………. (Assignment)

2.8 Enlargement and reduction of map

Maps are prepared either from the existing map or from the survey data. Maps produced can be of any
scale as per the current necessity. And according the need and demand scale of map can be changed
and can be done in following different ways;

1. Same scale
Any map provided is said to be 100% map. If any map is prepared based on the given map in the
same scale then the map reproduced is said to have same scale or referred as full size scale.
Land survey in such scale is almost impossible as the shape and size of features on surface of
earth are larger compared to the size of base material.
Scale: 1cm= 1cm, 1:1 etc.
2. Enlarging scale
Process of reproducing map on a larger scale than the map provided for reproduction is called
enlarging or enlargement. Plotting error also increases for the enlarged map. Map prepared on
scale larger than 100% is called enlarged map or enlargement; like 125%, 150% etc.
Scale: 10cm= 1cm or 10:1
3. Reducing scale
Process of preparing a derived map in a scale less than the provided original map is known as
reducing or reduction. Map prepared on scale less than 100% is referred as reduced map or
reduction; like 75%, 50%, 25% etc.

Enlargement or reduction percentage of new scale;

New percentage (%) =

Method of enlargement or reduction

Different instruments are used for reduction and enlargement of the derived map. Some of them are;

1. Proportional compass

It is an instrument based on the principle of similar triangle and is used for either reduction or
enlargement of the map. It is a mechanical method.

2. Pantograph
It is an instrument for reproduction of derived map either on same, enlarged or reduced scale. This also
works on the principle of similar triangle and is also a mechanical method of map reproduction.

3. Ediograph
It is the advanced form of pantograph with higher accuracy and reliability. Being comparatively
expensive than pantograph it is merely used in practice. It too follows the same principle as pantograph.
4. Photographic method
Photographic method is used to produce same, enlarged and reduced scale derived map. It uses the lens
formula. It uses process camera for the scale transformation. As the process camera uses optical
method this process is said to be based on the principle optics.
Lens formula;

Based on the following condition equal, enlarged and reduced map are produced;

Case 1: for u=v, the produced map is of same scale.

Case 2: for v>u, the produced map is of enlarged scale.

Case 3: for u>v, the produced map is of reduced scale.

2.9 Uses of map

There are so many varieties of maps and each map has its own value so one could imagine how big the
area of extent of its use is. In essence, it can be concluded that each nation need maps of different scale
and different types of maps which plays an important role for economic development of the country. So,
it is hard to list out all the uses of map, however the following are some of the main uses of maps;

1. Study of geography
2. Acquire knowledge on the physical status of the states, countries, continent etc.
3. Implement rescue operation after natural disasters such as earthquake, flood, landslides etc.
4. Raise revenue and to collect information of land holders.
5. Police and military operations.
6. Designing and implementation for utility services projects such as reservoir and dam construction,
irrigation, electricity and telephone project etc.
7. Transportation and communication for navy, spacecraft, aircraft, land vehicle etc.
8. Tourists for sightseeing, hiking, trekking and mountaineering etc.
9. Urban development.
10. Settle boundary disputes
11. Agriculture, forest, land use, scientific study etc.
12. Astronomical purpose and space exploration.
13. Scientific study, research etc.
 Symbols
Symbol is the graphical language of a map. The study of symbol is termed as semiology. This is the
graphical representation of the details shown in the map with respect to scale. The symbol is fully
controlled by the scale and purpose of the map. For example, a building is a point for scale 1:50000
while the same building is a polygon in 1:500.

Properties
Symbols should possess following properties;

 Small and simple

 Resemble to its reality
 Easy to recognize (self-explanatory)
 Easy to draw

Category
Symbols are categorized as;

1. Plan view: The symbol as seen from the air down/below is a plan view such as river, wall, hoise
etc.
2. Profile view: the symbols as seen from the front of the feature is a profile symbol such as tree,
temple etc.

Grouping of symbols
Symbols may be grouped as;

1. Man made and cultural features such as road, building, power line etc.
2. Hydrographic features such as canal, well, river, pond etc.
3. Relief features such as rock, mountain, pass, peak, land slide etc.
4. Vegetation features such as cultivation, forest, swamp, tree, grass etc.

Types of symbol

A. On the basis of dimension

Generally symbols are of three types; point, line and polygon/area. Color is another variable used in all
geometrical symbols.

1. Point symbol
These are used to represent location and identity or other characteristics of feature of small territorial
extent such as control point, bench mark, well, hut, temple etc. A city can also be represented by point
but it depends on the scale of map.
2. Line symbol
Line symbol is used for features having linear characteristics for example roads, river, canal, boundary
etc. In case of boundary lines, the lines may be considered as part of the area which they enclose
such as forest area, lake etc.

3. Area symbol
Area symbols are used to represent features of considerable area extent such as forest, cultivated
area etc. The shape and size of area symbols are determined by the characteristics of the feature in
the terrain and the map scale. The symbol and the extent of the area need to be viewed together.

B. On the basis of theme

Symbols are classified as qualitative and quantitative symbols.
1. Qualitative symbols: deals with quality and nature of the features.
2. Quantitative symbols: deals with the value of the feature.

C. On the basis of shape

1. Pictorial/ descriptive/ iconic symbol
 Represents natural appearance as far as possible.
 Easier to understand but difficult to draw.
 Low positional accuracy as it occupies more area.

2. Geometric/abstract symbol
 Represented as regular geometric shape; circle, square, triangle etc.
 Legends compulsory for such symbols.
 High positional accuracy and are easy to draw.
 No specific meaning so can have meaning according to map.

3. Letter/ number/ text symbol

 Represented as number or text.
 Low positional accuracy.
 Used abbreviated name.
 Unit 3 Branches of Cartography

Map production
Map production is the process of preparing an image printed on paper with one or many colors
depending upon the requirement of the user and the purpose of the map. Important aspects to be
considered in planning are the image quality, durability and convenience. Beside the field operation
process, cartographic process and map reproduction are two major stages of map production.

Here we deal with cartographic process only.

Cartographic process
Cartographic operation should proceed in an organized manner and should follow the following;

 Collection and evaluation of source material or data

 Map compilation
 Map design
 Map construction
 Editing

1. Collection and evaluation of source material or data

At first all required data has to be collected which may be in either graphical or statistical form.
Nature of them could be;
i. Existing maps on different scale, line map or photo map.
ii. Field survey sections for the mapping or that of earlier period along with name lists, auxiliary
traces, boundary records etc.
iii. Photogrammetry plotted sheets along with the verified aerial photos or rectified photo with
or without contours on them.
iv. Ortho-rectified satellite data with supplement data from field.

2. Map compilation
Compilation involves use of many maps of different periods, of different scales, of different
projection and of different accuracies to arrive at the desired information. In general, the rule for
compilation is always to work from larger scale to smaller scales.
Scale change can be achieved by;
 Graphical method ( eye judgment)
 Mechanical method (pantograph, proportional compass)
 Optical method (camera, sketch-master, map-o-graph etc.)

Compilation involves generalization to a great extent. This process involves selection and
elimination of data as per the purpose of the derived map. During this the characteristics of the
 original map should be preserved and prominent features need to be retained. Generalization is a
creative art which depends on judgment of the cartographer keeping in mind the requirement of
the resultant map.

3. Map design
Map being a tool of graphic communication, purpose or scope of the map and user’s requirement
need to be focused. Clarity and legibility along with the color contrast to enhance visibility are very
important. Map need to be suitably titled. Degree of prominence, style and size of letters should
be fitted into whole design and purpose of the map. Legends are indispensible to most of the
maps as they explain about the symbols used in the map.
A map has to be properly organized in design with respect to layout, title, legend, scale, symbols
to be used, number of colors, number of copies required, and type of cartographic method
(drawing and scribing), materials required and production schedule.

4. Map construction
Construction of map in its final form can use different methods for producing line, lettering and
images. The selection of procedure depends on the final requirement, the standard of necessity
and available resources and materials.

5. Editing
Editing or checking and correcting a map after compilation of cartographic work is compulsory
before the map is printed. It is better to prepare a check list for all items drawn or scribed before
the process of checking. During the checking, necessary corrections has to be made and the
general items need to be checked are,
 Correctness of symbols as per specification, drawing or scribing, heading, marginal items,
scales etc.
 Quality of work
 Lettering; whether the names have been correctly spelled and descriptive remarks are
proper.
 Registration; all originals should properly fit and correctly register.

Map compilation of different maps

1. Base map
Topographic map are considered as base map and are produced in scale1:25000 and 1:50000 by
survey department. The first manuscript of base map is produced by photogrammetry method
with the help of aerial photographs. The control points for mapping were established by aerial
triangulation method based on the existing higher order ground control points. These first
manuscripts are called originals. The planimetric manuscript contains all topographical detail
and altimetric manuscripts contain only the elevation detail. The field verification is carried out
in the copy of these originals. The original manuscript, field verification copy and name list etc.
 are submitted for cartographic process. The following chart describes the process of base map
preparation.

Aerial photo processing

Aerial survey mission Control survey
and production

Aerial triangulation for control

extension

Field verification and Panimetric and altimetric manuscript production by

name collection photogrammetry method

Cartographic process for map

production and reproduction

Plate making and printing in the

press
Fig: work flow for base map production

Detail work of each step;

1. Aerial photography mission: Flight planning, aerial survey, annotation, preparation of photo
index.

2. Aerial photo production: Aerial photo negative processing, production of positive and dia-
positives copies.

3. Control survey: collection of existing higher order control points, densification of control
network and establishment of photo control points.

4. Photogrammetry: perform aerial triangulation for establishment of tie points and preparation
of manuscripts to produce planimetric and altimetric map.
 5. Field work: carry out field verification of the planimetric and altimetric map, name collection.

6. Cartography production: Map design, layout design and production of repro materials for plan
making.

7. Printing: plate making and mass printing.

2. Derived map
The map is derived from base map and always in smaller scale than base map. Usually the derived
maps are prepared in medium or small scale and smaller than base map. The derived map is the
combination of homogeneous and heterogeneous map. Following step are involved to produce
derived map:
 Collection of source material of area of interest from different sources.
 Evaluation and selection of the data.
 Generalization
 Scale variation: reduction(Rule of compilation: always from large scale to smaller scale)
 Cartography production

3. Thematic map (special purpose map)

Thematic maps need base for the presentation of the information and data of the theme and these
base materials are prepared from the existing topographical base maps and derived map. So the
process of preparation of thematic maps is as follows:
 Collection of existing and derived maps.
 Selection of the maps and preparation of base.
 Collection of data and relevant information of the theme(s) to be prepared.
 Incorporate the data into the base using appropriate technique.
 Cartography production to produce thematic maps.
 Unit 4 Graphic Variables

Introduction
Maps use graphic symbols to represent the locations and attributes of phenomena distributed across
the Earth's surface. Variations in symbol size, color lightness, color hue, and shape can be used to
represent quantitative and qualitative variations in attribute data. By convention, each of these "graphic
variables" is used to represent a particular type of attribute data.

Concept of visual perception

Visual perception is the process which starts from the visual thinking and ends with graphic visuals.

1. Visual thinking
It discusses how human vision perceives maps and images and how it finds patterns. Visual thinking
undergoes two stages; first stage that describes about seeing the feature and second stage reasoning-
why?

First stage

Here the analyst searches for the patterns in visual inputs and distinguish two types of pattern-matches;
one recognized if expected and next noticed if unexpected pattern is detected.

Second stage

After the first stage, either recognizing or noticing, analyst enters second stage which is also called
confirmatory stage. At this stage, judgment made before is carefully examined to identify errors or to
explain a pattern or anomaly.

2. Graphic visuals
On a map, information is usually represented by symbol; points, lines, and area with different properties
such as color, shape etc. Fundamental graphic variables include; location, size, density/ size of texture
elements, color hue, color saturation, color value, and shape. These are so chosen that the information
intended to be portrayed is clear and proper.

Reference link;

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317266613_Visual_Variables
Types of graphic variables
We have seen there are several factors which influence perception of the features. For a given type of
symbol, we can apply different characteristics to make them perceived differently. These characteristics
are considered as visual variables. So the visual variables are the different ways in which various visual
effects can be created in drawn images. Therefore, to interpret the features of a map satisfactorily,
visual variables play an effective role.

There are six visual variables and are as follows;

1. Shape
Images can be constructed in an infinite variety of shapes from simple to complex shapes. Shape may be
regular like square, triangle, circle, polygon, rectangle etc. and irregular shape which are pictorial
representations of a tree, landslide, area etc.

2. Size
It is a geometric dimension like length, area, radius, and volume. The larger the size of the symbol the
more important it is thought of. Size in case of linear feature refers to width not the length and in case
of area it is the size of the repeated points or line within the area to which it refer and not the size of the
area.
3. Orientation
Most commonly the map symbols are presented in a map with reference to some fixed reference, most
commonly the map border. Orientation refers to the direction labels and symbols are facing on a map.
Although it is not used as often as many of the other visual variables, it can be useful for communicating
information about the real-world orientation of features. Common examples include wind direction and
the direction in which a spring flows.

4. Color or hue
Hue more commonly is known as color. Hue is great for identifying items as unique or of a type of item.
Hue creates a perception of groups, or likeness.

5. Value
Value of a color is the relative lightness or darkness of a given color/hue. This referred to the value on a
grey scale, which is an arrangement of different greys having white at on extremity and black at next.
Value of any hue can be reduced by adding black to it.
6. Saturation
Saturation is to describe the relative purity and amount of color in a given area. A full scale of saturation
would have pure hue at one extremity and a neutral grey of the same value at next. The saturation of
any hue is the degree to which it departs from a neutral grey of the same value. The saturation can be
varied by adding white to the hue.

Assignment
Q. Explain in brief about the importance of graphic variables in cartography.
 Unit 5 Map projection

Introduction
Surface of the earth is spherical and map we prepare are plane. It is difficult to represent a given area
without some distortion. If the area to be mapped is small then the earth’s surface may be regarded as
plane and a map may be constructed without any appreciable distortion but for large area to minimize
the effect of distortion various types of projection are employed. For larger area we basically use
latitude and longitude to represent the position of any point which necessities to show meridians and
parallels on the finished map.

Method adopted for the transformation of the three dimensional surface onto a two dimensional plane
surface is map projection. In other words, a map projection can be defined as a system which gives the
relation between the position of a point on earth and that of the same point on the map.

Without introducing deformation of geometrical relationship of the curved surface, it is almost

impossible to map earth’s surface. In other words, no map projection is perfect and some distortions in
any map are inevitable. So a cartographer need to select a map projection based on the purpose of the
map.

Projection factor
In the discussion of projection, three main factors are to be considered;

1. The projected object

2. The surface upon which the object is projected
3. The projection system

The projected object in the case of the map making is the earth surface is an ellipsoid. So the
choice of ellipsoid and its parameter should be provided. Thus, no choice or further
consideration can arise in the map projection from this factor.

Different ellipsoid;

S.N Ellipsoid Semi-major axis (a) Semi-minor axis (b) Inverse

flattening (1/f)
1. Clarke 1866 6,378,206.4 6,356,583.8 294.9786982
2. Everest 1830 6,377,276.345 6,356,075.415 300.8017
3. WGS-84 6,378,137 6,356,752.3142 298.25722
Based upon the surface upon which the object is projected projection system are of;

1. Azimuthal projection
 Meridians present as straight line.
 Parallels present as concentric circle.
 Forms circular map.
 Scale true at center.
 Pole represented as point.

2. Cylindrical projection
 Latitude and longitude lines present as parallel and intersect at 900.
 Meridians are at equidistance.
 Forms regular and rectangular map.
 Scale true at equator or standard parallel.
 Poles are represented as line.

3. Conical projection
 Meridians are present as straight line.
 Parallels are present as concentric circular arc.
 Scale true at standard parallel.
 Poles are presented as arc and point.

In case of cylindrical and conical projection, they are developed into a plane after designing a projection.

Projection system is selected based upon the relationship between the surface to be projected and
the surface upon which it is to be projected. It can be on the basis of coincidence and the position of the
portion of earth to be mapped. Coincidence means the closeness of projection surface with the ellipsoid
in which the following three distinct cases can be considered

1. Tangent projection
If the projection surface touches the ellipsoid at a point or in a line it is termed as tangent
projection.
 2. Secant projection
If the projection surface through the ellipsoid cutting it along two sections it is termed as secant
projection.

3. Poly-superficial projection
If multiple projection surfaces are used for a projection it is termed as poly-superficial projection.

The second point, position means the placing of projection surface relative to the ellipsoid. The
projection surface may be placed in different position and are as follows;

1. Normal projection
Position defined such that the projection surface and axis of ellipsoid are at right angle for plane
and the axis of ellipsoid coincide the axis of cone and cylinder for conical and cylindrical surface
is the normal projection.
 2. Transverse projection
If the plane is parallel to the axis of the ellipsoid or the axis of the cylinder or cone is at right
angle to the axis of the axis of the ellipsoid the position is a transverse projection.

3. Oblique projection
If the plane or axis of the cylinder or cone makes an angle with the axis of the ellipsoid other
than a right angle, the position is termed as projection.

Based on the geometrical relationship between the earth surface with the map, map projection are
limited to the following cartographic properties;

1. Equivalency
 It is the property on which the surface of the earth is projected truly i.e. it preserves the area
relationship.
 Map projection with this geometrical relationship is equivalent projection or equal area or
authalic projection.
 This projection is preferred in case of thematic map as thematic maps uses area data.
 This projection is best utilized for mapping which requires relative size and area accuracy.
Eg; albers equal-area conic, sinusoidal equal area, lambert azimuthal equal area etc.
 2. Conformity
 It is that property which preserves the angle on both map and reality i.e. the shapes are truly
represented on the maps.
 Map projection with this geometrical relationship is conformal, orthomorphic or autogonal
projection.
 Conformity applies only to points because it is not possible to have the true scale throughout the
map. However, it can maintain along the meridians and the parallels in the vicinity of a point.
Consequently the shapes will be preserved within the small extent around a point.
 This projection is preferred for navigation charts, weather maps, topographic mapping, large
scale surveying etc.

Eg; Transverse mercator, lambert conformal conic, Mercator, stereographic projection etc.
In order to achieve the conformity on a map the following two conditions should be satisfied;
 The meridians and parallels are at right angle to each other on the earth surface and they
must be same on the map as well.
 The scale is same in all directions at any point but may vary from one point to another.

3. Equidistance
 Equidistance property preservers the distance measured from one point in the map to other
points are correct. This can only be achieved to that one point for which the equal distance
condition has been computed.
 The projection having this property is termed as equivalent or equidistance projection.
 This projection is preferred for air and sea navigation charts, radio and seismic mapping and also
for atlases and thematic mapping.
Eg; azimuthal equidistance, equidistance conic, equirectangular projection etc.

Next factor is the mode of generation of projection which is governed by the property to be included in
a projection. It can also be defined as classification of map projection base on the mode of generation.
Projections based on the mode of generation are;

1. Geometric projection
This projection is also called perspective projection or central projection. This projection is based
on the idea of projecting a surface on a developable surface by means of projecting light from the
projection center or a view point. The developable surface in case of cylinder or cone can be cut
and laid flat, whereas the plane is a flat surface itself.
2. Semi-geometric projection
This projection is also called non-perspective projection. This projection is obtained by
modification of perspective projection mathematically in order to preserve a particular
cartographic property.

3. Non-geometric projection
This projection is also called mathematical or conventional projection. This projection is based
entirely on mathematical relations and the concept of perspective is totally avoided. The
mathematical relations should be developed in such a way that the projections possess a required
cartographic property designed for the particular study of interest.

From the discussion above, it is evident that in order to design a projection it is necessary to select the
nature of projection, coincidence and position of the developed surface, the preservation of cartography
property and finally the mode of generation. Summary of the above discussion can be listed as below;
S.N Nomenclature Class of projection
1 Nature Azimuthal Cylindrical Conical
2 Coincidence Tangent Secant Poly-superficial
3 Position Normal Transverse Oblique
4 Cartographic Property Equivalent Conformal Equidistance
5 Generation Geometric Semi-geometric Non-geometric

Map distortion and scale factor

A map projection without distortions would correctly represent shapes, angles, areas, distances and
directions, everywhere on the map. Unfortunately, any map projection is associated with scale distortions.
There is simply no way to flatten out a piece of ellipsoidal or spherical surface without stretching some
parts of the surface more than others. The amount and which kind of distortions a map will have depends
largely - next to size of the area being mapped - on the type of the map projection that has been selected.

Fig: Scale distortions after flattening a piece of the ellipsoidal or spherical reference surface.
 Since there is no map projection that maintains correct scale all over the map, it may be
important to know the extent to which the scale varies on a map. On a world map, the scale variations are
evident where landmasses are wrongly sized or out of shape and the meridians and parallels do not
intersect at right angles or are not spaced uniformly. On maps at larger scales, maps of countries or even
city maps, the distortions are not evident to the eye. However, the map user should be aware of the
distortions if he or she computes distances, areas or angles on the basis of measurements taken from
these maps.

Scale distortions on a map can also be shown by means of a scale factor. Scale distortions exist at
locations where the scale factor is smaller or larger than 1. E.g. a scale factor at a given point on the map
is equal to 0.99960 signifies that 1000 meters on the reference surface of the Earth will actually measure
999.6 meters on the map. This is a contraction of 40 centimeter per kilometer.

The nominal map scale (given map scale) divided by the scale factor will give the actual scale.
E.g. a scale factor of 0.99960 at a given point on a map with a nominal scale of 1:10,000 will give a scale
of 1:10,004 at the given point. This is a smaller scale than the nominal map scale. A scale factor of 2 at a
given point on a map with a nominal scale of 1:10M will give a scale of 1:5M at the given point. This is a
larger scale than the nominal map scale.

Choice of map projection

No fixed rules are defined to choose a right projection system because every map has objectives and
technical constraints. However, for the choice of a map projection, the following aspects should be
considered;

1. The purpose of the map

As the projection primarily depends on the purpose of the map, before deciding the map projection
one should be aware of the purpose. For example, the equivalence property is required to study
distribution pattern or the aerial relation whereas equidistance property is required for the navigational
purposes.

2. The region to be mapped

Beside the purpose, location of the area to be mapped is another major aspect to be considered. By
experience, zenithal projections are equitable for polar region while conical and cylindrical
projections are equitable for middle latitudes and equatorial regions respectively.

Not only the region but also the area plays an important role in selection of map projection. For large
areas, only desired property can be maintained sacrificing other to a greater degree but for small
area choice of projection becomes wider and properties can be properly balanced. However,
zenithal projections are suitable for the circular areas, conical projections for area with small extent
in latitude and transverse Mercator or polyconic for areas with small extent in longitude.

3. Ease of construction
A minor consideration for choosing a map projection is ease of construction. For example, if two
projections are equally suitable then one which is easier to construct should get a priority. In this
connection, it may be mentioned that straight lines and circles are easier to draw than more
complexes.
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Projection
This projection system is also known as UTM. The Universal Transverse Mercator system is a
specialized application of the Transverse Mercator projection. The globe is divided into 120 zones,
0
each spanning six degrees of longitude and 8 latitudes. Each zone has its own central meridian.
Zones 1N and 1S start at -180° W. The limits of each zone are 84° N, 80° S with the division
between North and South zones occurring at the equator. Polar region use the Universal Polar
Stereographic coordinate system.
The origin for each zone is its central meridian and the equator. To eliminate negative coordinates,
the coordinate system alters the coordinate values at the origin. The value given to the central
meridian is the false easting, and the value assigned to the equator is the false northing. A false
easting of 500,000 meters is applied. A North zone has a false northing of zero, while a South zone
has a false northing of 10,000,000 meters.

Properties of UTM projection

1. The equator and the central meridian of each zone are projected as a straight line. Thus these two
straight lines are considered as the two axes of the grid system in each zone.
2. To avoid negative coordinates, central meridian of each zone are given false easting of 5,00,000
meters and for grid in southern hemisphere, the central meridian is given a false nothing value of
100,00,000 meters.
3. Meridians other than central meridians are projected slightly curved as it is a conformal projection,
in order to make meridians and parallels at right angle, the parallels are also slightly curved.
4. Points on the earth surface where the cylinder cuts the globe i.e. 1049’ east and west of central
meridian of the zone, there is no distortion at all and scale factor is defined 1.000.
5. The scale factor at the central meridian is 0.99960, thus it is reduced on a map. This means there
is distortion of -0.40 m per 1 km in the central meridian.
6. The scale factor near the edge of the zone is 1.000068 thus it is an enlargement on a map. This
means that the distortion at the edge of the zone is +0.68 m per km.

Advantage of UTM projection

The advantages of UTM projections are as follows;

1. The projection is quite symmetrical for every zone of 6 0 longitudes.

2. The transformation of coordinates from zone to zone can be done with the same formula for
every zone all over the world.
3. The distortions are only between -40 cm at central meridian and +68 cm per km at the bounding
meridians near the equator.
4. The following tables relating to UTM projection are available;
 Rectangular coordinates for 5 minute of graticules lines intersection.
 Zone to zone coordinate transformation table.
 Transformation of coordinates from grid to geographic and vice versa.
 Description of UTM grids.

Points to remember for UTM projection

 It is a secant transverse cylindrical projection.
 Based on Clark ellipsoid 1866 for US and International ellipsoid 1924 for remaining earth.
  Is a conformal projection so preserves shape.
 Divided into 60 zones from 1800 west to eastward with width of 60 longitudes and numbered
from 1-60.
 Also divided into 20 belts from 840 S to 840 N with each belt of width 80 with exception of 120 for
last belt in northern hemisphere.
 Each belt in northern hemisphere are named from letters above “n” except “o”, “y”, “z” and
below “n” for southern hemisphere except “a”, “b”, “i”.
 Scale factor is defined as 0.9996
 False easting for each zone’s central meridian is assigned as 500000 m.
 False northing for southern zone is defined as 10000000 m.
 Origin of longitude is central meridian and that for latitude is equator itself.
 Used unit for measurement is meter.
 For distance measurement Pythagoras theorem is used.

Modified Universal Transverse Mercator (MUTM) Projections and Grid System

in Nepal
UTM projection is suitable for the country with small extension in east west direction but Nepal is
extended in east and west direction. So to achieve the required accuracy for cadastral survey and other
purposes MUTM was defined. MUTM is based on Gauss-krueger projection based coordinate system
thus the “modified” designation.

Nepal is divided into 3 zones covering an area of 30 longitudes. Then each zone is projected separately in
transverse position of cylinder so that their corresponding central meridian becomes 810, 840 and 870 E
of Greenwich. Coincidence of the cylinder is kept in secant position. It is a conformal and convention
projection. After projection, the cylinder is cut parallel to its axis through north to south poles and rolled
open so that it forms a plane.

Central meridian and the equator are considered as reference axes of coordinate system as they are
projected as straight lines. Northing values are measured from the equator whose value is 0.00 m and
the easting values are measured east and west from the central meridian which is assigned a value as
false easting 500000 m to obtain positive coordinates.

Scale factor at the central meridian is 0.99990. Distortion at the central meridian is -10 cm per km. The
scale factor at the bounding meridians of the zone is 1.00018. The length distortion in these meridians
will be +18 cm per km. Cylinder cuts the globe at 0055’ east and west of central meridian. Thus there will
be no distortions at the points of contact.
 Unit 6 Map Sheet Numbering

Introduction
Every country publishes different maps as topographical, cadastral, thematic maps etc. in different
ranges of scale which could be 1:25000, 1:50000, 1:100000 etc. So in order to recognize the map series
and to identify the individual map, a map sheet numbering system will be adopted.

In our context, map sheet numbering system for the topographical and cadastral maps will be given in
following different ways i.e. either international system, Indian system or local system. Here we will
discuss on these three types of sheet numbering system for topographical system and only local system
for the cadastral maps.

Map Sheet Numbering for Topographical Maps in Nepal

Topographical map are essential for planning, execution, monitoring and evaluation of different
development activities of a country. Larger the map more details can be seen but size of the map sheet
increases which might not be comfortable. For example to map area of 146km by 121 km at scale
1:25000 it takes a paper of 6m x 5m which is practically not comfortable. So the area being mapped
need to be scientifically divided into smaller parts, this process is called map layout.

Most common basis for map layout is geographical coordinates as it is easier to find out which
geographical area is shown in a given map. Similarly, it is easier to know the scale of the given map
based on the name or number given to the map which is called sheet number.

International Map Numbering system

International Map Numbering System is adopted by United Nations Environment and Social Council
(UNESC) and the system is called Carte International du Monde Series. In this system, sheet layout and
sheet number for the following scales are designed;

1. Area covering longitude 60 and latitude of 40 at scale 1:1 M

2. Area covering longitude 30 and latitude of 20 at scale 1:500000
3. Area covering longitude 10 and latitude of 40’at scale 1:200000
4. Area covering longitude 30’ and latitude of 20’ at scale 1:100000
5. Area covering longitude 15’ and latitude of 10’ at scale 1:50000
6. Area covering longitude 7’30” and latitude of 5’ at scale 1:25000
7. Area covering longitude 3’45” and latitude of 2’30” at scale 1:10000

The numbering for the map sheets in Carte International du Monde Series can be summarized as;

1. The 60 longitude zones are numbered from 1 to 60 from west to east beginning with the zone
lying between longitudes 1800 W to longitude 1740 W as number 1.
2. The 40 latitude belts are lettered both ways north and south from the equator from A to V
(except O) with the belt lying between latitude 00 N to 40 N and 00 S to 40 S as A.
 3. The belt lying between latitude 840 N and 900 N and 840 S to 900 S is lettered as W.
4. These map sheets are mapped at the scale of 1:1 M.
5. These map sheets are considered as basis for sheet numbering of large scale map.

Note: According to this system area of Nepal is covered by NG-44, NG-45, NH-44 and NH-45.

Map Numbering system of India

Topographical map numbering system in India is called India and adjacent countries series. The series
extend between 40 N to 400 N and 440 E to 1040 E. This area covers countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan,
Burma, Pakistan, India, Nepal etc.

The large rectangle of graticule line is divided into 40 of longitude and 40 of latitude. Each of these
rectangle are numbered serially, excluding those squares that did not contain any land i.e. completely
covered with water and are published in scale 1:1 M. This series is now obsolete. To find out the number
of any sheet, an index to sheet number has to refer because numbering of the sheets does not follow
any definite criterion. In the present context, Survey of India prepares and publish topographical map in
following series;

1. 1:250000 series
2. 1:50000 series
3. 1:25000 series

1. 1:250000 sheet series

 Also called degree sheet.
Each 40 of longitude and 40 of latitude is divided into 16 parts so that each sheet covers an area
10 of longitude and 10 of latitude.
Then formed rectangles are numbered as shown in figure.
Such formed sheets are in scale 1:250000.
Sheet number will be followed by the parent sheet of 40 x 40 as 56 M.
56
200
A E I M
0
19
B F J N
0
18
C G K O
170
D H L P
160
760 770 780 790 800
2. 1:50000 Series sheet
 Base for this series are 1:250000 series sheets.
 Each 1:250000 sheets are divided into 16 parts.
 Each sheet covers an area of 15’ x 15’.
 Numbered from 1 to 16 as in figure.
 Sheet number will be assigned by 1:250000 followed by the rectangle number.
Eg; 56 M/16
56 M
0
20
1 5 9 13
45’
2 6 10 14
30’
3 7 11 15
15’
4 8 12 16
190
790 15’ 30’ 45’ 800

3. 1:25000 series sheets

 For this sheet of 1:50000 are divided into 4 parts.
 Each sheet covers an area of 7’30” x 7’30”.
 Squares are numbered from 1 to 4.
 Sheet number will be assigned by 1:50000 followed by the square number.
Eg; 56 M/16/4
56 M/16
0
19 15’

1 3

190 7’ 30”

2 4

190
79045’ 79052’30” 800
Map Numbering System for topographical map in Nepal
Nepal lies in between longitudes f 800 E and 880 15’ E and latitudes 260 15’ N and 300 30’ N. It has a
shape of a tilted rectangle with east-west length of about 840 km and north-south breadth of 245 km.
Nepal lies in the grid zone G-44, G-45, H-44 and H-45. Such grid zones of area 40 in latitude and 60
longitudes are published in scale of 1:1000000. Such zones are divided into the grid sheet of area 3 0
longitudes and 20 latitudes and are said to have scale 1:500000 and represented as;

60 G-45

A B G-45-B
40

G-45

C D

1:1000000
1:500000

Again the 60 longitudes and 40 latitudes grid is divided into 36 divisions of 10 longitude and 40’ latitude as
shown in figure to produce the grid sheet in the scale of 1:200000 and named from I to XXXVI.

G-45

I II III IV V VI G-45-VI
VII VIII IX X XI XII
XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII
XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV
XXV XXVI XXVII XXVIII XXIX XXX
XXI XXXII XXXIII XXXIV XXXV XXXVI
Once again, the grid sheet of area 60 longitudes and 40 latitudes is divided into 144 divisions of area 30’ x
20’ so as to obtain the scale of 1:100000 and is named as shown in the figure below.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 G-45-12
13 24
25 36
37 48
49 60
61 72
73 84
85 96
97 108
109 120
121 132
133 144
Finally the largest among the small scale topographical map sheet grid are produced by dividing the grid
sheet of 1:100000 scale into 4 divisions of area 15’ x 10’ to obtain scale of 1:50000 and numbered as
shown in the figure.

G-45-12

G-45-12-B
A B

C D

To obtain the medium size topographical map sheet of scale 1:25000 the map sheet of scale 1:50000 is
again divided into 4 equal divisions with area of each grid as 7’30” x 5’ and numbered as shown in the
figure.

G-45-12-B

a b G-45-12-B-b

c d

Now for the large scale topographical map of scale 1:10000 the map sheet of scale 1:25000 is divided
into 4 divisions with area of each division 3’45” x 2’30” and numbered as shown in figure.

G-45-12-B-b

G-45-12-B-b-2
1 2

3 4
Summary:
G-45 60 X 40 1:1000000
G-45-B 30 X 20 1:500000
G-45-VI 10 X 40’ 1:200000
G-45-12 30’ X 20’ 1:100000
G-45-12-B 15’ X 10’ 1:50000
G-45-12-B-b 7’30” X 5’ 1:25000
G-45-12-B-b-2 3’45” X 2’30” 1:10000

Sheet Numbering System for Cadastral Map in Nepal

For large scale mapping whole earth is divided into zones of 30 X 30 in both longitude and latitude. First
central meridian is assumed 1800 west for the zone 1780 30’ east to 1780 30’ west and named as 0.5
zone. Then after 1770 W is assumed the second central meridian for the zone 1780 30’ W and 1750 30’ W
and named as zone 1. Similarly, Nepal lies in the zones with central meridian 81 0, 840 and 870 E named
44, 44.5 and 45 respectively. Similarly, Nepal lies in the extent 2900 Km to 3400 Km in north south
direction above the equator. Three zones are divided into 180 zones of 50 Km X 50 Km (30’X30’), each
containing 60 zones. In zone 44, map sheet at the north-west corner is numbered 001 and continuously
060 at the south-east corner, similarly zone 44.5 is numbered from 061 to 120 and zone 45 is numbered
from 121 to 180 in similar manner.
Each and every map sheet of 50 Km X 50 Km (30’ X 30’) are now divided into 1600 grid sheet of 1250 m
X 1250 m so as to obtain a map sheet in scale 1:2500. 1600 divisions are numbered from north-west
corner as 0001 to 1600 at south-east corner.

0001 0040

0161 0200

0361 0400

0561 0600

0761 0800

0961 1000

1161 1200

1361 1400

1561 1600

1:2500
Now for the scale 1:1250 each of the grid sheets of scale 1:2500 are divided into 4 grid sheet with area
625m X 625m and numbered as shown in figure.

180-0001

1 2 180-0001-2

3 4

1:1250

Finally for the scale of 1:500, each grid sheet of 1:2500 are divided into 25 grid sheet of size 250m X
250m and numbered as shown in the figure.

180-0001

01 02 03 04 05 180-0001-05

06 07 08 09 10

11 12 13 14 15

16 17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24 25

1:500
Sheet Numbering for FINIDA PROJECT
For topographical map sheet numbering, at first, Nepal is divided into zones of 1 0 longitude X 10 latitude
in scale of 1:200000. Then the lower left corner is provided with its graticule value such that longitude
follows latitude. For example for any area extended between 270 N and 280 N latitudes and 850 E and
860 E longitudes then the grid sheet is numbered as 2785.
280 N

2785

270 N
850 E

860 E
Now each grid sheets are divided into 4 grids of size 30’ X30’ for the scale 1:100000 and numbered as
follow.

2785

A B 2785-B

C D

1:100000
Again for the scale of 1:50000 each divisions of the scale 1:100000 are divided into 16 grid sheets of area
15’ X 15’ and are numbered as

2785

01 02 03 04

05 06 07 08 2785-08

09 10 11 12

13 14 15 16

1:50000
For larger map sheets in the scale 1:25000 each grids of 1:50000 are divided into 4 grid sheets with size
7’30” X 7’30” and numbered as

2785-08

A B 2785-08-B

C D

1:25000
Topographical Map Sheet Numbering for JICA Series
It uses the 50 Km X 50 Km (30’ X 30’) grid sheet for mapping and divides it further into 16 divisions of
area 12.5 Km X 12.5 Km so as to obtain scale of 1:25000 and numbered as;

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8

180-12
9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16

1:25000
 Unit 7 Generalization
Introduction
Generalization is the process of reducing the amount of detail in a map or database in a
meaningful way in order to aid map legibility. Map generalization is usually related to
map purpose, scale, output etc. If a map is to be produced from a database or a map at
a smaller scale than intended the map might become illegible so it requires
generalization.

Process of generalization

 Simplifying the complexity

 Selecting the important
 Omitting the unimportant
 Clarifying the unclear
 Retaining the characteristics
 Combining the similarities
 Emphasizing the important
 Stressing the extraordinary
 Showing interdependencies

As features become too small to be seen clearly, or to be represented at true size (to
scale) on a monitor or on paper as the density of map contents increases due to scale
reduction generalization is necessary.

 Large scale map: little generalization with some simplification, some enlargement
or some displacement of features.
 Small scale map: generalization is more important.

Different aspects of generalization

It is very difficult to give a set of definite rules for generalization which can be strictly
followed in all cases. But artistic approach and understanding of geographical
knowledge need to be considered. However, the following three aspects can be
considered in the process of generalization.
1. Selection
Features to be included in the map are dependent on the purpose of map. Selection
should also be related to the scale. For example; in topographical map, both natural
and cultural details should include whereas in geographical map, cultural details
have less important.

2. Simplification
Features that are too small or too complex need to be simplified without causing
overcrowded or loss of legibility. Scale in this case is the main factor to be
considered. Buildings in urban area in scale 1:10000 might be represented
individually but it might not be possible for scale 1:50000 so need to be considered
as block. However, isolated landmarks or buildings need to be shown with a
prominent symbol.

3. Omission
To preserve the legibility and clearness of the map, some features might be omitted
even though they may be specified to include as per the scale of the map. For this
the nature of the terrain also plays important role during omission of the features.
For example, forest or wooden area in scale 1:5000 may exclude the outlier trees but
need to include the typical species but in simplified form.

Though described in three different points, in practice there is close relationship

between these three aspects so it is difficult to treat each item separately.

Broad Directives for Generalization

We know that generalization is a subjective process; however, certain factors need to be
considered as broad directives in the process of generalization

1. Purpose and scale of the map

It should be considered that feature that is not relevant to map purpose should not
be included but one that is relevant should not be omitted. This is always guided by
the purpose of the map. Similarly, degree of simplification should also depend on
purpose. For example; small rivulets except major rivers might be omitted on a road
 map but not in a topographical map. It should be noted that scale of map has
limitation for the degree of simplification.

2. Essential characteristics of the area

Produced map should give the close resemblance of the area regardless of scale
which can be recognized by certain characteristics of the area. Those characteristics
must be preserved with progressive scale reduction. For example, any area with
large amount of lakes with in Nepal represents districts like Kaski, Sidhupalchok etc.
irrespective of the scale.

3. Consistency in the treatment

Degree of generalization must be same throughout the map. At the same time,
though it is difficult but should treat consistently over a map series. There is
temptation of over generalization of the area with higher detail and less
generalization of the area with less details, it causes misleading impression of the
terrain.

Exaggeration
Exaggeration is the technique of enlarging the representation of a feature on the map
from its true scale dimension for the purpose of legibility or to give extra emphasis. It is
well known about the limitation of the minimum size of a detail which is readily visible
by the human eye on the map. From the work experience 0.3 mm and 0.15 mm is the
smaller dimension we can use for point symbol and the linear features. This means that
any features with dimension less than this are to be exaggerated. For example a road of
width 10 m on the map of scale 1:100000 will have width of 0.1mm which is practically
invisible compared to other features on the map. So exaggeration becomes essential in
this case and preferably the road would be shown as 1 mm width line.
Displacement
As discussed earlier in exaggeration, features exaggerated occupy more space on the
map surface which might cause overlap between the features. In order to avoid the
overlap, it is necessary to displace one or other of the adjacent features. Usually,
national mapping agency standardized the displacement procedure both to assist the
draftsman in compilation and to achieve a consistent map product.

In most cases, the rule takes a form of priority list. Features will be listed according to its
priority so that the feature in the top list displaces the feature in the lower list. The
displacement of features is defined based on the displacement priority rule and the
priority order is defined as;

 International boundary
 Trig control point
 River
 Railway
 Road
 Building
 Area feature

After displacement one could argue about the accuracy of the road, in such cases
relative accuracy of the features is maintained but absolute accuracy might be
sacrificed.

Different methods of generalization

There are two types of generalization; manual method and automation method.
However, full proof automation process is not achieved.

1. Manual method
Usually originals are prepared at larger scale than final map and recommended
that the scale of originals be twice that of map. The reasons are;
 Small errors in originals will be reduced by the reduction process.
 It is easier to prepare originals in large scale.
 Also easier for the draftsman to understand.
 Process of reduction is guided by final map scale, necessary generalization,
exaggeration and displacement which are guided by the broad directives of the
generalization and are as follows;

 Major control points shown in map should not be moved.

 Metaled roads will never be generalized but in most cases it will be
exaggerated.
 Rivers, canals etc. will be generalized when necessary.
 Built-up are must be generalized retaining the characteristics.
 Boundaries of forest, agricultural land, meadows etc. need smoothing and can
be removed if are in very small size considering their significance.

It is difficult to guide a cartographer with defined degree of generalization as the

actual process depends on the skill of the cartographer. However, it is important
that generalization should be clearly scrutinized (examine or inspect closely and
thoroughly) and checked to ensure consistency, accuracy and proper
representation of the details.

2. Automation method
As the generalization process is subjective, it can’t be defined by precise
mathematical terms so it is hard to design a completely automated process but
with the development in efficient computer processing, automation method has
been far encouraging and satisfactory.
Input for the generalization is digital data of maps. In present, there is no
problem with instrumentation, software and hardware but due to complex
nature of data, it is really challenging task to devise a suitable program for
automatic generalization.
Various methods have been developed but no system has been adopted for the
production process. One which was developed needs a lot of manual editing.
However, the researchers are trying to develop a fully automatic process of
generalization. But, at present, they are focusing on the lines of partly automated
systems with manual interruption for editing and modification of output
products. It is expected that a full proof automatic method would be developed
in near future.
 Unit -8

Relief representation

Introduction
Various features like mountains, hills, plateaus and plains are found on the earth’s surface. Elevations
and depressions on the earth’s surface are known as the relief features of earth. Maps showing the
relief features of earth are known as relief maps. Relief of a landscape is basically the physical
configuration or appearance of such a landscape taking into account the elevations, slopes, and shape of
natural features found in it.

Relief representation is a difficult problem. The surface of the Earth cannot be defined by a physical or
mathematical representation but can be approximated by digital elevation models (DEM), triangular
irregular networks (TIN), and contour lines. Each representation carries approximation errors.

A DEM introduces the greatest errors because we assume that the surface of the Earth can be
approximated to a regular grid of elevations. A TIN introduces less error than a DEM because we use an
irregular network of triangles to represent the relief. Another representation is by contour lines.
Contour lines describe the relief without approximation along each contour. Contour lines are the relief
representation that introduces the least amount of error.

Many methods are used to show relief features on the maps. These methods include color method,
hachures, spot heights, bench marks, trigonometrical stations, hill shading, layer tints, contours etc.
Which method is used on a certain map is usually the choice of the cartographer and a single map can
contain more than one of these methods.

Importance of relief representation

Different kinds of shapes in terrain such as mountains, hills, slopes, ridges, peaks, etc. play vital role in
many decision making process for developmental planning as they are influenced by the terrain type.
The relief should be presented in a map in such a way that the resulting map provides a geometrically
accurate view of the terrain and its shape.

Generally for accurate and easy understanding of the ground surface, it is represented as a map.
Accuracy of relief representation is of course, most important for maps which are to be used in planning,
civil engineering projects etc. As many people lacks knowledge of map interpretation method of relief
should give a true and quick understandable impression of the relief of the area concerns.

Methods of relief representation

Several methods are described for relief representation among which none are completely satisfactory
but have individual merits. So, sometimes more than one method can be used for the better
representation of relief.
Spot height
Spot heights are heights of places surveyed and they denote the actual height above mean sea level.
They are shown in maps as dots with their respective values written beside it. If a series of spot heights
are given, it is possible to estimate the nature of the terrain.

Fig: Spot Height

Hachures
Hachures are small lines drawn to represent slopes. The lines are drawn thicker to represent steeper
slopes and thinner for gentle slope. The slopes are indicated by parallel lines drawn in the direction in
which water would flow on the surface. They do not represent exact elevations but are mainly used to
give a good impression of the shape and slope of the ground. Usually, hachures are applicable only in
large-scale maps.Hachuring gives the illusion of the shading.

Disadvantages:
i. Hachures do not show the exact elevation of points on the surface.
ii. They are not applicable on flat or leveled land surfaces.
iii. For cartographers, the preparation of hachures is exhaustive and time-consuming since they are
hand-made.
iv. Too many hachures on the map can obscure other map detail.
 Fig: Hachures

Contouring
Contouring is an act of using contour lines when representing the relief of an area on the map.
Contour lines are the lines drawn on the map connecting all points on the earth’s surface with equal
elevations above a fixed datum line. Contouring is the most common method of showing relief on
topographic maps. This is mainly because it has the ability to show all five aspects of relief (shape,
orientation, size, elevation, and slope) on the map.

Advantages;
i. Contouring is the most suitable method of representing relief on large scale topographic maps.
ii. Contours provide the basis for other methods of representing relief such as layer tinting,
hachuring, and relief shading.
iii. Contours can indicate the exact elevation of a point on the map.
iv. The distance between the contours may help to determine the slope of the land.
v. The shape and patterns that the contour lines make on the map can portray distinctive
landforms such as hills, valleys, spurs, and cliffs
 Limitations;
i. They are not suitable for representing relief on small-scale maps.
ii. Not all physical features and landforms can be portrayed by the contour lines. E.g. Coral reefs
and outcrop rocks.
iii. The contour lines may fail to indicate some of the highest and important elevations on the map
due to limitations of the vertical interval used.

Fig: Contours

Hill shading
Shaded relief, or hill-shading, shows the shape of the terrain in a realistic fashion by showing
how the three-dimensional surface would be illuminated from a point light source.
The shadows normally follow the convention of top-left lighting in which the light source is placed
near the upper-left corner of the map. If the map is oriented with north at the top, the result is that
the light appears to come from the north-west. Shaded relief is today almost exclusively
computer-generated using digital elevation models (DEM).

Hill shading also doesn’t show the exact heights. But, shading gives a very good idea of the
general relief of a hilly country and is effectively used in small scale mapping. It requires
considerable skill to master shading techniques.
 Fig: Hill Shading

Layer tinting
Layer ting also known as layer coloring or hypsometric coloring is a method of representing relief
by using different shades of a color. In this method, the different elevations above sea level are
represented on a map by a variety of colors. Usually, all areas on the map with relatively similar
elevations will be represented by the same shade of color. A small range of colors is used but a
wide range of different shades of these colors is used, to reinforce a better impression of the
relief of the mapped area.
What color to be used at which elevation range is usually the choice of the cartographer. A
cartographer may decide to use a cream color to represent lowland relief and increasing its
intensity to light brown as the elevation increases, until on the highest elevations where he/she
may decide to use the brown color.

In this case, in order to avoid the confusion as to what color represents which elevation and to
avoid misinterpretation of the relief, a layer tint box is usually printed on the map margin to
indicate the elevation range represented by each color used on the map.

Layer tinting is the most suitable method of representing the elevation and shape of the relief on
small-scale maps and it makes maps visually attractive and impressive to users.
 Limitations;
i. It is not a complete method by itself since it relies on the contours to provide the basis for
coloring
ii. It does not allow the map user to determine the exact elevation of a point, rather only gives the
elevation range where the point might lie
iii. This method is not applicable in the black and white maps.
iv. It is very expensive to produce a layer-colored map.
v. Colors carry certain ideas on people’s minds, hence one may easily misinterpret the map if not
careful. For example; the green color may have been used to represent lowland relief on the
map but a map user can misinterpret it thinking it represents vegetation cover.

3D Models
Reliefs generated from 3D objects have been considered a promising way to create low-reliefs,
and also allow for the reuse of existing 3D models. The final generated reliefs convey real height
information, which could be easily machined directly into real reliefs. Furthermore, the generated 3D
reliefs can be edited and modified before real machining. The challenge is to retain the fine details of a
3D object while greatly compressing its depths to produce an almost planar result. To achieve the
highest quality results, sharpness, richness of detail and accuracy should be taken into account. The
existing techniques use different feature preserving methods to generate bas-relief models with rich
details, even with a high compression ratio.
 Chapter 9

Color
9.1 Introduction

The use of color in the creation of various kinds of mappings dates back to the ancient Egypt
times, however mass adoption was not induced until the 15th century, when the first printing
systems were developed in Europe. Development of Photography during the 19th century
affected the quality of colored maps produced. Further technological development that took
place during the 20th century in combination with the invention of computers provides the
ability to design and build colored mappings in digital environments like CRT (cathode ray tube)
for the first time in history.

As electromagnetic radiation (ER) travels via waves from the sun (or a lightbulb) to objects on
the earth, portions of the ER spectrum are absorbed, scattered, or reflected by various objects.
The resulting property of the absorbed, scattered, and reflected ER is termed “color.” White is
the color resulting from the full range of the visual spectrum and is therefore considered the
benchmark color by which all others are measured. Black is the absence of ER. All other colors
result from a partial interaction with the ER spectrum.

The three primary aspects of color that must be addressed in map making are hue, value, and
saturation.

1. Hue
Hue is the dominant wavelength or color associated with a reflecting object. Hue is the
most basic component of color and includes red, blue, yellow, purple, and so forth.

2. Value
Value is the amount of white or black in the color. Value is often synonymous with
contrast. Variations in the amount of value for a given hue result in varying degrees of
lightness or darkness for that color. Lighter colors are said to possess high value, while
dark colors possess low value. Monochrome colors are groups of colors with the same
hue but with incremental variations in value.

3. Saturation
Saturation describes the intensity of color. Full saturation results in pure colors, while
low saturation colors approach gray. Variations in saturation yield different shades and
 tints. Shades are produced by blocking light, such as by an umbrella, tree, curtain, and
so forth. Increasing the amount of shade results in gray and black. Tint is the opposite of
shade and is produced by adding white to a color.

Colors have been used in cartography “to label (color as noun), to measure (color as quantity),
to represent or imitate reality (color as representation), and to enliven or decorate (color as
beauty)”.

We don’t pick the colors on maps simply because “they look nice.” Rather, there are important
rules that govern how color schemes work and how those colors relate to the data.

Nominal data are categories that are inherently unorderable (like soils or landuse) and should
only be mapped with nominal color schemes. If you have orderable categories (such as
low/med/high) or if you have numerical data, a sequential color scheme is what you need.
Sequential color schemes can be single or multi-hue, but they are dominated and ordered by
differences in lightness/saturation. Diverging schemes should only be used when your data has
a natural mid-point such as a zero (e.g., positive and negative change/growth) or if you want to
compare places to something like the national average (e.g., county data showing places that
are above and below the national average for a variable like per capita income).
9.2 Nature of light
In order to fully comprehend the significance of the proper utilization of color natural,
normal and perceptual identity of color should be regarded. As color is the perceptual
phenomenon i.e. the product of electromagnetic radiation and consciousness, color
specification system is to be considered before selection of color. The accuracy regarding
the observation of colors depends on the observer's sensory reaction to Spectral
Color radiation of a wavelength of approximately 375nm - 750nm [375 x 10^ (-9) m -
750x10^ (-9) m], which is known as the visible spectrum. The color we observe depends on
the reflected electromagnetic radiation and is therefore referred to as Reflected Color.

1. Spectral color
During the 1670s, Isaac Newton conducted a series of experiments regarding the
scientific field of Optics and concluded that white light can be separated into a
sequence of component wavelengths if diffracted through a prism. The moment this
sequence of wavelengths interacts with our optical receivers, the electromagnetic
radiation of the visible spectrum is 'translated' into the various colors we can see
according to wavelength. Violet color radiation has the smallest wavelength of all
visible electromagnetic radiation, at a wavelength of approximately 375nm [375 x 10^(-
9)m], while red color radiation has the largest wavelength at a value of approximately
750nm [750 x 10^(-9)m].

2. Reflected color
The vast majority of colors we see are hues produced by combinations of various
diffracted wavelengths, due to the fact that surfaces absorb various wavelengths and
reflect others in different analogies. It should be pretty obvious by now that the colors
we actually see stem from the reflected wavelength that belongs in the visible
spectrum. No? If a surface absorbs all incidental electromagnetic radiation then it gives
the optical outcome of black, whereas a surface that reflects all incidental
electromagnetic radiation gives the optical outcome of white color.

9.3 Additive and Subtractive Color Model

1. Additive color model
Additive color models combine emitted light to display color variations and are commonly
used with computer monitors, televisions, scanners, digital cameras, and video projectors.
The RGB (red-green-blue) color model is the most common additive model. The RGB
model combines light beams of the primary hues of red, green, and blue to yield additive
secondary hues of magenta, cyan, and yellow. Although there is a substantive difference
between pure yellow light (~580 nm) and a mixture of green and red light, the human eye
 perceives these signals as the same. The RGB model typically employs three 8-bit numeric
values (called an RGB triplet) ranging from 0 to 255 to model colors. For instance, the RGB
triplets for the pure primary and secondary colors are as follows:

 Red = (255, 0, 0)
 Green = (0, 255, 0)
 Blue = (0, 0, 255)
 Magenta = (255, 0, 255)
 Cyan = (0, 255, 255)
 Yellow = (255, 255, 0)
 Black, the absence of additive color = (0, 0, 0)
 White, the sum of all additive color = (255, 255, 255)
Two other common additive color models, based on the RGB model, are the HSL (hue,
saturation, lightness) and HSV (hue, saturation, value) models. These models are based on
cylindrical coordinate systems whereby the angle around the central vertical axis
corresponds to the hue; the distance from the central axis corresponds to saturation; and
the distance along the central axis corresponds to either saturation or lightness.

Fig: Additive color model

2. Subtractive colors model

Subtractive color models involve the mixing of paints, dyes, or inks to create full color
ranges. These subtractive models display color on the assumption that white, ambient
light is being scattered, absorbed, and reflected from the page by the printing inks.
Subtractive models therefore create white by restricting ink from the print surface. As
such, these models assume the use of white paper as other paper colors will result in
skewed hues. CMYK (cyan, magenta, yellow, black) is the most common subtractive color
model and is occasionally referred to as a “four-color process”. Although the CMY inks are
sufficient to create all of the colors of the subtractive rainbow, a black ink is included in
this model as it is much cheaper than using a CMY mix for all blacks. The CMYK model
creates color values by entering percentages for each of the four colors ranging from 0
percent to 100 percent. For example, pure red is composed of 14 percent cyan, 100
percent magenta, 99 percent yellow, and 3 percent black.

Fig: subtractive Color Model

NOTE:
1. Additive models are the preferred choice when maps are to be displayed on a
computer monitor, while subtractive models are preferred when printing.
2. The JPEG and GIF graphic file formats are the best choice for RGB images, while the
EPS and TIFF graphic file formats are preferred with printed CMYK images.
9.4 Color Triangle

Fig: Color Triangle

9.5 Choices of Colors

Effective color usage requires a minimum of knowledge about the color wheel invented
by Sir Isaac Newton. The color wheel is a visual representation of colors arranged according
to their chromatic relationships. Primary hues are equidistant from each other with
secondary and tertiary colors intervening. The red-yellow-blue color wheel is the most
frequently used color wheel; however, the magenta-yellow-cyan wheel is the preferred
choice of print makers. Primary colors are those that cannot be created by mixing other
colors; secondary colors are defined as those colors created by mixing two primary hues;
tertiary colors are those created by mixing primary and secondary hues. Furthermore,
complementary colors are those placed opposite each on the wheel, while analogous
colors are located proximal to each other. Complementary colors emphasize differences.
Analogues suggest harmony.

Fig: Color Wheel

 Chapter 10

Digital Cartography
10.1 Introduction

The process of storing and displaying map data in digital form i.e. the use of
computer for storing, retrieving and disseminating map data is termed as digital
cartography. On the hands, digital cartography can be defined as the technology
concerned with the construction and use of computer-based systems for the practice of
cartography and its applications. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are an integral
tool for digital cartography.

The primary function of this technology is to produce maps that give accurate
representations of a particular area, and makes it easier for the calculation of distance,
area and other several parameters from map according to the need for different spatial
analysis.

10.2 Raster and Vector Data model

A Geographic Information System is a system design to capture, store,

manipulate, analyze, manage and present all types of geographical data. At present
there are two main approaches in which computer can handle and display spatial entity.
They are raster and vector approaches. In digital cartography two basic types of spatial
data models have been evolved for storing geographical data. These two data models
are;

1. Raster Data Model

Raster data model represent each and every data as raster data. A representation of
the world as a surface divided into a regular grid of cells is raster data model. Raster
data models are useful for storing data that varies continuously, as in an aerial
photograph, satellite image etc.

As compared to vector data structure, the raster data structure is not particularly
accurate as representing discrete features that is, those features that have a distinct
boundary and shape.
 Advantages;

 Geographical location of each cell is implied by its position in the cell matrix.
 Data analysis is easy and quick.

Disadvantages

 Cell size represents the resolution at which the data is represented.

 It is difficult to represent linear features on the cell resolution.
 Requires vector-to-raster conversion as most input data are in vector form. It
increases the processing requirements.

2. Vector Data Model

The vector data models use points, their XY-coordinates to construct spatial
features. The vector dat model represents geographic features similar to the ways as
map do. Points represent features that are too small to be depicted as line or area,
lines represent geographical features too narrow to depict as areas, and area
represents homogenous geographical features.

A representation of the world using points, line and polygon is vector data model.
Vector models are useful for storing data that has discrete boundaries, such as
country borders, land parcels and streets.

Advantages;

 Data can be represented in its original resolution and form without

generalization.
 Graphic output is more aesthetically pleasing.
 Since most of the data are in vector data format no data conversion is
required.
 Accurate geographic location of data is maintained.

Disadvantages;

 Location of each vertex is to be explicitly stored.

 Algorithms for different post processing are complex and difficult.
 Substantial data generalization or interpolation is required for these data
layers.
 Spatial analysis and filtering within polygon is impossible.
10.3 Steps of Digital Method of Map Making
After the data acquisition from the field of interest using different instrument
such as Total Station, GPS etc. the obtained data are processed as described below in
the process of digital map making i.e. in ArcGIS.

1. Add Data or import data to the ArcGIs software.

2. Create a new Geodatabase and export each of your layers into it as rivers, roads
etc. as different feature sets.
3. Symbolize your data according to the principle of semiology.
4. Turn on label for those layers you want to show label on maps.
5. Define layout for our map.
6. Insert various items to your layout and style them. Some of them that must be
included are Title, Scale, Legend, North Arrow, Grid or Graticules etc.
7. Make sure all of the layers to be presented on map are turned on.
8. Export the map as PDF and search for existing errors. After correction print the
map on paper and again check for errors. Use fresh eyes for checking.
9. Repeat step 8 several times until the map is error free for the intended purpose.
10. Print the final copy of map.

10.4 Difference between Conventional and Digital Cartography

Conventional Cartography Digital Cartography

Maps are the paper maps. Maps produced are the virtual images
or digital maps.
Paper maps are found on physical Digital maps can be downloaded for
stores and need to be bought. free or bought through internet server.
Storage of the paper maps requires Digital maps are stored in digital
physical storage. storage i.e. external hard drive or web
server.
Paper maps are difficult to update as Digital maps can be easily updated.
they are in printed format.
Paper maps cannot show all the Digital maps can show each and every
features at the same time because of feature at same time as the map scale
the static map scale and defined can be varied and the boundary of map
boundary of the base material. in digital environment is undefined i.e.
it depends on the zooming capacity
used and resolution of the platform.
 Study of maps requires special skill as Audience with simple knowledge of the
every feature cannot be depicted as in real world features can understand the
the real world. map.

10.5 Digital Landscape Model (DLM) and Digital Cartographic Model (DCM)

DLM

Digital Landscape Models (DLM) describes the landscape and the relief of
the earth's surface in the form of topographic objects. A digital landscape model
or DLM denotes the type of data that most of us consider as base GIS data
compiled from source information that is registered to the ground. The Digital
Landscape Model (DLM) is considered as the database. A DLM can be considered
as a model of reality, based on a selection process.

DCM

DCM is defined as the presentation function of the map. Depending on the

purpose of the database, particular geographical objects have been selected from
reality, and are represented in the database by a data structure. Multiple DCMs
can be generated from the same landscape model, depending on the output
medium or map design. To visualize data in the form of a paper map requires a
different approach to an onscreen visualization, and a road map for a vehicle
navigation system will look different from a map designed for a casual tourist.
Both, however, can be derived from the same DLM.
 Chapter 11

Map Reproduction
11.1 Introduction
Map reproduction is generally understood to include various methods for obtaining duplicate
prints from a picture or drawing containing geographic and similar pertinent detail of a particular area of
the earth’s surface. These methods may be broadly classified as photographic and mechanical method.
Photographic method depends on action of light with the possible assistance of chemical agents, to
furnish the duplicates on sensitized sheets of paper or film while mechanical method bodily transfer a
layer of ink from design areas of a printing plate on to a sheet of paper. Photographic methods possess
the advantage of conveying greater accuracy of detail in their reproductions but are slower and more
exacting in their requirements than the mechanical systems.

11.2 Different Terms Used in Map Reproduction

1. Positive: Positive is a film or paper record of scene that represnts the color and luminance of the
objects in that secene with same color and luminances( as near as the medium will allow).

2. Negative: Is an image, usually on a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film, in which the lightest
areas of the photographed subject appear darkest and the darkest areas appear lightest. This
reversed order occurs because of the extremely light-sensitive chemicals used in camera film.

A negative color image is additionally color-reversed, with red areas appearing cyan, greens
appearing magenta, and blues appearing yellow, and vice versa.

Fig: corresponding color on positive and negative

Basically positive and negative are categorized as right reading and left reading, based on
viewing the film material with emulsion towards reader.

Right-reading; means that the image is readable from left to right.

Left-reading; means that the image is “unreadable” as it is the mirror image.

Points to be remembered:

 Left- reading positive: used for diazo-copying.

 Left-reading negative: used as the standard product for the press plates and paper
printing, since the emulsion contacts the reproduction medium, it avoids any distortion
caused by exposing through the thickness of the film.
 Right-reading positive: used to add features by ink or drawing pens and to overlay
features as the base for making negatives.
 Right-reading negative: used to produce duplicate negative for special accuracy
requirements.

3. Dia-positive: A positive photographic image on transparent material (such as glass or film).

4. Tone: Tone in is the range of lightest to the darkest part of an image. This is very
important element of a photograph and one must understand its value as well as its
limitations. When we look at any object or a scene in nature, our eye scans the entire
view. Sensitivity of human eye toward brightness range is so responsive and quick that we
can see the detail, in brightest and darkest area, of the view. This range of brightness,
compared in a ratio is 1:1,000,000. This ratio for film or digital image sensor will be
compressed to 1:200.

Types of tone

a. Line Tone
Line tone is used to describe any image composed entirely of solid or opaque line
work, point symbol and areas.

b. Continuous Tone
The representation of image having all tones from black, through grey to white,
with continuous variation from one to the other eg; normal panchromatic aerial
photograph.

c. Half Tone
It consists of groups of small dots group to make line or symbol. Eg printed maps.
 5. Screen

 Screens are basically just dots arranged either in a pattern or random.

 It is impossible to represent variation in tone directly with ink on paper.
 To obtain half tone image it is necessary to employ the use of screens;
 Glass Crossline Screens: Used in conjunction with a reproduction camera
(Process Camera)
 Contact Vignetted Screens: Used in vacuum frame (Contact Frame)
 Generally screens are given with percentage. A 30% screen has 30% dots and 70%
blank.
 The density or number of dots (or lines) would again define by the number of dots
per cm (or inch).
 Used to produce area of solid colors.
 Used to give different tones of one color eg; solid, medium and light green by using
+50% for medium green and +20% for light green.
 To give uniform appearance every dots on screen are to be placed with same angle.

6. Film

Film is a light sensitive base material of plastic that is used to record pictures.Film can
only be used once. After that, it cannot be used again. When not in use, film needs to be
covered from light; otherwise it will record any lights that shine on it. Film needs the right
amount of light to make a picture. If the picture is too bright or too dark, it will
not record correctly. The longer that the film keeps recording, the more light it will get. If
what is being photographed is bright, it will be recorded faster. If it is darker, the film will
need more time to record.

11.3 Contact Photography

It’s a method of map reproduction; here we need to learn is about the contact frame
and the camera used. Contact frame is used for production of same scale as original and
can use only transparent original. Camera are used for the production of enlarged, reduced
or same scale output and use opaque images.

Output of in contact photography

RR positive image MR negative image

MR positive image RR negative image

RR MR

RR negative image MR positive image +ve -ve

MR negative image RR positive image

Output of out of contact process

RR positive image RR negative image

MR positive image MR negative image

RR RR

RR negative image RR positive image +ve -ve

MR negative image MR positive image

11.4 Camera photography

Refer chapter 2 for map reduction and enlargement.

11.5 Diazo Reproduction

Older but inexpensive and rapid method of making copies of construction and other drawings
by using diazonium salts which turn blue when exposed to ultraviolet light in presence of
ammonia. The reproduced copy is called a 'blueprint' because it shows the black-ink lines of the
original drawing as white lines on a blue background. It is also called ammonia process.

In diazo copying the photocopies are made on special photosensitive papers (such as SSN-2, SK-
5, and MP types) that have high resolution, contrast, and coloring (various gradations of black
and brown). Upon exposure the latent image of the original is formed on the diazo paper: the
diazo compound is decomposed, remaining only in places on which the light was not incident,
that is, in places that correspond to the elements of the image. To bring out the copy, the diazo
paper with the latent image is developed in an alkaline medium (ammonium vapors in the “dry”
method; an alkaline solution in the “wet” method).

11.6 Open Window Mask

Open window are also termed as peel coats or artificial negatives. They are used to produce
areas of solid or tinted color e.g, blue area for water. The linework image on a sheet of scribing
film or line negative is etched photo-mechanically onto sensitized peelable material. The
coating is then peeled from the area to be colored or shaded, so that it becomes a clear plastic.

A mask is an area of opaque material on a clear overlay which prevents light from striking and
therefore exposing an area on a negative or positive during the photochemical process. Masks
can be made by painting or opaqueing the area on a sheet of transparent plastic. They can also
be hand cut on masking material which consists of a transparent polyester base coated with an
actinically opaque thin film coating which is peelable such as rubylith. The coating is normally
transparent, allowing the artwork which requires masking to be viewed. Masks can also be
produced by the photochemical etch and peel process.
11.7 Plate Making Process
Production of plate for transferring image to printing substrate using coat of ink is called plate
making process. A color plate for each of the printing colors is produced by exposing the image
onto a light sensitive printing plate. This is achieved by shining an arc light through the
composite negative for that particular color in contact with the plate. The lacquered areas on
the printing plate which show the image retain ink and repel water; the non-image areas retain
water and repel ink. The plate is pliable so that it can be shaped around a cylinder. Single paper
sheets are then passed through the press and printed with the basic color images and their tint
variations.

Several types of plates used are;

1. Bimetal paltes
Copper, which is highly oleophilic (that can absorb oil), is electroplated on a hydrophilic
(having tendency to go wet with water) metal, such as aluminum or stainless steel.
Some plates use a tertiary metal, which serves to merely support the other two and
plays little role in the actual printing surface of the plate.

2. Diazo plates
These utilize a diazo coating, are pre-sensitized, and can be made either from
photographic negatives or positives (but are most commonly made from negatives).

3. Silver halides plates

They are commonly used to print single-color documents from digital artwork. Silver
halide emulsions can be used to coat anodized aluminum and these are often used for
color printing produced from digital artwork.

4. Ablation plates
The plate comprises either a metal or a polyester base, with a thin coating that can be
selectively burned by the laser. Its primary advantage is the elimination of a post-
exposure chemical treatment. This means that ablation plates can be imaged directly on
the press.
11.8 Quality control

Color proofing
Most complex graphics or maps are produced from more than one component or overlay. This
is true for artwork intended for either single or multi-colored reproduction. These components
are to be fitted or registered accurately to each other to produce composite printing negatives
which are used to produce printing plates. Proofing must be carried out prior to printing
because errors detected at this stage are expensive to correct. Undetected errors may have
serious consequences. Proofing systems permit editing so that changes can be made before
expensive platemaking and printing process.

There are several proofing system available but are basically designed for graphic arts industry
and may be unsuitable for cartographic application. Process colors (subtractive primaries) are
used for printing such graphic artwork. But cartographic products are reproduced with other
colors than process colors. So cartographic proofing system need to have wider range of colors
than the process colors.

Registration
Registration refers to the process of maintaining the perfect relationship among the features as they
exist in the nature and their unique representation considering the basic identity and characteristics of
the feature.

11.9 Map Printig

1. Flat Bed Printing
Flatbed printers are large inkjet printers that print directly onto rigid media. The media is
held in place on a vacuum table, and then imaged with UV curing inks. The inks are cured
almost instantly with on-board UV lamps. The resulting print is ready for finishing
immediately, and is outdoor durable.

This technology allows us to print directly to standard substrates up to 50mm thick, such
foam PVC, polystyrene, cardboard and paper in quantities from one unit to hundreds with
competitive pricing. Printing process follows as;

 UV light is used in order to print on a substrate.

 The printing substrate is placed on a printer. Then that printer spreads the ink on the
substrate.
 Then UV light is passed in order to cure or dry the ink on the substrate.

 UV curable ink is very versatile and cures by a chemical process when exposed to UV light.

 UV lights cure any printed ink immediately; the dots of wet ink do not get a chance to
spread out once printed.

 Thus we can get stunning resolution printed image on a substrate.

2. Lithographic printing

This method is based on the principle that water and oil do not mix. Offset lithographic
plates carry both the image and non-image areas on the same level. Image areas are
photochemically reproduced onto metal plates that are chemically sensitized to accept ink
and repel water in the image areas. Non-image areas accept water and repel ink. In offset
lithography, the plate first contacts rollers of water and then the inked rollers. The inked
image is transferred from the plate onto a rubber blanket cylinder, and then onto the
paper which is carried by a third cylinder. The resilience of the rubber blanket allows offset
lithography on a wide range of surface textures. Paper may be sheet-fed or roll-feed.
Multi-copy reproduction of most cartographic products is done on sheet-fed offset presses.
Offset lithography is by far the most common printing process available and is normally
used to reproduce cartographic artwork.

There are two techniques of forming an image on the lithoplate;

1. A negative is exposed in contact with the coated plate. The resultant image is based on
the residual hardened coating; the unexposed (background) areas are soluble and
removed.
2. A positive is exposed in contact with the coated plate. The image itself, being soluble, is
removed. Like the negative-made image, this technique forms a surface plate, but it
can also provide a deep etch plate, with the aid of acid etching, so producing an image
which is slightly recessed.
 Fig: Offset lithography

3. Digital Prinitng
This is a plateless electronic printing process which can reproduce the data in digital form
in a computer. In this technique image must be created each time it is reproduced so for
“n” copies the image must be composed from the digital information “n” times. This
process is time consuming and subjected to mechanical failure so these systems are
appropriate for limited copy production or display products only.

Basically two types of digital printing are used; ink jet printing and laser printing.

1. Ink jet printing

In this process images are produced by spraying jets of colored fluids under pressure
through a fine nozzle onto the printing surface. The ink breaks up into tiny droplets,
often only 0.06mm or 0.0025 inches in size and at a rate of 100000 droplets per
second. These are charged electrically and directed by the computer to their correct
image position. For number of colors used, equal number of nozzles are used i.e
separate nozzles are assigned for each color.
Ink jet printers are mechanically and technically complex and require regular
maintenance. Colored images and transparencies are reproduced quickly and
inexpensively in this method. The quality of image is quite adequate for many
purposes but is inferior to those produced by photomechanical methods.
2. Laser printing
It is also a plateless printing method used for limited-copy reproduction. In this
method image is obtained with the help of guided laser beams. A modulator turns the
laser beam on and off according to the digital instructions, while a mirror system and
scanning prism detect the light beam onto a photosensitive drum. The drum which
now contains positive charges is dusted with a toner and a charged paper sheet rolled
over it. The image is built up line by line in a raster format.